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Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 1

SCIETECH JOURNAL

TETFund/POLY/YOLA/ARJ/………..

Volume 5, No. 1, January 2020

ISSN: 1597-6998

A Journal of the

Adamawa State Polytechnic,

Yola – Nigeria


EDITORIAL TEAM

Editor-in-Chief - Prof. Ibrahim Umar, Rector, ASPY

Editor - Dr. Gabriel Teneke, ASPY

Assistant Editors - Mal. Shuaibu Bako, ASPY

- Mr. Barkindo Brendan, ASPY

- Mr. Timothy Siya, ASPY

- Binta Abubakar B. ASPY

- Gidado Bakari, ASPY

Secretary - Veno M. Yongo

EDITORIAL ADVISERS

Prof. Dimas Kubmarawa - Modibbo Adama University of Technology, Yola

Prof. V. V. Apagu - Modibbo Adama University of Technology, Yola

Dr. Patrick Blembo - Adamawa State University, Mubi

Dr. Bashir Aliyu - Modibbo Adama University of Technology, Yola

Dr. Tanimu Ya’u - Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria

EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS

Mr. Augustine Hayatu (CABS)

Mrs. Hannatu Moses Gwari (CST)

Engr. Kabiru Salihu (CET)

Hadiza Dauda (CCE)

© Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola – Nigeria

Paraclete Publishers (Academic Services), Yola – Nigeria.


Foreword

arious researches are taking place in all higher institutions of learning across the

nation. This is to meet the trendy educational target for Vision 2020. Adamawa State

Polytechnic is not left behind as it is very concerned in this regard and has been

working diligently in this direction.

Scietech Journal is contributing towards solving many social problems. TETFund which is

committed to the production of journals of this nature is highly appreciated.

I am using this medium to encourage all academic staff members to avail themselves of this

forum and publish articles on topical issues in their various disciplines for their development

and that of the institution.

Finally, it is my hope that both staff and students will benefit from the series of contributions

here in. Valuable and constructive criticism for better improvement are always welcomed,

please!

Prof. Ibrahim Umar

Rector

(Editor-in-Chief)

V


EDITORIAL

ake a step at a time but steadily and you would get to your desired destiny. This edition

of Scietech Journal has passed through much impute to become a reality. Definitely

at the end of reading it, you would have gained at least an inch taller academically.

The effort of the Rector in ensuring that this journal is sustained with credibility.

Thanks to all intellectual contributors, who are well grounded in their various disciplines.

Please let’s not relent in our academic pursuits to fly higher.

I do appreciate all the erudite Editorial Advisers/Board Members for their commitment and

focus towards this realization, as well as our numerous reviewers for their valuable

assistance.

Dr. Gabriel Teneke

Editor

T


Table of Contents

Editorial Team 2

Foreword 3

Editorial 4

Table of Contents 5

List of Contributors 8

Instruction to Contributors 9

Subscription Page 10

Editorial Policy of Scietech Journal 11

1. Effect of Drilling Methods and Development on Borehole Water Quality in

Numan Local Government Area of Adamawa State, North Eastern Nigeria

12

Malgwi G. S. & Wilberforce I. K.

2. Using English Language Text Books to Improve Students' Performance in

English: An Overview of Nigerian Schools

21

Wappa, John Peter & Wada, Richard Sylvester

3. Reading Culture and The Library as Tools for Promoting Educational

Development in Nigeria

28

Bukar, Inuwa

4. The Impact of Global Positioning Systems (G.P.S.) in Surveying &

Geoinformatics and the Related Competencies Needed by Surveying

Graduates (A Case Study of Some Construction Companies in Yola

Adamawa State)

37

Bashir A. G., Bakari Gidado & Dahiru Zakari M.

5. Minority Question in Nigeria: Types of Minority and the Economy: Forms

of Inclusion/Organising Methods

51

Veno M. Yongo

6. The Impact of Large Class Size on the Effective Teaching and Learning

English Language Courses in Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola

60

Bitrus Ishaya

7. Research Paper: Motivations for Craftsmen in Construction Sites in North-

eastern Nigeria

68

Salihu Kabiru & Mallum Isa

8. Development and Performance Evaluation of a Sand Chocking Machine 75

Williams A. H. & Mbudai. D.Y.


9. Effective Teaching and Integrating Population Education Concepts in

Secondary Schools through English Language Studies

84

Bitrus Ishaya

10. Application of Delphi Techniques, to Investigate the Impact of Boko Haram

Activities on Educational Sector in North-eastern Part of Adamawa State of

Nigeria.

92

Bakari Adamu Mauda & Bulama H. James

11. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Education and TVET in

Tertiary Institutions in Nigeria

102

Daniel Peter & Bulama H. James

12. The Factors Responsible for Students' Performance in Oral English in

Selected Secondary Schools in Yola Metropolis

110

Wada, Richard Sylvester & Wappa, John Peter

13. Poverty Alleviation Programme on Economic Growth and Development in

Nigeria

121

Joshua D. Zoaka

14. The Need for Electrical/Electronic Graphics in Engineering and Related

Curricula

129

Mohammed Usman Michika

15. Assessing the Satisfaction of Students Studying at Adamawa State

Polytechnic, Yola

137

Bulama H. James

16. A Review of the Impact of Internet Banking in First Bank of Nigeria Plc 148

Lawal Michael Feyipitan

17. The Place of Information Management in the Attainment of Millennium

Development Goals (MDG)

165

Bulama H. James & Daniel Peter

18. The Questions of Incumbency and Who Should Finance Political Parties

Campaigns

172

Veno M. Yongo

19. Effects of Mathematics Anxiety on Students' Performance in Secondary

Schools, Adamawa State

179

Elishama, Lakam John

20. Simulation of Water Table Position in Response to Weather and Tubewell

Abstraction Using Wasim Model

192

Malgwi G. S. & William A.H.


21. The Review of Flood Harzad Along River Benue in Adamawa State, Nigeria 205

Dahiru Mohammed Zakari & Bashiru G. Adamu and Mohammed Umar

22. Block Integrator with two Hybrid Points for the Numerical Solution of Stiff

and Oscillatory Differential Equations for First Order Initial Value Problems

of Ordinary Differential Equations

218

Abubakar Umaru Fotta, Binta Abubakar & Timothy Siya Kwabuggi

23. Prospects of Solid Waste Management in Yola North Local Government

Area of Adamawa State

229

Adamu, I. A.

24. Influence of Environmental Factors on Teachers Performance in Secondary

Schools in Adamawa and Taraba States

236

Mbasumai, Harrison Edan

25. Curtailing High Rate of Insecurity Through: Planning and Management

Techniques

243

Abdullahi Baba Kankamba & Ibrahim Mamman

26. War against Corruption in Nigeria through Islāmic Teaching and Learning:

An Appraisal of Islāmic Philosophy

251

Abdulkabir Olaiya Suleiman

27. Kinetic and Mechanism of Reduction of Periodate Ions by Copper (II)

Complex in Aqueous Acid Medium

261

Artimas, P. S. & Clarkson, G. P.

28. Environmental Pollution; Acid Rain 269

Clarkson G. P.

29. Standards and Accreditation for Library and Information Science

Programmes

277

Aishatu Umaru Abdullahi


LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

1. Malgwi G. S. Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola

2. Wilberforce I.K. Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola

3. Wappa, John Peter Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola

4. Wada, Richard Sylvester, Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola

5. Bukar, Inuwa Federal College of Education, Yola

6. Bashir A. G. Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola

7. Bakari Gidado Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola

8. Dahiru Zakari M. Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola

9. Veno M. Yongo Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola

10. Bitrus Ishaya Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola

11. Salihu Kabiru Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola

12. Mallum Isa Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola

13. William, A. H. Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola

14. Mbudai, D. Y Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola

15. Bakari Adamu Mauda Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola

16. Bulama H. James Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola

17. Daniel Peter Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola


19. Wada, Richard Sylvester Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola

20. Wappa, John Peter Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola

21. Joshua D. Zoaka Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola

22. Mohammed Usman Michika Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola


24. Lawal Michael Feyipitan Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola

25. Elishama, Lakam John Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola

26. Dahiru Moh’d Zakari Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola

27. Malgwi G. S. Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola

28. William A.H. Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola

29. Adamu, I. A. Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola

30. Mbasumai, Harrison Edan Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola

31. Abubakar Umaru Fotta Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola

32. Tpl. Abdullahi B.K Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola

33. Ibrahim Mamman Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola

34. Abdulkabir Olaiya Suleiman Summit University, Kwara State

35. Artimas, P. S. Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola

36. Clarkson, G. P. Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola


INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS

1. Journal papers should be in the areas of Science/Humanities.

2. An academic paper/article is not "just words for the sake of work" It should embody

ideas and facts so that anybody who encountered the paper is not the same person after

reading it.

3. Manuscript must be typewritten in English, double-spaced on A4 sized (210 x 297mm)

white papers and submitted in triplicates (and two copies). Papers submitted to the Board

must not be submitted to any other journal for consideration at the same time.

4. All papers must not exceed 12 pages (including references, illustrations, figures and

tables).

5. All manuscripts should be presented as follows:

a. Title page: On a separate sheet containing the title of the paper, followed by the

author(s) name(s) and address for correspondence.

b. Abstract: An abstract of not more than 200 words on a separate page

c. Introduction

d. Materials and Methods (if any)

e. Results

f. Discussion

g. Acknowledgment (if necessary)

h. Reference: This should only contain the list of cited publications in the text. The name-

date system should be followed in the text e.g. Adamu (2001) for a single author,

Adamu and Johnson (2000) for double authors and Adamu et al (2002) for multiple

authors. All cited authors in the text should be referenced alphabetically. The order of

listing should be author's 'name(s), year of publication in parenthesis, title of paper,

name of journal in abridged form (e.g. Jn. Eng. Geol). Volume and number in Arabic-

numerals initials and an end page number of the article (e.g. 20 (2) 16-30). Referred

articles published by one author in the same year should be distinguished by appending

alphabets to the year (e.g. Adamu 1999a, 1999b). For books, the author's name should

be written first, next the date of publication followed by the book title, edition,

publisher, town/city of publication, page or pages.

i. Figures/illustration/tables: Figures are to be given in Arabic numerals e.g. Fig. 3 plus a

caption under the figure. Photographs and photo micrographs should be glossy while line

diagrams will be drawn in Indians ink on separate transparent sheets. Tables should be

made in Arabic numerals with titles written above each table. Vertical lines should be

used on tables. All capitals are to be written in small letters.

6. Review of papers: All submitted papers will be presented to anonymous and competent

references for comments. Accepted papers will further be referred to the Editorial Board

for final decision. Authors will be requested to pay the current page charge when their

papers are assessed and accepted for publication.

7. Cost of Publication: The current assessment/review fee is two thousand naira

(N2000.00) only (non-refundable) per journal article. Corrected proofs of accepted

papers should be returned for publication.


SCIETECH JOURNAL

ADAMAWS STATE POLYTECHNIC, P.M.B. 2146, YOLA – NIGERIA

SUBSCRIPTION SCHEDULE

Subscription Rate (One Copy) N1,000.00

Name: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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I hereby subscribe to the Scietech Journal for ................................................copies

starting with the………………………………………..……..issue of 20…....………..please find

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Remittance could be made in cash/certified cheque/bank draft and address to:

The Bursary Departments,

Adamawa State Polytechnic,

P.M. B. 2146, Yola

Nigeria

Editorial correspondence and manuscript for submission, including business

correspondence, order and remittance relation to advertisements, back numbers and offprint

should be addressed to the same address above.


EDITORIAL POLICY OF SCIETECH JOURNAL

ADAMAWA STATE POLYTECHNIC, YOLA – NIGERIA

The Scietech Journal of the Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola, Nigeria upholds the highest

standards of editorial integrity to our authors. As an editorial board, we recognize, respect

and adhere to the ethical conduct acknowledged by both our authors and our peers. We strive

to achieve and support the high standards in academic journal production through good

judgment and a commitment to our editorial principles, practices and process.

Our Principles

We adhere to a common set of academic publishing principles that guide our staff, our

processes and our operations. We maintain an individual and collective responsibility to

uphold these principles throughout our different volumes.

Responsibility

We believe that academic publications are the vital communication outlets of research findings

and should be held to an equal level of accountability, responsibility and integrity.

Independence

The institution or any of its organs does not influence the acceptance or rejection of any

paper. In doing this, the editorial board maintains independence on all papers sent to it. At

no time do we permit non-editorial individuals or groups to have influence over our editorial

coverage or workflow. Our editorial coverage is free of obligation and has no conflict of

interest in its creation or production process.

Integrity

Integrity is the driving force behind all that we do and it is a founding principle of Scietech

Journal. We maintain the-balance of an individual's and public right to opinion on research

findings and documentation of facts. Our commitment to integrity is reflected throughout our

editorial workflow and our fair and unbiased coverage of the events and stories of today.

Our Practices/Implementation

We have instituted clear and non-ambiguous practices to uphold our core principles. These

practices comprise our code of conduct that is expected of all levels of editorial staff.

1. We send our manuscript to three reviewers, two of which must be positive before

the manuscript is accepted.

2. Authors must pay all the editorial charges before the paper is processed for the

press.

3. Upon production, the journal copies are distributed to sister institutions, libraries

and staff of the Polytechnic.

4. The following Subscription Schedule is used in securing further readership of the

journal from interested libraries and individuals.


EFFECTS OF DRILLING METHODS AND DEVELOPMENT ON BOREHOLE WATER QUALITY IN

NUMAN LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF ADAMAWA STATE, NORTH EASTERN NIGERIA

By

Malgwi G. S.

Department of Agric & Bio-Environmental Engineering

&

Wilberforce I. K.

Department of Civil Engineering

ABSTRACT

This study was carried out in Numan local government area of Adamawa state, Nigeria and

was conducted to assess the water quality of both mud and air rotary drilling methods in

Numan local government area of Adamawa State in order to determine the effects of drilling

methods and development on water quality of the boreholes. Twenty boreholes (20) were

identified: ten (10) each mud drilled and ten air rotary. Data on boreholes parameters (depth,

yield etc.) were collected and a total of twenty (20) water samples were collected and taken

to the laboratory for analysis using standards method. The study was limited to the evaluation

of water quality of the boreholes drilled in Numan Local Government Area of Adamawa State

using the two methods only. The result indicates that there was no contamination of the

borehole water drilled using the air rotary drill but for the mud drill method pollutants were

contained in the water. The mud drill method borehole contains 3.1 Mg/l of Calcium

Carbonate which is the major chemical constituents of bentonide and 1.4 Mg/l of grease and

oil.

Key Words: Drilling, Development, Borehole and Water Quality.

INTRODUCTION

Water is essential to the survival of humanity because it is important for body function.

Water makes up about 75% of the total body weight (WSSC 2004; WHO, 2011). Lack of

water can lead to serious implication such as Hypertension, high cholesterol, and heart

diseases. Recent studies have also linked headaches, arthritis, and heartburn to lack of water

(Foster et al, 1998 and Jain et al, 1996, 1995). Therefore, it is recommended that one should

drink at least 20 liter of water per day (WHO, 2010). However, despite the need to ensure

sufficient water both in quantity, one of the biggest developmental challenges is the ensuring

of sufficient water quality (Ishaku et al, 2000; Eziegboet. al,2013 and Sangodoyin,1987,

1989). Providing safe water is one of the most challenging tasks facing Nigerian water sector

agencies and Numan LGA in Adamawa state is not an exception.

In recent times, water provision shows that 900 million people worldwide do not have

access to potable water supply. Of these 84% live in developing nation (WHO/UNICEF

2010). Although the world as a whole is making progress towards achieving the millennium

development goal (MDG) target of 50% access to portable drinking water by rural

communities by 2015, quite a number of percentage proportion of the population are still not

having access to sustainable safe drinking water and this is still far fetch. Boreholes are the

major source of portable water for household communities, institution and industries in the

country and Numan Local Government Area is not an exception. Methods of boreholes

drilling are mainly air rotary and mud drill which are widely used. So far no attempt has been

made to assess the effect of the drilling methods and development on borehole water quality.


This study evaluates the effect of the two drilling methods and development commonly used

in Numan Local government Area Adamawa State on borehole water quality.

Air Rotary Drilling Method

The air rotary drilling method useable tool drills by lifting and dropping a string and tool

suspended on a cable. A bit is attached to the bottom of the tool and it strikes the bottom of

the hole, crushing, breaking and mixing the cuttings. A string of tool in ascending order

consists of a bit, a drill stem, jars and swivel socket which are attached to the cable. The

cable tool method of drilling often referred to as the standard method, churn drill, percussion

method as the yo-yo is one of the oldest most versatile and simple drilling devise, (Todd,

1980).This method in recent technology has been developed to use compressed air for the

removal of the cuttings in the hole and thus named air rotary drill.

Mud Drilling Method

The mud method of drilling is a process in which a hole is drilled into the ground by

rotating a drill stem with a bit attached to its end. As the bit is rotated, it loosens and removes

rock chips and cuttings and simultaneously a circulating fluid is forced down inside the hole

of the pipe (Papp, 2001, Sadiq et al. 2003). The water pumped under pressure thus clears

the hole. If the water is used as the circulating fluid, it flows from the annulus to a settling

pit where the fluid is picked up at the pump suction and re-circulated. A drill stem consist of

a bit drill collars stabilizers and a drill pipe. Bit selection depends on the anticipated formation

to be encountered and on the high strata identified in the geophysical survey.

Mud and air rotary drilling methods are the two common methods of boreholes drilling in

Numan Local government Area Adamawa state. The quality of the borehole water, however,

needs to be evaluated because of possible contamination due to chemicals, oil and grease

hence the study. This study is limited to the evaluation of the water quality of boreholes

drilled in Numan Local Government Area of Adamawa state by mud and air rotary drilled

methods only.

Ground Water Quality

The quality required of a ground water supply depends upon its purpose, (Adekeye et al,

2004; Yenika et al, 2003 and Yusuf, 2007). Thus, the needs for drinking, industrial and

irrigation water very widely. In establishing quality criteria measures of chemical, physical,

and bacteriological constituents must be specified as well as standard methods for reporting

results of water analysis, (Alexander, 2008; Ishaku et al, 1995 and Malgwi et al,1991).

Recommended limits of water quality can then be used to serve as guides for interpretation

of results of ground water quality in a basin.

Table1: Major and Minor Physiochemical Constituents of Ground Water

Source: www.wikipedia.com


Development Methods

There is only one standard development method of well development which combines

several processes and procedure. The purpose of borehole development is to obtain maximum

efficient yield of borehole. Incidental its benefits which include stabilization of the structure,

minimizing of sand pumping, and the improvement of corrosion and encrustation conditions,

(Todd, 1980). Development also removes the cake from face of the borehole and breakdown

the compacted annulus about the hole caused by drilling. Development removes the fines

from the aquifer. The method involves using water to surge back and forth through the screen.

Gravel packing the aquifer to aids the flow of water into well at higher velocities than during

pumping at design rate. Materials which are brought to stability under high development

velocities and surging will remain stable under velocities during normal pumping operation.

Proper and careful development well or borehole will improve the performance of most

well or borehole. Well development is not expensive in view of the benefits derived and only

under unusual circumstance or improper method will it cause harm.

MATERNAL AND METHODOLOGY

Study Area

Numan is a town and a Local Government Area in Adamawa State, Nigeria. The town

lies between the coordinates of 90 281 N and 120 E and it is located about 45km from Yola,

on the confluence of the Benue River, (Adamawa Diary, 2015)

Methodology

Purity of drinking water from different drilling methods remains questionable. In a bid to

ascertain the health risk local people are exposed to, this study analyses the effect of drilling

methods and development on borehole water quality in Numan Local Government Area

(LGA) of Adamawa state, Nigeria. Reconnaissance survey was followed by data collection

on location of boreholes and investigation of drilling methods and development of boreholes

within the area of study. Two methods of drilling were used for the purpose of this study.

Samples from both methods were collected. A total of twenty (20) boreholes were identified

and ten (10) samples each were collected for air drill mud drilling method respectively.

Samples were properly labelled and transported to the Geology laboratory of the Federal

University of Technology (FUTY), Yola.

Water Sampling of Borehole water from Mud Drilling Method.

The ground water sampling was carried out after it has been pumped for fifteen minutes

in order to have good representative samples, not a sample of stagnant or point water. Also,

during the water sample collection, the 1.5 litre plastic bottle was rinsed with the water being

sampled. The sample was then securely corked, stored in cool place and transported

immediately to laboratory for analysis using standard laboratory methods, (Page et al, 1982;

U S Salinity laboratory, 1984).

Samples of ground water were collected after hand pumping of boreholes sunk by UB and

Lawrenag Water Engineering Services Ltd using mud drill method, (UB Waters, 2013). The

borehole was hand pumped for fifteen (15) minutes. Plastic bottles of 1.5 litre were filled

and tightly capped, labelled and transported to the laboratory for physiochemical analysis.


Well location, depth, size of casting, date, water temperature, odour, colour, turbidity and

operating condition of the well prior to sampling were noted. Table 2.1 indicates

location/borehole data and distribution of samples collected from the mud and drill method

and air rotary drill methods.

Table 2.1: Borehole Data and Sample Distribution

Borehole

No.

Location Depth of

Boreholes (m)

Static

W/I (m)

Discharge

(Q) (1/s)

Remarks

1. Dorawa I 24.9 7.83 0.3 -

2. Dorawa II 60.0 4.0 0.3 -

3. Hayin Gaba 47.50 5.35 1.5 -

4. Imbru 45.0 3.10 1.7 -

5. Kilan 26.60 4.08 0.68 -

6. Kodomti 27.2 10.4 1.3 -

7. Kwapuke 36.7 2.41 1.05 -

8. Ngblang 35.25 3.00 1.15 -

9. Nzoruwe 35.10 0.2 0.25 -

10. Pullum 17 2.52 2.52 -

11. Shafforon 30.15 2.00 0.354 Air Dril

12. PegiNgbalang 30.0 2.5 1.5 -

13. S/PegiNgbalang 40.16 3.50 0.24 -

14. PegiNgbalang 32.40 3.06 0.4 -

15. Zambun 35.00 2.21 1.2 -

16. Zangun 28.3 3.0 0.5 -

17. Kpali 30.30 8.37 0.5 -

18. Opalo 30.00 1.83 0.65 -

19. Oversear 25.4 7.7 0.28 -

20. Numan 30.6 6.80 0.38 -


Water Quality Parameters

The samples were analysed for the following parameters, PH, Total hardness (TH), Total

Dissolved Solid (TDS), Alkalinity, Conductivity, while Colour and odour were observed.

Total Hardness (TH) is a measure of the calcium and magnesium content and is commonly

expressed as the equivalent weight of calcium carbonate, (U S Salinity Laboratory staff,

1984). Thus;

𝑇𝐻 = 𝐶𝑎 × 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑜3

𝐶𝑎+ 𝑀𝑔 ×

𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑜3

𝑀𝑔

Where TH is measured in ppm of CaCO3, Ca and Mg in ppm and the ratios in equivalent

weights.

Determination of total dissolved solid (TDS) was carried out by measuring the electrical

conductivity (ECw) of the ground water; samples were reported and discussed. Other

parameters were determined using standard laboratory methods.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Physical Properties of Water

Physical properties of water were observed for the following parameters as indicated in

table 3.1

Table 3.1: Physical Parameters of Water Samples for Mud Rotary Drill.

BH No. PH Colour Taste Odour

1. 6.97 Clear Tasteless Odourless



4. 6.40 Milky Salty Odourless







WHO Limit 6.5 – 8.5 Colourless Tasteless Odourless


Table 3.1 above, indicates that sample Borehole No 4 falls outside WHO limit for drinking

water quality standards. Physical properties of water samples from air rotary drill method

were carried out by mere observation for the parameters indicated in table 3.2

Table 3.2: Physical Parameters of Water Samples for Air Rotary Drill.

BH No. PH Colour Taste Odour

1. 8.40 Clear Tasteless Odourless 2. 7.82 Clear Tasteless Odourless 3. 6.88 Clear Tasteless Odourless 4. 7.01 Milky Salty Odourless 5. 8.13 Clear Tasteless Odourless 6. 6.90 Clear Tasteless Odourless 7. 6.76 Clear Tasteless Odourless 8. 8.45 Clear Tasteless Odourless 9. 6.52 Clear Tasteless Odourless 10. 7.33 Clear Tasteless Odourless

WHO Limit 6.5 – 8.5 Clear Tasteless Odourless

Table 3.2 above, indicates that all water samples of the borehole falls within WHO limits

and standards for drinking water quality.

Physiochemical Parameters of Water Samples

Air Rotary Drilled Boreholes

Results from the air rotary drill indicate that there is no contamination of the borehole

water and it also met the standards of the water quality guidelines of WHO, (1990, 2011 and

SON, 2007). Table 3.2.1 shows the results of physiochemical properties of samples of water

from boreholes drilled by air rotary drilling methods.

Table 3.2.1: Physiochemical Properties of Water Samples from Air Rotary Drilling Method

BH No

TDS (Mg/L)

Ca (Mg/L)

Mg (Mg/L)

Na (Mg/L)

HCO3 (Mg/L)

Cl (Mg/L)

SO4

(Mg/L) Na %

ECW

µs/dm3

Remarks

1. 0.13 1.14 0.44z 0.89 1.88 0.34 0.33 33 250 Good 2. 0.10 0.21 0.05 2.42 1.20 0.68 0.67 90 240 Good 3. 6.90 0.24 0.02 7.28 2.39 2.47 2.48 96 320 Good 4. 0.57 2.49 5.81 2.83 8.87 1.13 1.02 25 245 Permissible 5. 0.90 1.20 2.00 8.10 8.10 1.00 2.60 72 252 Permissible 6. 0.25 8.30 0.75 5.96 2.46 2.73 4.47 30 432 Good 7. 0.71 2.14 0.08 12.67 1.02 12.04 1.80 85 455 Good 8. 0.50 11.40 5.70 12.90 2.80 2.80 23.00 45 243 Permissible 9. 1.65 12.37 16.71 27.75 8.55 8.55 41.74 49 342 Good 10. 3.41 9.54 14.23 32.52 9.43 9.35 44.19 52 244 Permissible

WHO Limit

1000 200 200 200 250 200 250 25 1000 -

Physiochemical Properties of Water Samples from Mud Drilling Method

Results of water samples from the mud drilling method indicate that calcium ions (Ca2+Mg2+)

are slightly high in boreholes nos 7, 8, 9, and 10.but not above the limits and standards of

UNICEF and WHO, (2004). This could be attributed to the chemical used (Bentonide) in


mud drilling method. Also, the result indicates that 328.24Mg/l of sodium was detected in

borehole no 10. This is probably due to the parent rock materials. Traces of grease and oil

were found in the water samples of boreholes Nos 2 and 3.

Table 3.2.2: Physiochemical Parameters of Water Samples from Mud Drilling Method

BH No

TDS (Mg/L)

Ca (Mg/L)

Mg (Mg/L)

Na (Mg/L)

HCO3 (Mg/L)

Cl (Mg/L)

SO4

(Mg/L) Na %

ECW

µs/dm3

Remarks

0.14 1.31 0.55 0.82 1.99 0.20 0.65 31 243 Good 0.11 0.24 0.04 2.41 1.30 0.86 0.34 79 543 Unsuitable 6.30 0.21 0.02 6.38 2.39 2.47 2.81 86 231 Unsuitable 0.47 2.54 5.32 1.94 8.82 1.18 1.01 28 345 Permissible 0.56 1.28 2.02 8.10 7.10 1.00 2.40 75 212 Doubtful 0.22 8.29 0.71 3.89 2.56 2.73 3.47 30 417 permissible 0.75 22.17 0.09 12.71 1.09 12.01 1.80 82 233 Unsuitable 0.50 11.13 5.60 12.60 2.84 2.73 21.03 41 235 Doubtful 1.60 12.47 15.39 26.72 2.57 7.88 41.74 50 413 Unsuitable 1.46 14.25 15.56 328.34 3.56 8.24 50.27 60 253 Doubtful WHO Limit

1000 200 200 200 200 250 250 25 1000 -

Bacterial Analysis

Bacteriological analysis was not conducted due to the fact that borehole water is usually safe

from bacteria due to depth of aquifer filtration and temperature that water passes through

during deep percolation.

Conclusion

This study was conducted to assess the effect of drilling methods and development on

borehole water quality in Numan Local government Area of Adamawa State, Nigeria. The

study showed a significant variation among the different methods in some of the parameters

evaluated. In most of the water samples the air rotary drilling method is considered to be the

most suitable method for good drinking water quality for domestic uses. Sampling and

analysis for physical and physiochemical properties were analyzed using standard methods

and techniques. The water samples from the mud drilling method were found to contain some

traces of bentonide and Carbonyl Methyl cellulose (CMC) which are chemicals used in mud

drilling fluid.

The physiochemical analysis carried out in the Laboratory of the Geology Department,

FUTY, Yola, indicates that values for Ca2+ and Mg2+, CaCO3 and Cl- are within the range

of WHO limits and standards for all the water samples from air rotary drilling method. Also,

the result shows that the PH values of water samples range from acidic to partially neutral

which makes the water naturally suitable for drinking. Table 3.2.

The study reveals that mud drilling method water samples contains slight traces of

chemicals, grease and oil. Also, one water sample was milky in colour which might be as a

result of improper use of drilling chemical during drilling process.


Recommendations

Based on the findings from the study, the following recommendations are made:

(I) It is recommended that mud drill method of drilling boreholes must be properly developed

and back washed by contractors/drillers to ensure complete removal of chemicals and mud

that might contaminate the borehole water.

(ii) It is recommended that Government must ensure that all contractors drill and develops

boreholes to specifications and standard before handing over to clients.

(iii) Water quality analysis and reports must accompany newly designed and drilled borehole

in Numan Local Government Area and Adamawa State.

(iv) Legislations to enact laws and subsequent enforcement by Adamawa State House of

Assembly and relevant agencies and ministries as well as stake holders in the water sector is

also recommended.

REFERENCES

Adamawa State Diary (2015). Published by the Adamawa State Government.

Adekeye J.I.D. & Ihaku J.M (2004) Ground Water Contamination in Shallow Aquifer in

Jimeta, Metropolis Adamawa State, North East, Nigeria.

Alexander, P. (2008) Evaluation of ground Water Quality of Mubi town, Mubi North Local

Government, Adamawa State. N D Project Unpublished

Ezeigbo H.I Iliya G.A &Zira D.K (2013) Water Resources of Jimeta-Yola Metropolis and

environs Adamawa State Northeastern Nigeria Journal of Mining and Geology

Forster S, Adrain, L & Bain M. (1998) Ground water in Urban Development Assessing

management needs and formulating policy strategies World Bank Technical Paper

N0.390 Http://Www.Wikipedia.Com.Accessed 13th April, 2012

Ishaku J.M & Ezeigbo H.I, (2000). Water quality of Yola area N.E Nig. Water resources

Journal of (NAH) vol-II PP 39.

Ishaku M.J (1995). The hydrogeology of Yola area and environment in the Upper Benue

river basin (Adamawa state) North eastern Nigeria M.Sc. Thesis department of Geology

University Nigeria

Jain, C. Komkar and M.K. Sharma, (1996). Ground water technical report, Cs (AR).

National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee, 1996.

Jain, C.K., K.K.S. Bhatia & T. Vijay, 1995. Ground water quality and evaluation in and

around Kakinada, Andhra Pradesh. Technical Report, CS (AR)172. National Institute of

Hydrology, Rorkee.

Malgwi G.S, A.Y Sangodoyin & K. Ogedengbe, (1991). Subsurface Water Quality from

stand point of irrigation and livestock, International Journal of Environmental Study No.

1, 38 PP 257.

Page A.L., Miller, RH, Keeney, D.R (1986) method of soil Analysis Part 2 chemical and

Mineralogical properties. Agronomy Monograph No.9 ASA – SSA, Madison, W.I.

Papp J (2001). Water-based drilling fluids. Hydra Drill technical notes, pp 21-25.


Sadiq R, Husain T, Veitch B, Bose N (2003) Evaluation of generic types of Drilling fluid

using a risk-based analytic hierarchy process. Institute for research in construction,

National research council, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

Standard Organization of Nigeria (2007). Nigeria standard for Drinking water Quality.

Standards organization of Drinking water Quality. Standards organization of Nigeria,

Lagos.

Sangodoyin, A.Y. & Adelekan, B.A. (1987). Recent Development in the use of dug wells

for domestic water supply. A case study from Ibadan. Proceedings Second Conference

of Nigerian Water and Sanitation Association (NIWASA) Lagos, Nigeria. P. 19-1-

19.22.

Sangodoyin, A.Y. (1989). Interaction between surface and groundwater qualities. A case

study of Ogunpa Stream, Ibadan. Proceedings, Third Annual Conference/Symposium of

Nigeria Water and Sanitation Association Port Harcourt, 19-21st October, p. 4.1-4.27.

Todd, D.K. (1980) Ground water hydrogeology. John Willey and Sons Inc., New York,

pp: 555

U.B Umar Bahago, (2013). “Technical report on a standard hand pump borehole.”

Contributed by Water Engineering Service Limited, at Baggore, Yola South Local

Government Area, and Adamawa State.

UNICEF and WHO (2004). Meeting the MDGs Drinking water and Sanitation Target: A

Mid-Term Assessment of progress, Word Health Organization. United State Salinity

Laboratory Staff Handbook (1984). Diagnosis and improvement of saline soils.

Agricultural Handbook No. 60.

WHO (1990). Drinking water quality standard. Guidelines for drinking water Quality, 2nd

edition. World health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.

World Health Organization (2011). Guidelines for drinking water Quality, 4th edition.

World Health Organization, (2010). Geneva, Switzerland: A Mid-Term assessment. Joint

monitoring programme, Gevene and New York.222 315.

WSSCC (2004). The campaign: Wash fact and figures. http://www.wsscc.org/dataweb

Yenika, M.T, Uma K.O & Obeiefuna, G.I (2003). Impact of human Activities on ground

water quality; a case study of shallow Aquifers in Jimeta – Yola, north eastern Nigeria

water resources (JNAH) 14 PP. 84-89.

Yusuf, K.A (2007). Evaluation of ground water Quality characteristics in Lagos city. J.

Applied science 7(13): 1780-1784.


USING ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEXT BOOKS TO IMPROVESTUDENTS' PERFORMANCE IN

ENGLISH: AN OVERVIEW OF NIGERIAN SCHOOLS

By

Wappa, John Peter & Wada, Richard Sylvester

Department of English Education

ABSTRACT

The paper is aimed at improving the academic performance in Nigerian schools with interest

in using English language text books. It looks at education as a means of impacting and

acquiring knowledge through teaching and learning. It is one of the objectives of the

Millennium Development Goals (MDG) providing basic education through the introduction

of the Universal Basic Education (UBE). Government, parents and teachers are held

responsible for the fallen standard of education in Nigeria; and the provision of qualitative

text books to be used by teachers, students and pupils will aid improve their academic

performance in schools in Nigeria which University Press Plc has published books for all

levels of education to serve the purpose.

INTRODUCTION

Education ordinarily means the imparting and acquiring of knowledge through teaching

and learning, especially at schools or formal institutions. It is seen as the bed rock of every

successful society. A Nigerian society is not an exception, and that is why the country

accepted the issue of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) whole heartedly because

of which education is a right for all. It can easily be remembered that the Universal Basic

Education's (UBE) programme was introduced in 1999 in Nigeria as a reform programme

aimed at providing greater access to free Universal Basic Education for every Nigerian child

of school-going age and out-of- school children. It is assigned to demonstrate the will to in

working to relay on a solid foundation for basic education. The national policy on education

presents Basic Education as an ambitious educational programme aimed at eradicating

illiteracy, ignorance and poverty. It is in the real sense directed to stimulate and accelerate

national development, political consciousness and national integration. This can only be

achieved by Nigeria and Nigerians by providing basic education for the Nigerian child.

It should be noted therefore, that the enrolment of children into schools alone does not

mean that the problem of lack of sound education is solved, but it is only an indication that

half of the battle to combat illiteracy, ignorance and poverty is solved. The other half of the

battle is the provision of essential learning materials for the pupils and the students. In respect

of winning half of the battle, parents and school proprietors must be willing to provide the

needed materials for their wards, pupils and students respectively. Publishing houses should

be able to publish series of reputable text books ranging from the junior primary schools, that

is, the lower and middle basic education right through to the senior secondary schools. The

books should be written and edited by credible educationists.

Education policy has been the object of research, for importance as well as it has

instrumental value in the improvement of the society. The role of schooling determines the

importance of education which ultimately fosters economic growth as emphasized by the

theoretical economic models. The benefits of information and knowledge development in

facilitating economic transactions, productive arrangements, social interactions, and political


participation are highly important (Masino & Niño-Zarazúa, 2016). Therefore, the main aim

of teaching English language in our schools is to equip students with the techniques of

reading, listening, writing and speaking which are the four basic skills needed in language

learning. School syllabus states that English language is taught to help pupils to develop the

habit of reading, understand and derive information from materials read, to communicate

effectively in speech and writing and as well develop the desire to create literary materials,

and in achieving this, the need for textbooks cannot be ruled out (Oppong Sekyere & Akpalu,

2013). Government has made efforts to improve the quality of English language in our

schools, but no substantial results have been seen. This can be attributed to inadequate

attention on the part of government, the school administration, parents, teachers and students

to the use of English language textbooks. It is more a hidden fact that, the use of English is

deteriorating in our schools today; as no adequate provision have been made for standard

teaching materials, especially good English textbooks.

The Falling Standard of Education in Nigeria

The standard of something is said to be falling when there is drop in standard or reduction

in quality of such a thing. It is same with education, the standard of education in Nigeria is

said to be falling because, what for instance, a primary school leaver could do in time past,

a student in secondary school these days cannot do it. The standard does not just fall, it is

caused by certain factor(s). In Nigeria, the falling standard of education is caused by three

factors- the government, the teachers and the parents.

i. The government carries the larger part of the blame. The government carries the lion share

of the blame because all the other variables are dependent variables (Bello, 2010). It is

largely responsible for the fallen standard of education in the country. The government

changes educational policies concerning education frequently, leaving the teachers and

students in confusion. It equally does not equip the classrooms and laboratories properly

to enable effective teaching and learning to take place. The government allows corrupt

officers who misappropriate funds meant for institutions go scot free. The issues of

examination malpractice both students and teachers have not been tackled by the

government. The teachers' welfare in terms of remunerations is absurd and that is why

and, in most schools, there are acute shortages of qualified teachers-especially those in

English language and mathematics which are the schools' basics. Lastly, the

government shies away from implementing the 26% of the national budget be spent on

education as suggested by the United Nations (Babalola, 2006 & Dike, 2006 cited in Bello,

2010 & Usman, 2009).

ii. The parents who supposed to monitor their wards closely simply do not care about their

education, as they put more attention on making money, leaving their children's guidance

and motivation to housemaids and drivers who can do little or nothing about the academic

needs of these children. As a result of this action, the children's projects and home work

are left unattended to (Usman, 2009).

iii. The teachers on their part lack dedication to duty as they are not, most a times punctual

to their duty. They usually show teaching job a divided loyalty, because they spend most

of their time on/doing other businesses than teaching (Ayodele, 2001 &Usman, 2009).

All these have contributed to the falling standard of education in Nigeria. Unless radical

measures are taken to solve the stated problems, the academic performance of students in


Nigeria will never improve and it is worst with the teaching of English language which most

a times lacks teachers.

Therefore, it is necessary to identify policy interventions that can help in improving quality

of education and the level of students' learning in developing countries. Relying on a theory

of change typology, three main drivers of change of education quality have been proposed

by Masino & Niño-Zarazúa (2016):

i) supply-side capability interventions that operate through the provision of physical and

human resources, and learning materials; these interventions are aim at raising students'

achievements by improving infrastructure or organizational deficiencies through the

improvising of physical infrastructure, teaching materials, and training and hiring extra

teachers. Financial resources provided by governments and/or aid-funded programmes are

judicially used. It also focuses on hiring extra teachers, to decrease the prevailing high

teacher-pupil and also complement permanent teachers with younger, often more

motivated, temporary teachers

ii) The policies that are centred on incentives to influence the behaviour and inter-temporal

preferences of teachers, households, and students should be put in place. Incentives for

teachers are aimed at improving the quality of teaching, whereas the incentives for students

and parents are concerned more with behaviours and preferences that affect the demand

for, and the utilization of education services. Therefore, teachers' commitment to attend

the classroom regularly can depend on a number of factors, including the level of wages

and the nature of their contracts neither permanent or temporary, the distance to the

workplace and school facilities, and the existence of systems to monitor their work shifts

and attendance. Sometimes monetary incentives can be effective in discouraging

absenteeism; and in some cases, teachers may respond better to non-monetary incentives,

such as monitoring and pay sanctions and other enforcement mechanisms.

iii) bottom-up and top-down participatory and community management interventions,

which operate through decentralization reforms, knowledge diffusion, and increased

community participation in the management of education systems must be encouraged.

Interventions are more effective at improving students' performance and learning when

social norms and inter temporal choices are factored in the design of education policies,

and when two or more drivers of change are combined. These policies were expected to

lead to enhanced productivity, economic growth, and development. In addition, improving

teaching abilities via training of teachers and reforming learning materials was funded as

an effective way of enhancing education quality. Therefore, raising community needs

awareness is necessary for quality education services as well as for possible solutions.

Often such initiatives, in combination with incentives to change preferences and

behaviours, seek to alter discriminatory social norms that restrict demand for education

services, particularly among girls and vulnerable groups.

Qualities of Good Text-Books

The textbooks to be used in schools should be of standard. For every text to be regarded

as qualitative, it should be effective for usage during teaching and learning. The quality of

such material should be appropriate for the needs and standard of the learners whom it was

designed for, as it is necessary for the students and pupils to have instructional materials for

effective learning. Textbooks are only useful to the students and the teachers when the


following qualities of are taken into consideration though no textbook is perfect (Ayodele,

2001 & Sa'ad, 2001). Textbooks are only useful to the students, the pupils and the teachers

when they are of quality. László (2007) and Deuri (2012) suggested the following qualities

and characteristics for a good English text book:

i. The set of authors: A text most not necessarily be written by many authors, but what is

most important is that the author(s) should be notable scholars. They should be masters of

such area of study.

ii. Good content: The content of the textbook should be rich in standard to match the standard

of the set of class for which it is made. Obviously, the textbooks should aim at teaching

the materials that have to be taught to the class. Adaptation of material by the teacher will

be highly valuable. The presentation of subject matter is the most important step in text-

book writing. Presentation refers to the communication of knowledge. In most cases, it

will be the teacher who communicates the new information to the pupils, either directly

or indirectly. A good teacher can do this using whatever book that is available in class. It

is, however, much easier to make a good presentation if the material in the book helps it.

In the recent years there has been more emphasis on the inductive approach to teach

grammatical principles. Meaning, the teacher moves from many particular examples to a

few general ideas. He does this rather than teaching the rules first and then giving

illustrations. The most important things which should be checked in evaluating a book for

good presentation are contextualization. It is not enough to provide a lot of examples on

how a grammatical construction works but rather they should have some meaning for the

pupils which allows the pupil to understand the linguistic feature, not vice versa.

iii. Legibility: Every English text should be legible, that is, is should be understandable,

readable and comprehensible.

iv. Working exercise: The exercise contained in the text should match the standard of the

learners and be practicable.

v. Language: The language of the text should not be complex. The word choice should be

carefully done to teach a selected/chosen purpose. The vocabulary and constructions are

what are often called the linguistic content of the book. There is also the option of

examined thematic content. Some themes are almost always right for a child: the home,

the school, games, the wonders of science. Others are suitable only for particular groups.

It is enough for a book to simply have the right thematic content as both linguistic and

thematic content must be right. If the linguistic content is poor, the teacher will have to

do a great deal of adaptation. He will constantly have to add the book by creating exercises

to fill the gaps. If the thematic content is poor, the children will be the ones who have to

make the extra effort, the effort to remain interested in activities when the materials do

not provide the stimulus.

The text should have suitable vocabulary and structures which should be controlled,

properly selected and graded. The introduction of vocabulary should be progressive within

the series of readers. The words and structures should be introduced in a systematic order.

The simple meaning should be used of a word or structure if they have more than one

meaning.

vi. Attractiveness: Textbooks are expected to be attractive, especially for those in primary

and junior secondary schools. This will aid in attracting the pupils' or students' attention

to the text and subsequently, the passages in it. The colouring is part of the items whose


main aim is to attract the pupils' and students' attention as its pictures should be chosen to

be in line with the drawing type to make photocopying possible and they should have

cognitive regulating markers which are normally in four colours so as to provide easier

orientation marks and also for an aesthetic aspect. The colours are said to have emotional

influence on a student's mind (Vlivbarevnačlověka, 2011 in Němcová, 2012 and

Němcová, 2012). The sources of the pictures used in the textbook are written under each

figure.

vii. Fixing the objectives: Obviously, textbook should aim at teaching the materials that

have to be taught to the class prescribed by the educational curriculum. If the aim is to

teach the students/pupils to how read and write good English, a book which has been

written for an aural oral approach will not be suitable. Here, the teacher is to do some

adaptation of materials to teach and doing such is highly valuable. The learning material

that is to be presented to the student should simulate personal communication and suggests

that this personal style is particularly effective (Lockwood, 1992). This Holmberg (1989)

refers to it as dialogue which should be made as a major feature of self-instructional

material. What is meant by dialogue is not just merely concerned with giving someone

information, but being involved in communication where an individual is actively engaged

in the construction and exchange of meaning, a such, he proposed the concept of 'guided

didactic conversation'.

viii. Exercises at the end of the Lesson: The content and the language material in each

lesson should be further practiced and tested taught a variety of interesting and graded

exercises at the end of each lesson. There should be sufficient and suitable teaching and

testing exercises on each lesson which should suit the topic thought. The instruction for

each lesson should be simple enough for the students to understand. Němcová (2012) states

that they should consist of exercises suitable for all learning styles: visual, auditory and

also kinesthetic, meanwhile drama techniques for the kinesthetic type of learners and also

for students with Specific Learning Difficulties (SLD) is equally suggested by Hanušová

(2009 cited in Němcová, 2012).

Required Books for teaching and learning: Every section of education has the kinds of books

they require to meet the specification and requirements of the curriculum. The education

regulatory bodies place the needed required standard which should be adhered to which

should be complemented by the publishing companies. The publishing companies should

publish textbooks of international standard which have satisfied the set standards for proper

teaching and learning ranging from:

i. Teacher's Book: The teacher's book is essential aid for use with student's book. This

book should provide answers to exercises such as comprehension, summary and listening

comprehension passages in student's book. It is equally called teacher's manual which is

designed to help teachers prepare students for the challenges they face as they make more

complex decisions. The aim is to guide the teacher who may have different expressions of

the answers which are acceptable. It makes the teacher's work much easier as well as

makes the teacher to achieve a maximum purposeful and effective teaching. The target is

to teach English language which is geared towards functional grammar not just the theory.

It is monotonous repeating the same activities in the same order with similar exercises. It


will equally provide the teacher with the keys to the exercises. The keys are not given in

the student's textbook because students might be tempted to look at them without giving

enough effort to solve the given tasks. A teacher is expected to always provide students

with correct answers (Němcová, 2012).

It therefore contains background information and resources that the teacher will need to

implement. Teacher's guide is designed to help educators by providing questions that

explore themes, test reading skills and evaluate reading comprehension. These guides have

been developed by teachers and by other experts in the fields of education and writing.

Reading ability, subject matter and interest level should be considered in each teacher's

guide. The teacher's guide is an essential aid for use with student's book. It enables every

teacher to teach in a lively, varied and highly effective way. The guide contains answers

to all the exercises in the student's books/ this will ease the teacher's task by leading the

teacher in the way that the text book is expected to be handled. The guide will as well

ensure a maximum of purposeful and effective teaching.

ii. Primary School Books: All primary books are expected to be written based on lower and

middle Education curriculum for primary education development as prescribed by National

Education Research and Development Council (NERDC). They should teach every aspect

of English in lively and interesting ways. The books should emphasis good spoken English;

they give adequate practice in one of the most dreaded parts of the English language –

oral, especially those sounds that are often found to be difficult by pupils during teaching

of writing skills. All the language skills should be properly treated in such books, each

according to the level of the pupils.

iii. Secondary School Books: These are books which are prepared for junior secondary

schools, which is regarded as the Upper Basic Education as classified by UBE and senior

secondary. It is a mixture of a course book and a workbook. They should teach grammar,

spoken English, reading comprehension, vocabulary development, structure and

punctuation all to standard. This stage prepares them for writing Senior Secondary

Certificate Examination (SSCE). As the deficiencies and inadequacies of Upper Basic

Education is taken care of by the senior secondary book. At this level, the books should

target self-study especially practical guides on oral and written exercises. The books

should consolidate the various skills already acquired by students at the junior secondary

school. They get good linguistic basis for further learning in tertiary and vocational

institutions. Such books should not only be good for students but for workers in their work

place of employment as such should promote the skills of spoken English as a medium for

communication.

The books should contain a good number of units with complete set of practice examination

questions. The aim here is to guide the students on how to tackle different kinds of

questions on comprehension, letter writing, the great dreaded summary, objective tests of

lexis and structure as well as the “almighty Oral English”. At the end of this stage, students

are expected to be fully prepared for internal and external examinations.

Conclusion

Any published English language textbook is expected to target how to improve academic

performance of student’s English language examination specially those schools in Nigerian.

Therefore, parents, school proprietors, students and teachers should pick courage and invest


in books, especially the English language books haven known how our pupils and students

perform these days during their final examination (WAEC) in English language. It is an

opportunity given with Millennium Development Goals (MDG) as an eye opener; we should

not let the future of our children to go down the drain. Knowing fully well that English

language is the back bone that children need to have a brighter future and own a university

degree.

REFERENCES

Ayodele, S.O. (2001) “Quality, Quality, Production and Distribution of Teaching

Resources/facilities,” In Nnoli, O and Suleiman, I. (Eds) Reassessing he Future of

Education in Nigeria, Abuja: Educational Trust Fund.

Bello, A.N. (2010) “Falling Standard of Education in Nigeria: Who is to Be Blamed”

retrieved on 6th July, 2011 from http://ezinearticles.com/?Falling Standard Of-Education-

in Nigeria-Who-Is-To-Be-Blame?&id=5230921 Federal Government of Nigeria (1981)

Federal Policy on Education, Lagos: Federal Government Press.

Holmberg, B. (1989) Theory and Practice of Distance Education, London: Routledge.

Isah, A. (2008) “Nigeria: Why Our Standard of Education is Falling” retrieved on 6th July,

2011 from http://allafrica.com/aterise/200001170291.html. Lockwood, F. (1992)

Activities in Self-Instructional Texts. Kogan Page.

László, K. (2007) Learning-centred Quality Assessment.

www.commitment.hu/download.php?ctag=download&docID=379 Retrieved 13th

September, 2016.

Masino, S. & Niño-Zarazúa, M. (2016) “What Works to Improve the Quality of Student

Learning in Developing Countries” International Journal of Educational Development

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijedudev retrieved on the 13th September, 2016.

Oppong-Sekyere1, Oppong-Sekyere, D.F, and Akpalu, M.M. (2013) “Some factors

influencing the academic performance of junior high school pupils in English Language:

The case of Assin North Municipality, Ghana. International Journal of English and

Literature, Vol. 4(5), pp. 226-235, DOI: 10.5897/IJEL12.162

http://www.academicjournals.org/IJEL retrieved on the 13th September, 2016.

Deuri, C. (2012) “An Evaluative Study of Text Book in English at Higher Secondary Level”

International Journal of Science, Environment and Technology, Vol. 1, No 1, pp 24-28.

Němcová, P. (2012) Textbook Design for Teaching Business English at Secondary School

published Masters thesis Faculty of Education, Masaryk University

Vlivbarevnačlověka. (2011) Retrieved June 17, 2011 from http://www.barvy.cz/clanek/

pusobeni-barev-v-interieru-vliv-barev-a-na-clovek/


READING CULTURE AND THE LIBRARY AS TOOLS FOR PROMOTING EDUCATIONAL

DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA

By

Bukar, Inuwa

Department of e-Library

Federal College of Education, Yola

ABSTRACT

Reading habit is an essential and important aspect for creating a literate society in this world.

It shapes the personality of an individual and it helps them to develop the proper thinking

methods and creating new ideas. The place of reading culture in educational development

cannot be over emphasized. However, the prevailing regime of poor reading habit among

youths in Nigeria is highly disturbing because the situation is already adversely affecting the

country socially, economically and politically. The government efforts infighting illiteracy,

examination malpractices and under development are speedily being thwarted by decline in

reading culture among the general populace. This paper therefore reviewed conceptual

definitions of reading culture and highlighted its importance to the individual and the country

at large. It also located the place of the library in the promotion of reading culture in Nigeria

and the effect of reading culture on educational development.

Keywords: Educational Development, Library, Literate Society, Illiteracy, Reading Habit

INTRODUCTION

Reading has been an essential part of human development from time immemorial, right

from the era of hand graven writings on caves and walls to writings on papers or scripts. It

is an unequivocal tradition around the world that is unique.

The art of reading is essential as it enhances one's knowledge and broadens ones' horizon

in any field of study or area of interest. There is no profession that does not require one to

read even in this present time, artisans and tradesmen ought to be able to read and write so

as to enable them function appropriately in their day-to-day activities.

Effective reading is the most important avenue of effective learning. Reading is

interrelated with the total educational process hence; educational success requires successful

reading. Reading is one of the fundamental building blocks for learning and developing a

literate society that can compete with the global world (Sisulu,2004). It is through the society

that a child learns; what then is expected of a child learning in a society where reading is

almost going extinct? Unfortunately, the reading habit of the average Nigerian child is below

satisfactory and it continues dwindling as he or she moves up the academic ladder. The

indifference keeps mounting as the child gets older.

There has been the general feeling among Nigerians that reading culture has been a missing

link in the educational development of the nation. It is obvious that there has been a high rate

of decline in the reading culture among school children, students and the general public in

Nigeria. A close observational study of students within the academic environment shows that

most students read only during the examination periods while few only make attempts at

reading for knowledge and pleasure.


Sadly, since the emergence of digital technology, there has been a significant increase in

the apathy towards reading as most students' (children, youth and adults) reading time has

now been taken over by watching of home videos; television programs and the browsing of

internet for games, social interactions with foreign friends and other less beneficial

indulgences.

This is becoming very alarming and calls for urgent attention to the general reading culture

of Nigerians. Nigeria has a long way to go in terms of educational transformation which is

only possible through a good reading culture. According to (Nssien, 2007) reading culture

has been suffering and adversely affecting the educational development of the nation Nigeria.

What Is Reading?

The definition of reading has gone through many changes. In the past, reading simply

meant to extract visual information from any given codes or systems, thereafter, reading

became much more complex and involved the understanding of a whole text composed of

written signs. Reading is a powerful instrument of information and communication which is

expected to begin from cradle. It can be seen as a knowledge acquiring process, involving

the reader and the text, which is enhanced by the reader's prior knowledge and experience.

(Adima, 1990) defines reading as the complex act of dealing with communication in written

form, visual or in pictorial illustration. According to (Toit, 2001) “Reading is a process of

thinking, recalling and relating concepts under the functioning of written words" while (Irvin,

1998) describes the reading process as “The interaction of what is in the head with what is

on the page within a particular context that causes students to comprehend what they read”

Thus, reading is the ability to recognise, and examine words or sentences and understand the

information within. It is a cognitive process of understanding a written linguistic message and

to examine and grasp the meaning of written or printed characters, words or sentences.

Reading is a psycholinguistic process involving the interaction of language and thought as

language is decoded and the meaning is reconstructed. Reading is not mere mouthing of

words but making meaning of prints (Amoruwa, 2008).

Reading Comprehension

Keith; Barbara; Charles; David and Mark, (2001) defined Reading comprehension as the

level of understanding of a text/message and this understanding comes from the interaction

between the words that are written and how they trigger knowledge outside the text/message.

Although this definition may seem simple; it is not necessarily simple to teach, learn or

practice, an individual's ability to comprehend text is influenced by their traits and skills, one

of which is the ability to make inferences. If word recognition is difficult, students use too

much of their processing capacity to read individual words, which interferes with their ability

to comprehend what is read.

Proficient reading depends on the ability to recognize words quickly and effortlessly. It is

also determined by an individual's cognitive development, which is "the construction of

thought processes". Some people learn through education or instruction and others through

direct experiences. There are specific traits that determine how successfully an individual

will comprehend text, including prior knowledge about the subject, well-developed language,

and the ability to make inferences. Having the skill to monitor comprehension is a factor:


"Why is this important?" and "Do I need to read the entire text?" are examples. Lastly, is

the ability to be self-correcting to solve comprehension problems as they arise.

Several types of reading may occur in a language classroom. One way, in which these may

be categorized, as suggested by (Brown, 1989) can be outlined as follows:

A. Oral

B. Silent

I. Intensive

a) Recreational

b) Content

II. Extensive

a) Skimming

b) Scanning

c) Study

d) Critical

e) Analytical

The first distinction that can be made is whether the reading is oral or silent. This paper

will not deal with oral reading, only silent reading. Within the category of silent reading, one

encounters intensive and extensive reading.

Intensive reading is used to teach or practice specific reading strategies or skills. The text is

treated as an end in itself.

Extensive reading on the other hand, involves reading of large quantities of material,

directly and fluently. It is treated as a means to an end. It may include reading simply for

pleasure or reading technical, scientific or professional material. This later type of text, more

academic, may involve two specific types of reading, scanning for key details or skimming

for the essential meaning. A relatively quick and efficient read, either on its own or after

scanning or skimming, will give a global or general meaning. We will first examine intensive

reading. Secondly, we will deal with extensive reading, with a focus on how it results in a

general or global meaning.

Intensive reading

Brown (1989) explains that intensive reading "calls attention to grammatical forms,

discourse markers, and other surface structure details for the purpose of understanding literal

meaning, implications, rhetorical relationships, and the like." He draws an analogy to

intensive reading as a "zoom lens" strategy. (Long and Richards, 1987) say it is a "detailed

in-class" analysis, led by the teacher, of vocabulary and grammar points, in a short passage."

Intensive Reading, sometimes called "Narrow Reading", may involve students reading

selections by the same author or several texts about the same topic. When this occurs, content

and grammatical structures repeat themselves and students get many opportunities to

understand the meanings of the text. The success of “Narrow Reading” on improving reading

comprehension is based on the premise that the more familiar the reader is with the text,


either due to the subject matter or having read other works by the same author, the more

comprehension is promoted.

Characteristics of intensive reading

i. usually classroom based

ii. reader is intensely involved in looking inside the text

iii. students focus on linguistic or semantic details of a reading

iv. students focus on surface structure details such as grammar and discourse markers

v. students identify key vocabulary

vi. students may draw pictures to aid them (such as in problem solving)

vii. texts are read carefully and thoroughly, again and again

viii. aim is to build more language knowledge rather than simply practice the skill of reading

ix. seen more commonly than extensive reading in classrooms

Extensive Reading

(Long and Richards, 1971) identify extensive reading as "occurring when students read

large amounts of high interest material, usually out of class, concentrating on meaning,

"reading for gist" and skipping unknown words."(Brown, 1989) explains that extensive

reading is carried out "to achieve a general understanding of a text."

The aims of extensive reading are to build reader confidence and enjoyment. Extensive

reading is always done for the comprehension of main ideas, not for specific details.

Characteristics of Extensive Reading:

Day and Bamford (1980) put forward ten characteristics identified in successful Extensive

Reading Programs. They are duplicated (in abbreviated form) below:

i. Students read as much as possible.

ii. A variety of materials on a range of topics is available.

iii. Students select what they want to read.

iv. The purposes of reading are usually related to pleasure, information and general

understanding.

v. Reading is its own reward.

vi. Reading materials are well within the linguistic competence of the students in terms of

vocabulary and grammar.

vii. Reading is individual and silent.

viii. Reading speed is usually faster than slower.

ix. Teachers orient students to the goals of the program.

x. The teacher is a role model of a reader for the students.


Kinds of Reading

Ms. Laarni, (2012) stated that reading can be sub divided in to Kinds, according to purpose

& manner of comprehending. These sub division is explained below:

Kinds of Extensive reading

i. Recreational Reading: Reading for pleasure any topic of interest - main purpose: to relax

and enjoy yourself - comics, humorous stories, tales, novels, short articles in the newspapers

and magazines, jokes, and other forms of light reading materials; here the reader spends his

leisure time by reading any kind of material that is interesting to him.

Kinds of Intensive Reading

i. Scanning - Rapid reading assisted by key words to locate specific pieces of info - for

research, review - gets info that answer what, who, where, when, how For Example;

looking for a word meaning in the dictionary, getting a document from the filing cabinet,

looking through the yellow pages

ii. Skimming - rapid reading focusing on the TITLE, HEADINGS, TOPIC SENTENCE,

SIGN POSTS to get the main idea; it's an effective preliminary step to reading thoroughly

because after skimming, you can quickly go back to details you need to read entirely

iii. Exploratory Reading - Aims to get a fairly accurate picture of a whole presentation of

ideas; how the whole selection is presented, Allots more time for reading Examples:

Reading Long articles in magazines, short stories, descriptive texts

iv. Analytical Reading - careful attention to each word and its importance in relation to other

words in the sentence or the paragraph. - Examples: Reading mathematical problems,

scientific formulas, and certain definitive statements of key ideas that require a

questioning/inquisitive mind.

v. Developmental Reading - When a reader is under a comprehensive reading program that

lets him go through stages & monitors him closely

vi. Critical Reading–in critical reading the aim is to analyse and evaluate the text – using

iv. Analytical Reading - careful attention to each word and its importance in relation to other

words in the sentence or the paragraph. - Examples: Reading mathematical problems,

scientific formulas, and certain definitive statements of key ideas that require a

questioning/inquisitive mind.

v. Developmental Reading - When a reader is under a comprehensive reading program that

lets him go through stages & monitors him closely

vi. Critical Reading–in critical reading the aim is to analyse and evaluate the text – using

critical-thinking skills to: differentiate better factor& opinion; recognize author's purpose

in writing; make inferences about purposes and characters; recognize the author's tone in

writing; recognize persuasive techniques or propaganda designed to sway you to believe

vii. Study Reading–here the reader must get a maximum understanding of the main ideas

and their relationships - examples: SQ4R (Survey, Question, Read, Record, Recite,

Review)


What is Reading Culture?

The act of reading is expected to form part of an individual to the extent that, it becomes

a habit difficult to break. Reading is a means of obtaining information, it is also a means of

entertainment and relaxation. It follows logically that a good reading habit is a foundation to

a good education, good information and communication. Sandars (2007) defines reading

culture as a learned practice of seeking knowledge, information or entertainment through the

written words. The act of reading could be an interesting practice for children and

adolescents, if they are properly guided. This is because; a reading habit cultivated early in

life, helps children to grow into independent adults with repertoire of knowledge. Olaofe,

(2003) defines reading culture as the art of inculcating reading habits and interests in learners

through conducive reading environments and numerous reading activities. Reading is an

essential tool for lifelong learning and promoting a reading culture among students in Nigeria,

is therefore one of the key tasks in the curriculum reform, whose aim is to strengthen the

learning capabilities of students. Magara, (2005) describes a reading culture as one where

reading is highly valued and appreciated in the society and where reading is regarded not

simply as something developed for school purposes but something practiced in all aspects of

our lives. Information through reading is the life blood of all human activities.

Importance of Reading

Reading is a crucial process affecting intellectual and emotional growth. The ability to

read is recognized generally as one of the most important skills that a person can have, it is

a tool that facilitates intellectual development of the mind, the vehicle for obtaining

knowledge and ideas that cannot be transmitted verbally.

Reading is an important activity in the process of learning. Chika, (2009) outlines the

virtues of reading to include (i) The provision of individual's welfare, social progress and

international understanding, and (ii) The provision of skills, knowledge and the right attitude

that frees one from idleness or boredom. Explosion of knowledge and revolution in

communication technology made man feel that producing reading material and its distribution

for a wider circulation is indispensable. According to Sandars, (2007) reading is essential to

full participation in modern society because it adds quality to life and provides access to

culture and cultural heritage. Reading empowers and liberates an individual; it broadens a

child understanding of life and affords the tools to explore his/her talent while learning about

himself and his society. Making reading a regular and happy habit enables the reading directly

or indirectly to establish close links with minds far or near, minds high and developed, serious

and humorous (Amoruwa, 2008).

Problems of Establishing Reading Culture in Nigeria

Studies have shown that the poor reading culture among Nigerian youths has been

attributed to a number of factors which includes:

i. Urban people are too busy with their professions and other activities such as long

traveling's, multiple recreation centres and other domestic and family problems which

have become impediments for them to find time for reading,

ii. Distraction by the fallouts from technological innovations such as the entertainment media,

games and gambling,


iii. Poor economy and low standard of living, the quest for money by parents who use their

children to hawk consumer items,

iv. The inadequate funding of educational institutions including funding of libraries,

laboratories, workshops, computer units and,

v. The increasing cost of publishing making it difficult for school pupils to have access to

books, magazines, journals and newspapers.

Others include the lack of adequate number of bookshops and the use of handouts instead

of textbooks for students' learning (Fortune News, 2009; Sandars, 2007). Even at the

university level, students and teachers are inclined towards secondary sources rather than

original classics. Reading of original classics and first hand sources have become a thing of

the past because; there is no proper encouragement at school or university level. Owing to

the present competitive examination system at all levels, students are showing more interest

in preparing for objective types of examinations that are deteriorating to their attitudes and

reactive abilities.

Libraries and the Promotion of Reading Culture

The library is a responsive entity, with the best of collections in physical and electronic

formats, infrastructure and even services; it can spring to life only at the magic touch of the

users. At the same time there is much that the librarian can do to ensure that the library

contributes greatly to the reading culture of a nation. (Ogwu, 2006) highlights the various

ways by which libraries can be used as a platform for entrenching reading culture in Nigeria

and this is summarized as follows:

i. The library has a variety of learning resources such as books, computers, e-resources and

facilities which can be used to promote reading culture,

ii. Library offers a much more conducive atmosphere or silence which is necessary for

developing a reading habit,

iii. It is cheaper to access library information resources than what the home or the office can

offer the reader and,

iv. Library provides reading accommodation for larger number of users.

The issue of access to the library is equally very important, children's attention span is short

and if there are other activities that are available while the library remains closed, they will

lose the habit of coming to the library as one of their major options. Hence the library needs

to match and excel over other attractions to ensure the use of the place. The libraries can also

promote reading culture if at least one weekly library period is introduced and enforced for

every class. The librarian can then plan and conduct various activities and interactions that

will encourage and motivate the children to read and always make use of the library.

Reading Culture and Educational Development

The place of reading and learning in educational development is a prominent one. Reading

facilitates and deepens the learning activity, effective learning results in high academic, moral

and skills development. It also leads to a highly intelligent and informed society that becomes


the watershed for progressive and innovative ideas which is capable of transforming the entire

society for growth and development.

Conclusion

There is no doubt that the reading culture among the Nigerian youth is fast eroding. One

can even say that the past generation made up of our fathers and grandfathers had a

remarkable thirst for knowledge through education in spite of the limited resources they

contended with.

Our present generation of youths are risking the future educational growth and development

of our dear country by their refusal to imbibe in the reading culture, however, knowing how

to read and accepting reading as a way of life even for its own sake is an invaluable asset.

(Doiron and Asselin, 2010) noted that a well-known African proverb teaches that “It takes a

village to raise a child”. This reminds us that everyone in a community plays an important

role in the welfare and development of children. This proverb could also apply as we explore

the complexity of developing children's reading habits by suggesting that “It takes a village

to raise a reader”. This implies that educators, parents, community leaders and librarians all

play a vital role in the development of children who not only can read, but who do read.

Recommendations

The following recommendations are made to promote reading culture in Nigeria:

i. Government at all levels should establish well equipped libraries across the length and

breadth of the country; in all schools and for the public

ii. The private sector with educational enterprises should be made to set up standard libraries

as part of the requirement for establishing primary and secondary schools.

iii. Non-Governmental organizations (NGOs) and the publishing companies should mount

awareness campaigns in schools and communities in the country on the dangers and

consequences of negative reading habits among Nigerians.

iv. The system of performance evaluation in schools in the county should focus more on using

library and information resources in the execution of students' assignments, projects,

drama and debating activities.

REFERENCES

Adima, E. (1990). Effectiveness of practical Technique on Reading for the Mentally

Retarded: Implications for Counselling. Nigerian Journal of Counselling and

Development, 5, 1

Amoruwa, R.T. (2008) Reading Comprehension and Summary Writing for Tertiary

Institutions. Paraclete Publishers, Yola - Nigeria

Chika, J. O. (2009) An assessment of reading culture among students in Nigeria Tertiary

Institutions: A challenge to educational managers’ report Geographic code 6 NIGR

Accessed Dec.22.


Laarni V. Perez (2012) Kinds of Reading and Reading Techniques: Retrieved from

http://www.slideshare.net/GeraldinGarcia2?utm_campaign=profiletracking&utm_mediu

m=sssite&utm_source=ssslideview; Accessed September 2016

Day, R.R. & Bamford, J. (2002) "Top Ten Principles for Teaching Extensive Reading",

Reading in a Foreign Language, Vol.14, No. 2

http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl/October2002/day/day.html; Retrieved September 2016.

Doiron, R., & Asselin, M. (2011) Promoting a culture for reading in a diverse world. IFLA

Journal,37(2), 109-117. doi:10.1177/0340035211409847

Irvin, J.L. (1998) Reading and Middle School students. Strategies to enhance literacy.

Needham heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. p.37.

Keith Rayner; Barbara Foorman; Charles Perfetti; David Pesetsky & Mark Seidenberg

(November 2001). "How Psychological Science Informs the Teaching of Reading".

Psychological Science in the Public Interest.2 (2): 31–74

Long, Michael & Richards, J. (1987) Methodology in TESOL, Boston: Heinle & Heinle

Publishers.

Magara, E. (2005). Building family literacy skills among parents and children in developing

countries: A case for Uganda.1–14. A paper presented at the 71stIFLA General

Conference and Council, Oslo Norway.

Nssien F.U. (2007). Reading Habit and Skills in F.E and F.U. Nssien (eds.) Information

Literacy for Library Search, Uyo Abaam Publishing, pp. 90-105.

Ogwu, M. F. (2006). User education in college libraries. Ankpa: Cuca communications.

Olaofe, I. A. (2003). Building a reading culture in communities where literacy thrives.

Newark, declaware U.S.A: International reading Association.

Tompkins, G.E. (2011). Literacy in the early grades: A successful start for prek-4 readers

(3rd edition), Boston, Pearson. p 37

Sandars, M. (2007). Creating an optimum reading culture in the Low Countries: the role of

stitching Lezen: The National platform for the promotion of Reading in the Netherlands.

Amsterdam, Netherlands.

Sisulu, E. (2004). The culture of reading and the book chain: How do we achieve quintern

leap. Keynote Address at the symposium on cost of culture of reading in Pretoria.

Retrieved January 2016 from www.nlsa.ac.za.

Toit, C.M. (2001). The recreational reading habits of adolescent readers: A case study.

(Masters Dissertation, University of Pretoria, South Africa).


THE IMPACT OF GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEMS (G.P.S.) IN SURVEYING &

GEOINFORMATICS AND THE RELATED COMPETENCIES NEEDED BY SURVEYING

GRADUATES: A CASE STUDY OF SOME CONSTRUCTION COMPANIES IN YOLA,

ADAMAWA STATE)

By

Bashir A. G, Bakari Gidado & Dahiru Zakari M.

Department of Survey/Geo-Informatics

ABSTRACT

This descriptive study examines the impact that Global Positioning Systems (G.P.S.) has had

on the surveying industry. The study seeks to determine specific information on G.P.S. skills,

knowledge, and equipment presently being used in the surveying industry. The curriculum

from tertiary institutions in Nigeria that offer surveying programs will be presented. The study

will also examine surveyors' attitudes toward using G.P.S. along with competencies required

of surveying graduates who will be using this technology. Differences in competencies needed

or equipment used based on the size of the company will also be explored. The study involved

5 construction companies in the Adamawa state who received a questionnaire. The result

from the companies who completed and returned the questionnaire is presented along with a

summary of the data, conclusions, and recommendations for further study.

INTRODUCTION

The earlier history of land surveying dated back to the ancient Egyptians during the

building of the Great Pyramid at Giza in 2700 BC. There is evidence of the Egyptians using

basic geometry to redraw boundary lines when the Nile overflowed its banks.

The Romans were the next civilization to advance on the initial land surveying techniques

of the Egyptians. Historical evidence shows that the Roman Empire was the first civilization

to employ an official land surveyor within their Empire. They used simple tools to create

straight lines and angles. The land surveyors had a range of jobs in the Empire and some of

their work is still evident today.

As new technology and theories have become available, the techniques and methods used

in land surveying have evolved.

Hundreds of years ago land surveyors would use all sorts of means for measuring distances

– such as using chains with links that have a certain known length for example. Additionally,

land surveyors have to measure horizontal angles which in most cases was done using some

form of compass. The quality and accuracy of compasses have increased as time has gone

by.

In the past land surveying results were a lot less accurate – not due to the inabilities of the

land surveyors themselves – but due to the inaccuracy of the tools that they had access to.

These days land surveyors have access to much more accurate tools such as GPS (global

positioning systems).

G.P.S. (Global Positioning Systems) was initially developed by the Department of Defence

for use in the military (French, 1996; Van Sickle, 1996).


Surveying in Nigeria begins with the emergence of the Nigeria Institution of surveyor's as

one of the oldest organized professional Bodies in the country. It started in 1934 as the

“Licensed Surveyors Association” under the able leadership of the late Nationalist, Herbert

Macaulay, in 1960, the name was changed to the “Land Surveyors Association of Nigeria”

with the late Surv. C. T. Olumide as chairman. The current name “The Nigerian Institution

of Surveyors” was adopted at the Enugu Conference one of the States in Nigeria in 1966 with

the late Surv. C. T. Olumide elected as its first president, Late C. T. Olumide is honoured

every year by the Institution with a memorial lecture.

For this study to be successful various literatures were consulted as to how G.P.S. has

arrived at the forefront of today's surveying profession. The technological improvements

leading up to G.P.S. will be covered along with an overview of how this system works. The

chapter will conclude with a discussion on the educational institutions in Nigeria that offer

surveying programs and what their curriculum currently covers. A technological

improvement in surveying technology of today has surpassed equipment that was considered

standard as recently as 10 years ago. A major factor in this technological revolution occurred

during the mid to late 1980's with the invention of total stations. These devices revolutionized

land surveying the same way computers revolutionized the business world. Before the

introduction of total stations, surveyors used tools such as the transit, compass, plane table,

and steel tapes. All field data was recorded in field books and plotted by hand. The final

product was then hand drafted in ink back at the office. One can imagine the problems

associated with this system including lost data and the potential for making mistakes. For

example, earlier surveyors had to convert measured slope distances into true horizontal

distances. They did this by multiplying the slope distance by the cosine of the measured

vertical angle. If an angle or distance were entered wrong, errors would begin to propagate.

The total station, which is an electronic measuring device, significantly reduces the possibility

of human errors. A total station electronically measures both horizontal and vertical angles.

It also measures the slope distance and converts it into a true horizontal distance. These

measurements are stored in a data collector that can then be downloaded into computer-aided

drafting software. This software can then be used to convert the raw field data into a detailed

map. The amount of time saved and the quality of measured data has played a vital part in

the surveying industry (Luke, 1996).

Recently a few surveying firms have begun using the latest surveying technology to hit the

market. This technology, called G.P.S., is making the work of surveyors even more efficient.

G.P.S. enables surveyors to be in the field and take measurements alone. Due to the satellites,

there is no longer a need for two or more people to clear lines of sight (Luke, 1996).

The most recent improvement of G.P.S. is called real time kinetic. This advancement

allows surveyors who use a rover receiver and base station to obtain the coordinates and

elevations they need within a matter of seconds. Before this technology was available, data

was recorded and then imported into a computer to be calculated. Surveyors can now

accomplish more work in a single day because the information they need is right at their

fingertips (Luke, 1996).

How G.P.S. works someone who is not familiar with G.P.S. might be wondering how

satellites in the sky could possibly be used to survey points here on the ground. The specific

details behind how G.P.S. determines positions are beyond the scope of this study, however

some basic knowledge of how it works will be helpful. The global positioning system is a

configuration of 24 satellites that allow receivers to compute their exact position anywhere


on the earth with remarkable accuracy. The 24 orbiting satellites send signals to ground

receivers, which can be thought of as very accurate stop watches. The receiver measures the

difference between the time when the signal is received and the time it should have been sent.

This difference then allows the receiver to calculate the distance back to the sending satellite.

This distance is calculated by multiplying the time it takes the radio signal to travel from the

satellite to the receiver by the speed of the signal (the speed of light). Receivers need signals

from at least four different G.P.S. satellites in order to fix the user anywhere on earth (Nord

& Jabon, 1997). The timing involved with G.P.S. is the most crucial part of its operation.

The slightest error in the recording time of the signal can cause a significant amount of error.

For this reason, each satellite contains four atomic clocks that keep extremely accurate time

(Ferguson, 1997).

Advantages of using G.P.S.

It is unlikely that G.P.S. will completely replace conventional surveying methods. G.P.S.

will not function in locations with numerous overhead obstructions such as heavily forested

areas. For this reason, surveyors must still rely on their conventional instruments. G.P.S.

does however have many distinct advantages over conventional methods. G.P.S. saves time

and money on projects. A surveyor does not have to rely on a conventional monument system

that could have errors. Indivisibility between points is no longer required which eliminates

the need for clearing lines of sight. Most G.P.S. equipment can cover a five-mile radius

which greatly reduces the number of equipment set-ups. G.P.S. field data can be downloaded

directly into a computer, which reduces the chances for errors that are likely to occur with

manual input. G.P.S. works on a coordinate system of latitude and longitude. Due to this

fact, many calculations are eliminated which significantly reduces office time (Pipe Line and

Gas Industry, 1996).

G.P.S. can also function day or night and in any type of weather. One group that has

realized the benefits of using G.P.S. is the Salem County Landfill in southern New Jersey.

They used this system to survey the topography of their landfill. The results they obtained

were more accurate and economical than aerial photography which was used in the past. This

greater accuracy actually allowed the landfill to save $150,000 by delaying a $2 million

construction project. In fact, the landfill will cover their costs of converting to G.P.S. in just

one year. According to Pete de Wilde, executive director of the landfill, “We have the

information we need to plan reliably, and we're saving money…what else can you want?”

(Fralinger & Maxwell, 1997).

Many professional surveying firms and construction companies in the State have recently

invested in G.P.S. technology in other to improve accuracies of jobs. This technology is

fairly new to some surveyors as well as to graduates of surveying and Geoinfomatics

programs across the state.

Most surveying programs exposes students to different aspects of G.P.S., however, a study

has never been done to determine professional's perceptions of what graduates should know

about G.P.S. before being employed. Surveying graduates may not have adequate knowledge

and training about G.P.S. to meet the desired needs of surveying firms. A guide is needed to

determine how much knowledge of G.P.S. graduates should have to be successful in today's

workforce


To determine the impact of GPS in surveying and Geoinfomatics professionals with the view

to determine specific information on G.P.S. skills, knowledge, and equipment presently being

used in the construction industry as measured by the responses to a survey questionnaire.

Some surveyors are using G.P.S. and some are not. Surveying graduates will more than

likely be using G.P.S. sometime in their careers.

We sought for answers to the following:

i) How widely used is G.P.S. by surveying professionals in Adamawa state?

ii) Is there a relationship between using G.P.S. and company size?

iii) What are surveyor's perceptions of student preparedness regarding G.P.S.

competencies?

iv) What subject areas related to G.P.S. do surveyors feel are the most important for entry-

level employees to know?

v) What are surveyor's perceptions of student preparedness in subject areas related to G.P.S.?

Significance of the Study

a) The Nigerian institutions offering surveying programs might find this information useful

in updating their curriculum.

b) Professional organizations like SURCON would benefit from the data as they develop and

revise registration requirements.

II. Methodology:- Methods and Materials used

This study used descriptive research techniques involving the collection of data from

Surveyors in Yola the Adamawa State Capital. The study focuses on the impact of G.P.S.in

surveying and Geoinfomatics professional in Adamawa state that are needed by Nigerian

universities & Polytechnic graduates.

Selection of the Subjects

The subjects of this study where surveyors practicing in the state Construction firms were

obtained from the Ministry of Land & Survey. From the list obtains shows that only few

firms carrying out construction work in the state, this make the selection processes easier.

This process resulted in a final sample size of five (5) construction companies employing

surveyors they are:-

i. Triacter Engineering Co. Ltd

ii. Raycon Construction Co.

iii. Tec Engineering Construction Co.

iv PW Nig. Ltd

v. A.G Vision Nig. Ltd.


Instrumentation

A survey questionnaire was the instrument used to gather data and was developed by the

researcher of this study. The content validity was supported from 2 main sources: the contents

of a Plan Thesis titled “Survey of the occupational competencies needed for graduates of a

Bachelor of Science degree in land surveying as recommended by registered land surveyors

in the state of Wisconsin” (Van Goethem, 1992), and from the literature review done by the

researcher.

The survey questionnaire is divided into two sections. Section I begins by asking the

respondent what type of work they perform and how many people they employ. The survey

then asks if the respondent uses G.P.S. for land surveying. The firms that don't are asked to

give reasons why. This group is then instructed to stop at this point. The firms who answer

yes are to continue by answering further questions about G.P.S.

On January 15th 2016, the questionnaire was distributed out to the 5 randomly chosen

surveying firms where 145 persons were issued. This identifier was used by the researcher

to keep a record of which firms returned their questionnaire. Company names were never

attached to the questionnaire in order to ensure complete confidentiality.

The initial issuing of 145 surveys resulted in 100 being returned for a 69% rate of return.

A second mailing was not done due to time and money constraints.

Data analysis

The results from Section 1 (questions 1 through 10) was tabulated and shown. A brief

discussion will follow each table. For Section 2, the means and standard deviations for each

category will be computed and shown. A brief discussion will follow. The final question of

the survey contains comments from respondents.

Result presentation and data analysis

The purpose of this study was to determine the impact of G.P.S in surveying and

Geoinfomatics in Adamawa state with the view to determine the specific information on

G.P.S. skills, knowledge and equipment presently being used in the surveying industry. The

result of this study was presented below, Data are presented in the tables and analysed.

Summary of results

Urban boundary surveys the first survey question dealt with the main type of service that

was performed by each company. More than one response was common, therefore

percentages were not calculated, and only the number of actual responses was recorded.

Route surveys were the most common type of service performed, receiving 68 responses.

In the area of total number of employees, the category of 0-5 employees had the greatest

frequency, which accounted for 52% of the responses. The next largest category was 6-10

employees, which accounted for 22% of the responses.

Question 3 was designed to separate the firms that use G.P.S. from the firms that don't.

Findings show that 30% of the respondents do use G.P.S. equipment in performing survey

work while 70% do not. It is these 30% of the respondents that provided the information for


the remainder of the survey. The respondents who don't use G.P.S. were asked to give

reasons why.

The reasons for not using G.P.S. were explored in question 4. More than one response

was common; therefore, percentages were not calculated, and only the number of actual

responses was recorded. Cost of equipment was the most common reason for not using

G.P.S., receiving 52 responses.

Many additional comments were made regarding this question.

Comments from respondents:

For what it's worth – although we don't own, the expense-utilization ratio is high. We do

use each state generated data on a daily basis. It is important to know how this data is

generated and an understanding of errors. (Standard Errors)

The conventional total station can perform many tasks without the large outlay of money

for a G.P.S. system.

With a conventional two-person survey crew potentially charging the time of both

individuals with G.P.S., which is generally a one-person crew, the “billable time” is reduced

by half. Convincing owners differently that G.P.S. can make money by being able to do more

in a short amount of time. - 75% of our surveys are within the tree canopy. When trees are

no longer an obstacle, we will probably use G.P.S.

We made the decision recently to purchase a robotic total station rather than G.P.S. due

to our survey applications.

I only survey part-time and although the need is there on most projects, I can't justify the

cost.

I've resisted purchasing G.P.S. to this point, but expect that I will soon be making the

investment very soon – this year.

Use of equipment is limited to open areas.

Not enough reasons to justify cost and learning curve at this point.

Dense tree cover in my area does not make G.P.S. cost-effective on all surveys at this

time.

I expect that to change in the very near future.

Section corners are monument and coordinated in our area.

I am waiting for the technology to advance and the cost to decrease.

I only do lot and small farm surveys. If I were to do large scale mapping, I would use G.P.S.

The need is definitely there, however the equipment is too costly.

Question 5 asks the respondents who are using G.P.S. to provide the main reason why

they are using G.P.S. Operation in any type of weather is a very important advantage of

using G.P.S., however none of the respondents selected this as the main reason for using it.

Even though G.P.S. is capable of producing results in rain, snow, fog, etc., most surveyors

do not work in these conditions for extended periods of time. Saving time and money had the

highest percentage of responses with 73%. Accuracy of results accounted


For the remaining 27% of the responses. Percentages for the responses are shown in Table

5.

There were some additional comments from the respondents regarding this question.

Comments from respondents-

To keep up with current technology

Job specifications

Surveys over much greater distances are more quick and easy

To acquire data from widely spaced control points

Question 6 asks the respondent to indicate how long they have been using G.P.S. for

survey work. The category of 2-4 years received the highest percentage of responses 30

with 56%. None of the respondents have used G.P.S. for more than 12 years.

Question 7 deals with what type of work G.P.S. is being used for. More than one response

was common; therefore, percentages were not calculated, and only the numbers of actual

responses were recorded. A boundary survey was the most common response for this question

receiving 28 responses. Topographic surveying was the next highest category with 24

responses. In the category of other, 3 respondents indicated they use G.P.S. for re-

monumenting public survey corners. Additional responses included section summaries and

right-of-way plats.

Question 8 asks the respondent to indicate what type of G.P.S. system they are currently

using. More than one response was common; therefore, percentages were not calculated,

only the number of actual responses was recorded. Real-time was the most common response

for this question receiving 22 responses. Static was the next highest category with 13

responses. Table 8 shows a summary of the responses for this question.

Question 9 asks the respondent to indicate how G.P.S. has affected their productivity.

Increased productivity was reported by 83% of the respondents, while 17% felt there was no

change in their productivity by using G.P.S. None of the respondents indicated that G.P.S.

decreased their productivity. The responses for this question are shown in Table 9.

Question 10 allowed the respondent to indicate why company provided training was

needed by entry-level surveyors. More than one response was common; therefore,

percentages were not calculated, and only the numbers of actual responses were recorded.

Two of the respondents felt that G.P.S. training was not necessary for their entry-level

surveyors. The most commonly cited reason for providing training, receiving responses, was

to upgrade skills associated with changing technology since graduation. The remaining

responses are summarized in Table 10.

The need is definitely there, however the equipment is too costly.

Section 2 of the questionnaire allowed the respondents to rate the importance of several

competencies and subject areas that are related to G.P.S. They were also required to rate the

extent to which new employees have been adequately prepared in these competencies and

subject areas prior to employment.

Under the importance column of competencies, levelling over a point received the highest

rating of 2.80. Three competencies were tied for second with a mean of 2.77.


They operated as G.P.S. data collector, set up a base station, and operate a rover receiver.

Under the preparation column, levelling over a point again received the highest rating of

2.32. Being able to measure antennae height received the next highest rating of 2.16. A

complete list of the means and standard deviations for each competency is listed in Table 11.

Under the importance column of education, understanding accuracy received the highest

rating of 2.87. Limitations of G.P.S. received the next highest rating of under the preparation

column; G.P.S. principles of operation received the highest rating of 2.00. Understanding

accuracy came in second with a rating of 1.84. A complete list of the means and standard

deviations for each subject area is listed in Table 12.

Question 11 was the final question on the survey. It was an open-ended question that

allowed the respondent to suggest improvements that would make G.P.S. better. The

following is a list of the responses.

Comments from respondents- - smaller, cheaper, more satellites, and a better radio link

- On real-time make it easier to perform calculations - lighter, no cables, operate with

accuracy in cover better

- More user-friendly software and affordable training by suppliers - software for multipath

- Better vertical control stations; less expensive

- Educate the younger generation to the fact that G.P.S. is not a fix all. We are using an

imperfect system and G.P.S. shouldn't be used to perfect it. People think it makes

“professionals” out of mere technicians. – NO

- Station offsets, staking calculations, on board COGO, P2 information manipulation,

Improvement of connectivity issues - regional base stations some additional comparisons were

made from the results of this study. The results are presented in the following tables:

For the firms that perform construction surveying, 72.5% do not use G.P.S. compared to

27.5% who do. It should also be noted that many firms did select more than one type of

service, (i.e. a firm that used G.P.S. might have performed both rural and urban boundary

surveys). The results for the other types of services are shown in

For the companies that had 0-5 employees, 15.4% of them did use G.P.S. in performing

survey work while 84.6% did not. The results for the remaining categories as shown from

the findings.

Many firms indicated that they perform more than one type of service, therefore percentages

were not calculated. The actual number of responses was the only data tabulated. For the

firms using static systems, 6 performed construction surveys, 11 performed rural surveys and

5 performed urban surveys. A summary of results for the other systems as shown.

Many firms indicated that they perform more than one type of service, therefore

percentages were not calculated. The actual number of responses was the only data tabulated.

For the firms indicating their productivity increased, 9 performed construction surveys, 19

performed rural surveys and 8 performed urban surveys. A summary of results for the

remaining categories are shown in Table 16


Summary

This section provides a brief overview of the study. It contains a restatement of the

problem as well as the methods and procedures that were used in the collection of data.

Additional findings

- A comparison was made to determine if the type of work a firm performed had any impact

on whether or not they would use G.P.S. Based on the percentages of responses, there was

no significant relationship between using G.P.S. and the type of work performed.

- A comparison was also made between the type of work performed and the type of G.P.S.

system being used. Based on the number of responses, the firms performing rural boundary

surveys were more likely to use either static or real-time G.P.S. than firms performing

construction staking or urban boundary surveys. Urban boundary surveys and construction

staking usually don't require lengthy traverses. Rural surveys, however, often involve

traversing the entire boundary of a section. Section corners are sometimes not inter-visible

due to obstructions such as trees, hills, etc. For this reason, it is very practical to use G.P.S.

for rural boundary surveys. The small number of responses for G.I.S. and hand-held systems

did not prove to be significant in this study. - The researcher wished to determine if G.P.S.'s

effects on productivity was related to the type of service performed. Based on the number of

responses, firms performing rural boundary surveys were much more likely to see an increase

in productivity. The researcher believes that using G.P.S. in rural areas eliminates the need

for lengthy traverses within a section. G.P.S. will definitely increase productivity by

decreasing the time it takes to conventionally traverse an entire section.

- The firms not using G.P.S. have indicated that cost of equipment and lack of need are the

two main reasons they have resisted purchasing the equipment. Many respondents simply do

not have the financial resources required to purchase G.P.S. equipment. Others have

indicated that a majority of their work is in dense tree cover where G.P.S. would not be able

to function. Many firms feel there is a lack of need for using G.P.S. because today's

conventional instruments can perform many tasks for a fraction of the cost required to

purchase G.P.S. Lack of technical knowledge was not a critical factor in deciding to purchase

G.P.S.

Conclusions

This study used descriptive research techniques involving the collection of data from

surveyors in the Adamawa state. The study focused on the competencies related to G.P.S.

that are needed by Adamawa state surveying graduates. The subjects of this study were

surveyors practicing in the state. From this list, five (5) surveying firms were randomly

selected.

A survey questionnaire was adopted and modified by the researcher of this study as the

instrument to gather data. The survey questionnaire was divided into two sections. Section

one contained a broad range of basic questions, while Section two required the respondent to

rate both the competencies and subject areas that are related to G.P.S. The survey concludes

by allowing the respondent to offer suggestions on how to improve the use of G.P.S. among

surveying graduates in Adamawa State.

The remaining subjects all received ratings of less than 2.00, a reason for this lack of

Preparation may be due to the fact that some schools do not provide courses solely on G.P.S.


G.P.S. is sometimes covered as a unit in other courses such as Basic principle in surveying

and Instrumentation in surveying. It is the researcher's belief that courses, focusing solely on

G.P.S., are needed to adequately expose students to the main subject areas of G.P.S.

Recommendations

The researcher of this study has developed a list of recommendations that would be helpful

for anyone who wishes to do further research on this topic. The recommendations are broken

down into two categories; recommendations related to this study, and recommendations for

further study.

Recommendations related to this study:

1. Results of this study should be distributed to the universities and technical colleges in

Adamawa state that offer programs in surveying and Geoinformatics.

2. The results of this study should be used as a guide to revise and update future curriculum

in land surveying programs.

3. Question number one of the survey should be modified. “Check only one” should be

inserted at the end of the question. Having only one answer for this question would make

it possible to compute percentages when making comparisons during the data analysis

phase of the study.

4. An additional question should be added asking the respondent to indicate what geographic

area of the state they work in. This would be useful in determining if G.P.S. is more

widely used in open vs. forested areas.

Recommendations for further Study:

1.) It is recommended that similar studies related to this one be done in other states that offer

surveying degrees. Surveyors in other states may have different opinions on what should

be taught about G.P.S.

2.) Duplicate this study in several years to determine if G.P.S. technology as well as

surveyor's perceptions regarding it has changed.


Tables

Table 1: Main type of company service

Types of service Number

Construction surveying co. 5

Rural boundary 68

Urban boundary 45

Table 2: Total number of company employees

of Employees Number Percentage %

0 – 5 52 52%

6 – 10 22 22%

11 – 20 12 12%

21 – 40 5 5%

>40 9 9%

Total 100 100%

Table 3: G.P.S. use among survey firms

Use Number Percentage %

Yes 30 30%

No 70 70%

Total 100 100%

Table 4: Reasons for not using G.P.S

Reason Number

Cost of equipment 52

Lack of technical knowledge 7

Lack of need 45

Table 5: Main reason for using G.P.S

Reason Number Percentage %

Accuracy of result 8 8%

Operation in any type of

whether

0 0%

Saves time & money 22 73

Total 30 100%


Table 6: Number of years using G.P.S

Years Number Percentage %

0 – 1 5 17%

2 – 4 17 56%

5 – 8 6 20%

9 – 12 2 7%

>12 0 30

TOTAL 30 100%

Table 7: Types of work G.P.S is used for

Type of work Number

Topographic surveying 24

Boundary surveys 28

Geodetic surveying 17

Photogrammetry surveying 17

GIS 7

Tale 8: Type of system currently being used

Type of system Number

Static 13

Real time 22

GIS 2

Hand held 1

Tale 9: How G.P.S has affected productivity

Productivity Change Number

Increased 25 83%

Decreased 0 0%

No change 5 17%

Total 30 100%

Table 10: Reason for company provided training

Reason 25

Change in technology

since graduation

14

Providing skill in

supporting technical area

15

Deficiencies in

undergraduate education

9

Not necessary 2


Table 11 Competencies: importance and Preparation

Importance Preparation

Competency Mean S.D Mean S.D

Measure antennae height 2.63 0.61 2.16 0.80

Prepare & interpret station descriptions 2.37 0.67 2.08 0.70

Use post-processing software 2.40 0.72 1.61 0.64

Interpret ephemeris information 2.17 0.65 1.68 0.63

Operate a G.P.S data collector 2.77 0.57 1.88 0.67

Set up a base station 2.77 0.50 1.72 0.68

Operate a rover receiver 2.77 0.50 21.72 0.68

Operate a rover receiver 2.77 0.43 1.72 0.74

Levelling over a point 2.80 0.48 2.32 0.75

Table 12 Education: Importance and preparation

Subject area Mean S.D Mean S.D

Geodesy 1.97 0.56 1.58 0.58

Conversion of coordinate systems 2.70 0.47 1.80 0.65

Post-processing of raw data 2.43 0.68 1.56 0.65

G.P.S principles of operation 2.57 0.57 2.00 0.65

Limitations of G.P.S. 2.77 0.43 1.72 0.74

Understanding accuracy 2.87 0.35 1.84 0.69

Table 13 G.P.S use based on type of service provided.

Use G.P.S.

Type of Service Yes No Total

Construction surveying 11 (27.5%) 29 (72.5%) 40 (100%)

Rural boundary surveys 24 (35.3%) 44 (64.7%) 68 (100%)

Urban boundary surveys 10 (22.2%) 44 (64.7%) 68 (100%)

Table 14 G.P.S use based on company size

Use G.P.S

Number of employees Yes No Total

0 – 5 8 (15.4%) 44 (84.6%) 52 (100%)

6 – 10 10 (45.5%) 12 (54.5%) 22 (100%)

11 – 20 4 (33.3%) 8(66.7%) 12 (100%)

21 – 40 2 (40.0%) 3 (60.0%) 5 (100%)

>40 6 (66.7%) 3 (33.3) 9 (100%)

Table 15: G.P.S System used based on type of service performed

Type of service

Type of System Construction Rural Urban Total

Static 6 11 5 22

Real-Time 9 17 7 33

GIS 1 1 1 3

Hand-held 0 1 0 1


Table 16: G.P.S’s effect on productivity based on type of service performed

Type of Service

Productivity Change Construction Rural Urban Total

Increased 9 19 8 36

Decreased 0 0 0 0

No Change 2 5 2 9

REFERENCES

Applying GPS surveying to long–distance on–shore line. (1996). Pipe Line & Gas Industry,

79 (6), 43-44. 36), 30-32. Ferguson, M. (1997). G.P.S. land navigation. Boise:

Glassford.

Fralinger, C.M., & Maxwell, J.P. (1997). Mapping with a differential. Civil Engineering,

67 (4), 50.

French, G.T. (1996). Understanding the G.P.S.: An introduction to the global positioning

System. What it is and how it works. Bethesda: Geo Research, Inc.

Luke, J. (1996). Surveying technology takes to the heavens. Denver Business Journal, 48

(7), Van Goethem, 1992. Thesis for B.SC Surveying, survey of the occupational

competencies Needed in the state of Wisconsin.

Mangione, T.W. (1995). Mail surveys: Improving the quality. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Publications, Inc.

Nord, G.D., & Jabon, D. (1997). The mathematics of the global positioning. Mathematics

Teacher, 90 (6), 455.

Van Sickle, (1996) G.P.S. Developed by U.S. Department of Defence.


MINORITY QUESTION IN NIGERIA: TYPES OF MINORITY AND THE ECONOMY; FORMS OF

INCLUSION/ORGANISING METHODS

By

Veno M. Yongo

Department of International Relations & Strategic Studies

ABSTRACT

The hue and cry of marginalization coming from all sections, sexes and other types of minority

has reached the crescendo in Nigeria. It is now even more confusing in knowing who is truly

a minority or the actual definition of a minority. This work therefore, examines the minority

question in Nigeria, the types of minority and the economy, the form of inclusion/organizing

methods, thereby clearly exposing the intricate and issues of minority question in Nigeria.

The paper concludes that, it is possible to eliminating the problems of inequitable distribution

of rewards and others that has been the bent of minorities in Nigeria. The paper ended with

so many recommendations, one of which is for the minority groups to use their positions to

bring about development in their areas.

INTRODUCTION

The Minority question all over the world and especially in Nigeria has become a festering

sore. Clearly, it is now one of the most pressing, contending and vexed issues in the

contemporary Nigerian Political Economy. This is essentially so because, the minority groups

put together are by implication the majority in terms of number, that are deliberately being

neglected in almost all areas of human endeavours by the federal government that has been

dominated over the years by major ethnic groups: Hausa/Fulani, Yoruba and Igbo in their

order of importance as the case may be in Nigeria before the administration that occurred,

that brought about the child of circumstance, that a minority took over the helm of affairs in

the country, though the situation under him remained in disguise as the circumstantial child

was controlled and moulded by the same majority, who continually even today determines

who becomes what, when and how.

The minority question arises in a country like ours when the general welfare of the

constituent members in general must be assured (Eteng, 1997). As (Awa 1976:1) noted “for

only in these terms, it is possible to objectively evaluate the relevance of a federal

arrangement for all the citizens.” But we must note that, the question of minority oppression

and suppression by the majority ethnic groups in the operation of Nigeria is not new.

Naturally and equally not new too, are the demands for redress by the minority groups. The

earliest minority question noted in history was essentially directed against the regional

governments then, which manifested in the demands for the creation of separate regions and

states. The idea was to allow ethnic minority groups within the regions to have their own

self- autonomy. Prominent amongst these agitations were the bloody Tiv riots of 1959/1960

in the North, the demand for the creation of a Calabar-Ogoja-Rivers state from the former

Eastern region and the demand for the creation of the Mid-West region out of the old Western

region.

The tempo and the intensity as well as the focus of the minority agitations have increased

and changed after the attainment of political independence in October, 1960. These agitations

have taken new dimensions to asking for political, social and especially economic


emancipation. The reason being that, the major ethnic groups have seized completely the

state machinery in defiance to the principle of federalism and also to the disadvantage of the

minority groups that constituted the larger number in the federation put together.

Minority Questions in Nigeria

Minority question all over the world is associated with general socio-economic

development. This is even more relevant to the developing countries where aspirations and

agitations for rapid socio-economic development are often tied to ethnic identities. Since the

colonial period, the minority question in Nigeria has been a recurring issue which has

generated series of crises in Nigeria. Different Nigerian Peoples have all along attempted to

hinge their developmental goals on ethnic affiliation although, the dominant ethnic groups-

the majority notably, Hausa/Fulani, Yoruba and Igbo have derived much from this approach

to development leaving the minority to wallow in penury.

Thus, the ensuing agitation has in the past years to now reveal the displeasure of minority

groups in Nigerian and this has raised the level of group consciousness and identity especially

in relation to the assumed role of the dominant majority groups in the affairs of the country.

This has led to the issue of meeting or satisfying individual or group interest, which have of

cause brought about communal clashes with unprecedented consequences in so many states

in Nigeria and is today threatening the corporate existence of Nigeria as one nation. This

therefore, depicts the importance of the topic in question as minority question in Nigeria, if

not tackle and redress with caution, is likely to be the number one source of disintegration of

Nigeria as a nation.

The paper is therefore; aim at exposing the minority question and types of minorities,

minorities and the economy, their forms of inclusion/organizing methods especially in

Nigeria. This is to exposing generally the minority question, their potential threat to the

corporate existence of Nigeria as a nation especially because of the continuous economic

marginalization of the minorities in all facets and possibly proffers recommendations towards

redressing the issues involved to avoiding the dire consequences.

Thus, the paper aims to see the possibility of achieving the following:

i. That minority question in terms of economic discrimination and subordination is redress.

ii. Those physical or cultural traits that set the minority apart, and which are disapproved by

the dominant ethnic groups are discouraged towards economic and social equality.

iii. That the shared sense of collective identity and common burdens harboured amongst the

minority groups are defuse for proper integration of all Nigerians as equal in all aspects

of life.

iv. That the socially shared rules about who belongs and who does not determine minority

status be discourage towards national unification.

v. That the tendencies to marry and relate within the minority groups be discourage and

avenues open for general integration of all peoples in Nigeria.


Types of Minority and the Economy

This section of the paper deals with issues that have to do with all types of minority groups,

which ranges from racial minority groups, ethnic minority groups, gender minority groups,

to religions minority groups generally, but with particular reference to Nigeria.

The minority groups covered by this paper are as follows:

a. Racial minority group: These are groups who are classified according to obvious physical

characteristics like skin colour which affect their transactions generally with other

dominant ethnic groups where they interact in economic and other aspects of life.

Examples are the US racial minority groups like Blacks American, Indians, non-indigene

syndrome in Nigeria etc.

b. Ethnic minority groups: these are groups who are differentiated on the basis of culture

such as language, food and other variables. Examples are US ethnic minority groups like

Latinos such as Chicanos etc and especially ethnic Minority crises in most Nigerian States.

c. Gender minority group: Males are a socially majority; women demonstrate four out of the

five basic characteristics of minority status. So, women are considered a minority in all

aspects of life the world over and Nigeria in particular.

d. Religious minority group: these are groups who have a religion other than the dominant

faith like US religious minorities such as Muslims and others (Wikipedia, 2013); Also, a

major issue in most Nigerian states.

Therefore, the issues to be covered generally in this paper as the scope are the issues that

characterized all minority groups which are as follows:

i. The issue of distinguishing physical or cultural traits e.g. skin colour or language.

ii. The issue of unequal treatment and less power over the lives of the minorities.

iii. The issues of involuntary membership in the minority group, that is of (no personal

choice).

iv. The issues of awareness of subordination and strong sense of group solidarity and

v. The issues of high in-group marriage and relationship generally amongst the minorities

In Nigeria, our case study, most minority groups economic and other socio-political problems

can be traced to ethnicity. Minority and ethnicity are very important factors in the

determination of who gets what, when and how in the Nigerian political arrangement. This

is because of the dominance of the three major ethnic groups of Hausa/Fulani, Yoruba and

the Igbo of the Nigerian Federal system. Minority and ethnicity concepts therefore, represent

the opposite sides of the same coin as the two appear inseparable.

Ethnicity is a natural phenomenon, which makes people to be more loyal and attached to

the sentiments of their primordial sub-cultural group than to the nation (Peers, 2004). The

manifestation of ethnicity is evident where political decision and exercise of government

authority deliberately favour members of some cultural groups at the expense of others.

Ethnicity may thus, be defined as the contextual discrimination by members of one group

against others on the basis differentiated systems of socio-cultural symbols (Otite 1975). This

definition is most appropriate for our purpose because it has the advantage of combining the

two important aspects of the concept.


The two pertinent aspects are its static and objective structural properties on the one hand

and its dynamic and analytic sense on the other (Otite 1975). The four basic elements

according to Kasfir (1976:44) that can be extracted from the two senses embedded in the

definition are:

a. Certain objective characteristics associated with common ancestry such as language,

territory, cultural practice and the likes (in some cases newly created or recently

standardized).

b. Which are perceived by both insiders and outsiders as important indicators of identity,

c. So, they became the bases for mobilizing social solidarity and

d. Which in certain situations result in political activity.

All these attributes are common to both ethnic majority and ethnic minority groups.

Therefore, ethnic majority and ethnic minority groups are discernible within the framework

of ethnicity defined as “social formations distinguished by the communal character of their

boundaries” in terms of language and culture or both, with language constituting the most

crucial variable in Africa (Shepherd Jr. 1987:35-39). We must add, however, that these

groups are not necessarily linguistically or culturally homogenous. This is because

occupational and class differentiation exists within an ethnic group. This differentiation is a

function of the level of production, development of productive forces, the extent of the

prevailing division of labour and the growth and differentiation of cultural forms within the

group (Eteng 1996). Ethnocentrism is the negative evaluation of and response to other

people's culture in which the ethnocentric culture is always considered superior.

Ethnocentrism is thus, attitudinal in form and perceptual in content. It therefore, represents

the subjective dimension of ethnicity, which subsumes ethnocentrism. On the other hand,

Nnoli (1978) believes it is behavioural in form and convective in content. Ethnicity is real; it

is not an imaginary phenomenon because it captures the various forms of consensual and

conflictual relationships between ethnic groups. It is obvious today in Nigeria that the ethnic

Minority groups exist in antagonistic relations to the ethnic majorities. The nature of their

conflictual relationship in the context of our federal system of government has been

consistently outright cheating, marginalization especially on economic spheres and

underdevelopment being perpetrated by the dominant majority groups. Thus, the concept of

the minority groups as the key phrase of our paper needs to be analytically clarified.

Minority is a culturally, ethnically or racially distinct group that coexists with, but is

subordinate to a more dominant group (Smihula 2009). As the term is used in the social

sciences, this subordinancy is the key chief defining characteristic of a minority group as

such; minority status does not necessarily correlate to population. In some cases, one or more

so-called minority group may have a population many times the size of the dominating group,

as was the case in South Africa under apartheid.

Thus, sociologist Louis Wirth defined a minority group as “a group of people who,

because of their physical or cultural characteristics are single out from the others in the society

in which they live for differential and unequal treatment, and who therefore, regard

themselves as objects of collective discrimination” (Wirth 1945: 347). This definition

includes both objective and subjective criteria: membership of a minority group is objectively

ascribed by society, based on an individual's physical or behavioural characteristics; it is also

subjectively applied by its members, who may use their status as the bases of group identity

or solidarity. In any case, minority group status is categorical in nature. An individual who


exhibits the physical or behavioural characteristics of a given minority group will be accorded

the status of the group and be subject to the same treatment as other members of that group.

Clearly by the above definition, Wirth places the minority groups in opposition to the majority

group. Valien (1964) expresses the view that the term minority group sometimes just referred

to as minority as applied to an ethnic group, racial or religious group. He contends that, the

term ethnic group is utilized when invidious distinctions are not intended, while the minority

group connotes such invidious distinctions. He however, agrees that both terms, nonetheless,

underscores physical, religious, racial and other cultural features of a designated group which

distinguish them from other dominant ethnic group in the society. It has not been easy to

know the appropriate basic features to be applied to designate the minority status of a given

group. This is because almost all common variables used in identifying any minority group

usually throw up uncertainty as to their exact meaning and functions. However, the following

characteristics are often identified with a minority group. They include statistical or numerical

size, socio-economic and political power distribution, homogeneous physical and cultural

traits and differentiated treatment or status. To these, can be added agitations and incessant

calls for redress. In a fundamental sense, therefore, minority specifically implies low status

in a social power relationship between a dominant power group and a dominated group.

Although, Rose et al (1948) consider any purely statistical definition of the term

unacceptable, they however, places emphasis on the opposition between the dominant and

minority groups. Therefore, in their opinion, the more fact of being generally hated and being

hated because of religious, racial or national background is simply what defines a minority

group.

One theme though, that runs through all the definitions is the placing of the minority group

in opposition to the majority group. This is because of the powerlessness and the low social

status of the minority group made even worse by the overbearing attitude of the dominant

groups especially in the Nigeria federal system. Based on this, we accept the definition of

minority group given by Eteng (1996) as our operational definition. According to him, a

minority group is regarded as:

(a) A social category, a collectivity, a social class, large or small,

(b) Which exists within a socio-culture,

(c) Whose members are distinguished from the majority or dominant group in power,

(d) On the basis of inherent or contrived homogeneous physical/biological, national,

racial, cultural and social characteristics,

(e) And are, therefore, hated and consciously and deliberately excluded socially,

physically and sometimes legally from participating in the social, economic, political

economy or some sections of the larger society,

(f) On account of which, they are self-conscious of their minority status and hence often

excluded themselves from the mainstream culture;

(g) A minority group is thus, almost always embroiled in a discriminatory, unequal and

clientelistic power relationship with the dominant majority group in which they often

consequently assume a subordinate status as the exploited, expropriated,

disempowered, isolated, marginalized and targeted (Eteng 1996:119). This definition

properly situates our topic; what follows now is the examination of the forms of

inclusion/organizing methods.


Forms of Inclusion/Organizing Methods

The discussion here explores the main issues that involve the minorities in general; it assumes

that all minorities share certain characteristics. It does not matter whether we are talking

about the relationship between the Protestants and the Catholics in the Northern Ireland, the

relationship between the Chinese and the Muslims in Malaysia or the general mutual ethnic

and religious distrust in Nigeria, economic inequality is the major common characteristics of

the minority group. Many civil rights leaders have ultimately come to embrace economic

injustice as the crucial issue of human existence (Steiner, 1996). Some examples will give us

more understanding here: Jesse Jackson was asked at the Democratic National convention in

August 1988 “What is the fundamental challenge of our day? “He answered his own question

by saying “To end economic violence”. Malcolm X, a spokesman for Afro-American causes

during the early 1960s, began his political career with absolute hatred for white people. He

had good grounds to do so base on the discrimination he experienced during his early life.

Ultimately, however, Malcolm X came to embrace economic issues as more significant than

race issues. After a trip to Mecca, where he discovered white praying to his god, he came

back to the United States proclaiming a new philosophy. To Martin Luther king, many have

forgotten the issues important to king's movement after his “I have a dream”. That speech

was given in 1963. King died in 1968 and much occurred between those two dates. General

economic inequality of the oppressed was recognized (Britannica.com, 2012). In Nigeria,

from the Biafara movement, the late Ken Saro-Wiwa struggle, the Niger Delta Militants, the

Middle Belt movement, the South-West internal struggles, the single most important variable

underlying all these movements is economic emancipation (Saliu(ed), 1999). Some have even

argued that, the emergence of Boko-Haram insurgency in North-East Nigeria may be link to

poverty and by extension the issue of economic emancipation. Most of the various ethnic

crises and other crisis coloured by religion are actually crisis of economic marginalization.

Almost all the so-called political crisis, the various Fulani/Farmers clashes all over Nigeria,

the recent Ombatse phenomenon in Nasarawa State are all economic crisis. So whether you

are talking about racial minority group- the cry and all the struggles are directed at economic

emancipation, if is ethnic minority group, is still economic, if is religion, the economic

aspects takes pre-eminence and the gender minority groups, is still economy as the major

goal is economic emancipation of women for instance, the UN Affirmative Action, the

Beijing 1995, the 35% Affirmative Action of the last administration etc.; all justifies the

economic sense in almost every minority struggle in Nigeria (Ovwase, 1999).

In line with above, many governments prefer to assure the people they rule all belong to

the same nationality rather than separate ones based on ethnicity. The United States asks for

race and ethnicity on its official census forms, with this breaks up and organizes its population

into different sub-groups, but primarily on racial origin rather than national one. Spain does

not divide its nationals by ethnic group, although it does maintain an official notion of

minority languages. Nigeria uses ethnic groupings in almost every official transaction and

this has further divided the country into minority and majority group (Ige, 1999).

Therefore, as the minority groups are socially separated or segregated from the dominant

forces of a society, members of minority groups usually are cut off from a full involvement

in the workings of the society and from an unequal share in the society's rewards. Thus, the

role of minority groups varies from society to society depending on the structure of the social

system and the relative power of the minority group (Wheatley, 2003). For instance, the

degree of social mobility of a member of a minority group depends on whether the society in

which he lives is a closed or opened one. A closed society is one in which an individual's


role and functions can theoretically never be changed, as in the traditional Hindu Caste

system. An open society, on other hand, allows the individual to change his role and to benefit

from corresponding changes in status unlike a closed society, which stresses hierarchical

cooperation between social groups, an open system permits different social groups to vie for

the same resources, so their relation is competitive. In an open society, the rank that the

individual attains for himself is more important than the ranking of his social group.

So, in the prevalent atmosphere of minority group consciousness and the struggle for

political power which is invariably economic power among the majority groups, the less

numerous language groups are inevitably been drawn into minority politics. Again, the

increasing solidarity of each majority group behind a political party and the emphasis placed

by Nigerian politics on the pursuit of ethnic interest, has raise the fears among the leaders of

the minority groups concerning neglect and domination by the leaders of the majority groups.

They perceived their opportunities for political leadership, contract, senior positions in the

public service, and loans for business activities threatened by the tendency of the major

political parties dominated by major ethnic groups in government to secure these for the

members of their classes from the majority groups. By leading minority group agitations

against government status, these leaders hope to carve out a place in the Nigeria political sun

for themselves (Nnoli 1978).

Major Findings

The major findings of this research are as follows:

a. Those resources could take the form of property, money, position, or organization and so

majority groups benefit from the existence of minority. From the stand point of the general

public, minorities provide scapegoat. Deviantising minorities takes people out of

competition for jobs, housing and education. From the point of view of the majority group,

minorities represent group where more profit can be extracted.

b. That most people accept the structural and cultural pattern in the society and see little

reason to change them. It takes a long time for social patterns to develop. Those patterns

seem functional, especially to those who benefit from their existence. Therefore, those

who benefit are more resistant to change. Remember the idea of the “Tyranny of

majority”. Most of the population is willing to let a minority of people suffer high rate of

unemployment and poverty.

c. That change means that those with resources will have to pay high taxes as well as give

up existing advantages. Majority groups will not accept a change in the status quo.

d. That the dominant groups always develop a set of values and beliefs which justify existing

inequality. The justification is an attempt to rationalize the inequality. Once established,

ideology become an integral part of social structure and is therefore, difficult to change.

e. The research also found that women lack power relative to men, they do not hold high

position relative to men because they have fewer resources. They lack privilege and

prestige relative to men and so they are gradually developing a consciousness of

themselves as a separate category of people with a common interest. That they are

beginning to work together to achieve common goals.

f. On women again, the research found that:


(a) Women generally have better education than other minorities, yet in what they are able to

achieve with that education, they are similar to other minorities. In fact, when education is

held equal women suffer more than racial and ethnic minorities.

(b) Women are actually a numerical majority (in USA and Nigeria) which gives them

resources that other minorities do not have. Women can vote collectively; yet women face

the same problems of organization and unity that other minorities face.

Thus, the paper has been able to group all the major findings under two major reasons for

the predicament of the minority groups, namely, economic marginalization and ethnic

marginalization both of which have been making the minority groups powerless in their

various locations in the country. It was discovered that, it is the firm belief of these minority

groups that the socio-economic neglect of them and their areas is due largely to their minority

position.

Conclusion/Recommendations

This work has tried to examine the issue of minority question with particular reference to

Nigeria. It has taken all the issues on the minorities, type of minorities, minorities and the

economy, forms of inclusion/organizing methods. Thus, the recommendations below among

others have the potential of eliminating the problems of inequitable distribution of rewards

and others which have been the keenly contested issues in the five decades of the existence

of the Federal Republic of Nigeria as an independent country.

The following are some of the recommendations proffer for the research:

i. That a national dialogue be conducted. The dialogue should be constituted in such a manner

that all shades of opinions affecting the minority question in the country are adequately

and properly discussed and addressed. As such, membership of such a national dialogue

should be by election. This national dialogue as recommended should be convened by the

present democratic government that is in place.

ii. Government should put a policy in place that would guarantee even development and

distribution of rewards. Such a policy if implemented is capable of resolving the minority

question in Nigeria.

iii. There should be a periodic legislative or executive review of the minority question in

Nigeria.

iv. It is recommended that a commission for the minority be established to adequately take

care of all minorities problems that are plaguing the country such a commission should be

made more effective in its performance than any other commission as minority question is

one of the greatest problems of this country.

v. Finally, minority group should use their minority positions to bring development to their

areas. This can be achieved by looking inward rather than looking unto government which

seems not to have a policy to save them from economic and political marginalization.

REFERENCES

Awa, E.O. (1974) Issues in Federalism, Benin City – Nigeria Ethiope Publishing

Corporation.


Eteng, L.A. (1996) “Minority Rights under Nigeria Federal Structure” Proceedings of the

Conference on Constitutions and Federalism, Held at the University of Lagos, Nigeria,

23-25 April, pp 111-168.

Ige, J. (1999) “State Creation and the Minority Question in Nigeria” In Saliu, H.A. (ed):

Issues in contemporary Political Economy of Nigeria. Ilorin, Nigeria, Sally and associates.

Kasfir, N. (1976), The Shrinking Political Arena, Participation and Ethnicity in African

Politics with a Case Study of Uganda. California University of California Press.

Nnoli, O. (1978), Ethnic Politics in Nigeria. Enugu- Nigeria. Fourth Dimension Publisher.

Otite; (1975), Cited in Ovwasa, L. (1999). Rose, A.M. and C.B. Cited in Eteng, I.A. (1996)

http://en.wikipedea.org/wiki/Minority_group (March, 2013)

Http://www.britannica.com/EB checked/topic/384500/Minority (April 2012)

Ovwase, L (1999),” Oil and the Minority Question in Nigeria”.In Saliu, H.A. (ed): Issues

in Contemporary Political Economy of Nigeria. Ilorin, Nigeria, Sally and Associates.

Peers, S. (2004), “New Minorities: What status for Third World Country Nationals in the

EU System”? In Toggenburg, G.N. (ed): Minority Protection and the Enlarge European

Union: The Way Forward. Osi, Budapest.

Saliu, H.A. (1999) (ed); Issues in Contemporary Political Economy of Nigeria. Ilorin

Nigeria, Sally and Associates.

ShepherdJr, G.W. (1987) “African People’s Rights. The Third Generation in a Global

perspective” In Shepherd Jr. G.W (Series Editor) Emerging Human Rights. New York,

Green World Press, PP. 39-54.

Smihula, D (2008), “Definition of National Minorities in International Law” In Journal of

US – China Public Administration, Vol.6, No.5 October, 2009, pp.45-51.

Steiner, H.J. and Also, P. (1996), International Human Rights in Context. Law, Politics,

Morals. Clarendon Press Oxford

Valien, P. (1964), “Minority: Minority Groups” In Goud, J and Kold, W (1994), A

Dictionary of Social Sciences Tavistock Publications. pp. 432-433.

Wheatley, M. (2003), Deliberate Democracy and Minorities European Journal of

International Law, Vol. 14, No. 3, PP 507-527

Wirth, L. (1945) “The Problem of Minority Groups” In Linton, R (ed): The Sciences of

Man in the World Crisis. New York Colombia University Press.


THE IMPACT OF LARGE CLASS SIZE ON THE EFFECTIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

ENGLISH LANGUAGE COURSES IN ADAMAWA STATE POLYTECHNIC, YOLA

By

Bitrus Ishaya


ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study is to provide views of both lecturers and students on large class size

and how it affects teaching and learning in the Adamawa State Polytechnic. The simple

percentage method of analysis was used to analyse the data collected. Respondents of the

study were made up of 25 lecturers and 200 students randomly selected from the five

departments that made up the data for this study. The research instruments used in the data

collection were questionnaires and direct observation. It was discovered from the study that

large class-size is a great challenge to achieving success in the teaching and learning of

English Language, as lecturers could hardly prove their efficacy in classes thereby resulting

to poor output from students. It was also discovered that the study indicated that effective

teaching was not possible in overcrowded classes and majority of the teachers were facing

instructional, discipline, physical and evaluation problems. In line with the findings, the study

recommends among others the need for the polytechnic to employ more lecturers in the

General Studies Department and also make efforts to provide more resources and facilities,

such as lecture halls with teaching and learning equipment.

INTRODUCTION

There is no doubt that large class size is an impediment in effective teaching of English

language courses in tertiary institutions all over Nigeria. With more students enrolling in

schools, large classes in a country like Nigeria require a great intention and careful

preparation from teachers before the teaching process takes place. Heppner (2007) views

large classes as a small business which should be set up and handled carefully. Experienced

English teachers in general and teachers beginning teaching in particular find it onerous to

manage a class with a large number of students at various levels with different personalities.

The conventional wisdom among parents, teachers, school administrators, and policy

makers is that smaller class sizes translate to improvements in student learning and outcomes.

While a number of studies have found support for the importance of class size on student

achievement, others strongly refute this claim concluding that class size has little to no impact

on objective student outcomes. Nevertheless, a strong willingness to investigate the effect of

large classes on English teaching according to teachers' perceptions made the researcher

undertake this study where the main theme of this study is to examine the problems

encountered by teachers and students in the process of learning English in large classes.


Statement of the Problem

Many studies have come up regarding the influence of class size on students' performance,

but a shortage of consensus on the definition of large and small classes (Nemrah, 2006).

Schools have a multiple purpose as higher institutions are often associated with greater

participation in leadership process both within and outside ones immediate community. In an

attempt to improve the quality of education in Nigeria and the world over, many factors have

been adduced as responsible for the falling standard of education. Teachers in small classes

are able to pay great attention to their students and the benefit from teaching and learning

activities are considered to be high.

Suffice it to say that it is abundantly evident that English teachers encounter great

challenges when teaching large classes as they encounter difficulties in presenting effective

teaching activities and therefore many students, especially the weak ones, tend to lose

concentration. There is also the problem of identifying and controlling students who tend to

distract their classmates from concentrating on the lesson.

In view of these explanations, this paper intends to focus attention on overcrowded

classroom to find out whether or not it correlates with academic performance in tertiary

institutions.

Literature Review

Over-crowded classes could have a direct impact on students' learning. They not only

affect students' performance but the teachers had to face different problems such as discipline,

behavioural problems, poor health and poor performance of students, put stress on teachers

and increase in drop-out rate of students (Shah and Inamullah (2012). Carlson (2000) reported

that quality learning was not possible when large number of students were packed into small

classrooms, while Ijaiya (1999) found a weak positive correlation between the opinion of

teachers and students. Findings showed that over crowdedness diminished the quality and

quantity of teaching and learning with serious implications for attainment of educational

goals. It was felt that additional buildings and furniture should give priority in educational

planning at all levels.

Despite the importance of English Language in our society, it still suffers a great set-back

in all of our institutions of learning. Tertiary education is not left out of this educational or

language trauma. It has been discovered that most complaints by students and teachers of

English Language is the alarming rate at which the class-size increases. Therefore, English

Language as far as Nigeria is concerned provides the connecting tissue by which all other

subjects are pursued.

Combating the issue of class-size especially in English Language classes remains a

problem that needs to be solved. Observations have revealed that most of our classes in

tertiary institutions of higher learning have not less than 250 students this is an indication that

for each of the classes, there would be the challenges of the classroom management,

classroom control, classroom maintenance, deviance etc. for the teacher. It is no doubt that

most of the time needed to carry out the teaching-learning activities shall be wasted. On the

other hand, educational planners like Okoro (1985) and others opined that “few pupils per

class are uneconomical, as they do not make full use of space, teachers and teaching

materials”.


The concept of class- size has been given series of definitions in different context by

educationists. Hoffman (1980) defines class-size as the number of students per teacher in a

class.

While Kennedy (1989) sees it as a tool that can be used to measure education system. In

relation to class-size, Stepaniuk (1969) argued that there are approved norms of class-size,

35-40 students per class. This is in line with the National policy on Education under section

5 sub-section 27 which states that the ratio of teacher and students in the class for secondary

school should be 1:40, meaning that as far as Nigeria is concerned, the approved number of

students in a class should be 40 students per teacher.

International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language (43rd Conference

2009) also opined that a large class is the one which “teachers face problems in teaching,

managing and evaluating”. It is also defined as a class in “which there are many challenges

and opportunities for the teachers as well as for the learners in terms of managing resources,

time and space”. The above definitions depict that a large class-size is any class where there

are challenges for teachers and students in having a problem- free teaching and learning

processes, which at the end makes evaluation more time consuming than normal.

The Corpus

Departmental enrolment of students from the departments under investigation in the College

of Continuing Education, Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola for 2015/2016 academic session

and the number of lecturers that responded to the questionnaires issued from the departments

respectively.

S/NO DEPARTMENT REG. STUDENTS LECTURERS

1. International Rel. and Strategic, Studies 449 5

2. Business Management Education 490 5

3. Crime Management and Control 587 5

4. Mass communication 457 5

5. English Language Education 239 5

Source: field survey 2016

METHODOLOGY

The sample used in this study consisted of teachers and students from four departments in

the College of Continuing Education, Adamawa state Polytechnic, Yola. The state capital is

considered a typical example of a growing city in Nigeria which has been feeling the pinch

of population explosion in schools. Using simple random sampling technique, a total of 250

students randomly selected were served a structured questionnaire through their lecturers,

out of which 200 were found usable. The lecturers' sample consisted of 25 lecturers also

randomly selected from the five departments. Two types of instruments were used. One

involved the use of online registration to obtain students enrolment in Diploma I. The second


instrument was a structured questionnaire made by the researcher to identify the most serious

effects of over-crowded classroom on Teacher - student interactions. Respondents were

required to identify the ones commonly used by their lectures and students. The questionnaire

was validated by experts in Educational Management.

Data Analysis

This aspect presents and discusses the analysis of the data gathered from the questionnaires

that were administered by the researcher. The data presented consists of 25 lecturers and 200

student's responses that were randomly selected from five departments in the college of

continuing education, Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola.

Research Question 1: Do you think students' population has any effect on their learning?

Table 1: Simple percentage analysis on students' responses for Research Question 1

S/NO ITEMS YES % NO %

1. Are you able to contribute to the lesson when you

want to?

120 60% 80 40

2. When the teacher is in the class, do you always hear

murmur of noise within the classroom?

90 45 110 55

Source: Field survey 2016

From the investigation under study, it is obvious that the above presentation in table 1

shows that One Hundred and Twenty (120) students covering 60% of the students responses

affirmed that they do contribute to the lesson when they want to, while 40% of that response

amounting to eighty (80) students deny their ability to contribute to the lesson when they want

to. Also, ninety (90) students representing (45%) opined that they always hear noise within

the class when the lesson is on. On the other hand, one hundred and ten (110) students,

equated as 55% disagreed with hearing murmur within the class.

Research Question 2: How effective is the teacher's method of teaching in a large class-

size?

Simple percentage analysis on students' responses for Research Question 2


1. Does your teacher’s method of teaching make you

like the subject?

145 72.5 55 27.5

2. Is your English teacher able to carry everybody

along?

120 60 80 40

3. Does your English teacher supervise your work

individually or go round the class?

45 17.5 55 27.5



In the presentation above, it is glaring that One Hundred and forty-five (145) students i.e.

72.5% responded to show their likeness with the teacher’s method of teaching, while 55 of

them i.e. 27.5% dislike their teachers’ method of teaching, which results to their hatred for

the subject. More so, One Hundred and Twenty (120) students amounting to 60%

acknowledge their teachers' ability to carry them along and in contrary, eighty (80) students

amounting to 40% acknowledge their teachers' inability to carry them along. For question 3,

forty-five (45) students with (17.5%) testified that their English teachers supervise their work,

while 27.5% equated at fifty-five (55) students confirmed that their teachers neither go around

to supervise their work nor check individually.

Research question 3: What is the students' assessment of the lecturers teaching methods?

Table 3: Simple percentage analysis on teachers' responses for Research Question 3


1. Is your method of teaching effective in an overpopulated

class?

6 3 19 9.5

2. Is your method of teaching effective in a class of lower

students?

25 100 0 0

3. Do you find coping with students easy in an

overpopulated class?

14 7 11 5.5


From the data presented above, it can be deduced that 3% which is Eight (6) of the

teachers‟ responses attest that teaching is effective in an overpopulated class. On the other

hand, nineteen (19) teachers covering 9.5% confirmed that teaching is not effective in an

overpopulated class. Consequently, in question 2, Twenty-Five (25) teachers which is 100%

agreed that their method of teaching is effective in classes of lower students. Out of twenty-

five (25) lecturers, only (14) representing (7%) believed that coping with students is easy in

an overpopulated class; while the remaining (11) amounting to 5.5% affirmed that coping

with students in overpopulated class is not easy.

Research Question 4: How effective is a lecturer's method of teaching in a small class size.

Table 4: Simple percentage analysis on lecturer's responses for Research Question four


1. Do you find teaching in a small class – size more tasking

than that of a large class- size?

9 4.5 16 8

2. Is assessment in an overpopulated class stressful? 22 11 3 1.5


The table above shows that 4.5% which is also nine (9) lecturers accepted that teaching is

more tasking in a small class-size, while 8% which represents sixteen (16) lecturers opined

that teaching is not tasking in small class-size. Furthermore, twenty-two (22) teachers which


is 11% confirmed that assessment is stressful in an overpopulated class while three (3)

teachers with (1.5%) sees assessment as being easy in an overpopulated class.

Research Question 5: Are the lesson objectives achievable in a large class-size? Table 5:

Simple percentage analysis on lecturers' responses for Research Question five


1. Is there cordial relationship between lecturers and

students in terms of their interaction in a small class-size?

25 100 0 0

2. Do students in overpopulated class participate in the

lesson than students in non-populated class?

3 1.5 22 11


Considering table 5 above, all the lecturers opined that there is increase in teacher-students

interaction in small class-size. Similarly, in the next question, three (3) teachers representing

1.5% believed that students in overpopulated class participate in the lesson than students of

non-populated class

Discussion

The data presentation in table 1 indicates that students' population does not really have

much effect on the students learning. Question 2 of the table shows that most students are

able to contribute to the lesson when they want. Though the total respondents are more than

40 in their various classes, yet they still have the opportunity of contributing to the lesson.

This development cannot be divorced from the experience of the lecturers, which help them

to manage largely populated class. This fact is derived from the researcher’s findings in the

questionnaire where the lecturers strongly pointed out that their experiences help them in

managing over populated class. Still on the analysis, a number of students stated that they

do not hear murmur or noise within the classroom when the lesson is going on; while others

confirmed that they hear murmur or noise while the lecture is ongoing. Considering this

information, it is a fact that student's population in one way still affects their learning as there

is just little difference and moreover, for any classroom that has more than 40 students, there

cannot be absolute silence in such class.

Conclusion

From the findings of this study, it was observed that all the departments under study were

overcrowded with a population ranging from 239-587 students per class. Lecturers feel

discouraged, overwhelmed and stressed with the space shortage. Discipline maintenance was

a problem for most of the respondents, as majority of the lecturers were observing disturbance

due to overcrowded students in a class thereby finding it difficult to control them. The

findings also cast some doubts on the skills of the lecturers in dealing with the problems as

indulging in negative reinforcement like punishment is not educationally expedient for tertiary

institutions. It is also observed that lecturers are facing problems in checking notes, marking

test papers and assignments due to the large number they are confronted with. Upon asking

about the effect of overcrowding in classroom on teachers' efficiency, almost all the

respondents confirmed this difficulty. There is the direct consequences of inadequate

classrooms and furniture to cater for the increase number of admitted students as well as poor


quality training of professional lecturers, also, seating arrangement in over-populated class

places limitations on the quality and quantity of interactions between the lecturers and the

students as well as on the quality of teaching and learning as most of the students sit in

juxtaposed position in the classrooms while others hang by the doors and windows thereby

making cross ventilation almost impossible..

Recommendations

Based on the analysis and the conclusion of this research, the following recommendations

are hereby proffered:

1. Shortage of classrooms and lecture theatres need to be treated as a national crisis

worthy of the attention of both the Federal and State Governments.

2. Proper training program should be arranged for the teachers in order to educate them

how to handle overcrowded classroom.

3. There is a need to double existing facilities. A ratio of 1:35 or 40teacher to students

is hereby suggested.

4. Federal and State Governments should lift embargo specifically on the employment

of qualified lecturers based on merit.

5. The issue of unnecessary transfer of service by the Adamawa State Civil Service

Commission should be curtailed.

6. Graduates with third class or pass degrees should not be employed to teach in the

institution no matter his or her connection.

7. Interviews should be conducted before employment as this will go a long way in

checking the excesses of employing less qualified candidates as lecturers.

REFERENCES

Adaralegbe, A. (1983) 'Secondary Education in Nigeria', in Adesina, S. Akinyemi, K. and

Ajayi, K. (eds): Nigerian Education. Trends and Issues. Ile-Ife: University of Ife Press

Ltd.

Adeniyi, D.A. (2002). Comparison between School Effectiveness, Characteristics and

Classroom Instruction

Adesina, S. (1990) Educational Management. Nigeria: Fourth Dimension Publishers.

Afe, J.O. (2001). Reflections of becoming a Teacher and the Challenges of Teaching

Education: Inaugural Lecture Series 64. Benin City. University of Benin, Nigeria.

Ajayi, I.A. Ekundayo H.T & Osalusi F.M, (2010).Learning Environment and Secondary

School Effectiveness in Nigeria. Dept. of Educational Foundations and Management.

University of Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria. Study Home Comm. Soc. Sci, 4 (3): 137-142 @ Kanla

Raj 2010.

Akinyemi, K. (1983) Trends in Development of Primary Education in Nigeria', in Adesina

S Akinyemi, K and Ajayi, K. (eds): Nigerian Education. Trends and Issues. Ile-Ife:

University of Ife Press Ltd.


Akpofure, R.E.O. & N'dipu, B.L. (2000). National standards and quality control in Nigerian

education. The State of Education in Nigeria UNESCO, Abuja.

Carlson, A. (2000). Achieving Educational Quality: What Schools Teachers Learning from

Chile's P900 Primary Schools. Restructuring and Competitiveness Network. Division of

Production, productivity and Management. Santiago, Chile.

Cohen, L. and Manion, L. (1983) A Guide to Teaching Practice. London: Correa, H. (1993).

“An Economic Analysis of Class Size and Achievement in Education.” Education

Economics, vol 1(2), pp. 129-35.

Duze C (2011). Falling Standard in Nigeria Education: Traceable to Proper skills Acquisition

in School?Retrievedon26/8/12fromhttp://interesjournals.org/ER/pdf/2011/January/Duze.pdf

Ellis, R. (1994). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford University Press.

Fakeye, D. (2010). Students Personal Variables as Correlates of Academic Achievement in

English as a Second Language in Nigeria. Journal of Social Sciences.22(3) 205 – 211.

Fakeye, D.O. & Ogunsiji, J. (2009). English Language Proficiency as a Predictor of

Achievement among EFL Student in Nigeria. European Journal of Scientific Research

37(3) pp 490-495.

Fakeye, D.O. (2010). Assessment of English Language Teachers' Knowledge and Use of

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Ibadan Southwest Local

Government of Oyo State. Dept of Teacher Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan,

Nigeria. American-Eurosian Journal of Scientific Research 5(4): 270-276.

Federal Republic of Nigeria, (2004) National Policy on Education, 4th Edition. Lagos:

NERDC Press.

Ijaiya, Y. (1999). Effects of Overcrowded Classrooms on Teacher-Student Interaction. Ilorin

Journal of Education: Dept of Educational Management. University of Ilorin.


MOTIVATIONS FOR CRAFTSMEN IN CONSTRUCTION SITES IN NORTH-EASTERN

NIGERIA

By

Salihu Kabiru & Mallum Isa

Department of Civil Engineering

ABSTRACT

Nigerian economy today requires the support of small industries largely supported by the

participation of craftsmen especially in the construction sector. This research is aimed at

identifying motivations that will work well for craftsmen in the industry. The research also

examined whether the presently motivational factor employed is adequate. Data was collected

through questionnaires' and analysed using statistical package for social science SPSS. The

study revealed that majority of the respondents spent between six to ten years in construction,

also most of the present adopted motivations are inadequate, furthermore, twelve motivators

were identified i.e. effective supervision by leaders, providing training, over time, team work,

love and belonging, rewarding appreciation, good working relationship between management

and lower cadre, effective communication among workers, salary increase, proper job

placement, rework due to construction error, job security. The research recommended that

fresh motivational methods that suited 21st century be adopted. There is need for construction

managers to invest a lot of incentive on the craftsmen as they constitute the larger portion of

the industry.

Keywords: motivation, craftsmen, construction industry, North- Eastern Nigeria

INTRODUCTION

Motivation is the driving force within individuals that drive them physiologically and

psychologically to pursue one’s goals to fulfil their needs and expectation. Motivation could

be extrinsic or intrinsic. Construction of craftsmen is vital as craftsmen constitute the larger

portion of the total workforce in the construction industry. The industry participants who,

though have diverse discipline are mainly craftsmen and unskilled labourers (Ademoriti,

1994). The industry is better characterized by traditional or manual method and hard labour

conditions. Labour intense technology require much more diligence and insight than

equipment intensive construction process and thus labour recourse become a more important

input in production phase and need to be handled with utmost importance. The high rate of

employment, poverty among citizen of this country calls for urgent attention to save the

situation. North- Eastern Nigeria is rated as the least developed region among the six geo-

political regions of the country (NPC 2011). This situation leads the region to insurgency

which has further compounded the problem and loss of many lives Construction firms depend

majorly on various categories of craftsmen and large numbers of them have been in operation

for many decades in North - Eastern Nigeria. The presence of these construction firms ought

to have mopped-up the high population of unemployed graduate youths in the region. One

may be wondering how reluctant the youths are to join the construction firms precisely at

craftsmen cadre, the reason for this unwillingness to join the construction firms may not be

partially unconnected to the fact that majority of the youths seeking for jobs possess higher

education certificate and may never wish to start at craftsmen level and partially for the fact

that majority of serving craftsmen despite having put donkey years to the service with the


nature of the task (tedious), coping with poor enumeration and lack of motivation, end up

having nothing to show and usually fall below middle class in the society.

Many construction managers adopt various motivational techniques to motivate the craftsmen

that work under their companies, these motivations are either intrinsic or extrinsic. Example

of intrinsic is self-fulfilment of a worker as a result of performing task well. An example of

extrinsic motivation is the award of bonus for extra effort input by worker. This research will

look at various motivational factors with the aim identifying the most effective ones among

the construction craftsmen in North Eastern Nigeria.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Motivation Skills

The construction manager helps in the motivation process by having the long-recognized

qualities to appreciate human problem faced by different individuals during the various stages

of life. Mullins (2005) highlighted that a good manger must possess the following traits: be

a good disciplinarian, have a good understanding and be sympathetic, have a good general

attitude to the work, subordinates and colleagues, compromise if necessary; listen to other

side of suggestions or arguments.

Motivational Theories

Maslow theory of human's needs

Maslow (1943) suggested that people seek to satisfy needs sequentially, arguing that as

each demand is gratified then a new set emerges, implying a process of self-motivation

(Harris & McCaffer, 2005). The theory states that when a lower need is satisfied, it is no

longer a strong motivator and hence the demand for the next higher need becomes dominant

and the individual attention is turned towards satisfying this higher need. It states that only

unsatisfied need motivates an individual (Mullins, 2005). The model for (Maslow, 1943)

hierarchy of need depicted the Maslow hypothesis that within every human being there exist

hierarchy of needs which exist in hierarchy of potency as follows:

Physiological needs:- These are basic survival needs such as need for food, water, shelter,

clothing and sex.

Safety needs:- These include need for security and protection from the physical and emotional

harm, ill health, economics disaster and the unexpected. In other words, it is the need to feel

secured at home and at work.

Social need: -The need to feel loved and accepted as a part of the group. Management

meetsthis need by permitting social-interaction among workers, encouraging group formation

and corporation and other forms of opportunity to socialize (Malami, 2006)

Esteem need: -The need for recognition and acknowledgement from others based on the

respect of peers in and out of work environment, satisfaction of one of the esteems lead to

feeling of importance, self-respect, prestige, achievement, status, recognition and attention.

Self-actualization:- The tendency of one to fully realize his/her potentialities and capabilities

by achieving some stated goals.


Two factor theory of Herzberg

Maslow (1943) need approach have been considerably modified by Herzberg, (1968) as

shown in Figure 2. Their research purpose was to find a two-factor theory of motivation. In

one group of needs are such things like; company policy and administration, supervision,

working condition, interpersonal relation, salary status, job security and personal life. These

were found by Herzberg, (1968) to be only dissatisfaction, their existence does not motivate

in the sense of yielding satisfaction lack of existence would however result in dissatisfaction

they were consequently regarded to as hygiene factor. In secondary group Herzberg(1968),

listed certain satisfiers and motivators, all related to content. They include achievement

recognition, challenging work, advancement and growth in job. Their existence will yield

feeling of satisfaction (Mullins, 2005).

Herzberg (1968) describes two incident set of factors that influence a worker and a group

satisfaction and performance. His motivation-maintenance theory holds that worker or group

job satisfaction calls for motivational factor and that maintenance factor results in

dissatisfaction. He further stressed that some factors tend to motivate workers and influence

productivity, others merely maintain existing level of productivity, although if those

maintenance factors are not favourable, they will constrain productivity. Understanding the

effect of those factors will aid managers in motivating individual workers and in making the

goals values of workers group more compatible with these of the firm.

Expectancy theory

Expectancy theory is a generic theory of motivation and cannot be linked to a single writer.

There have been different versions of which some are complex. Recent approaches to

expectancy theory have been associated with work of vrooms, Porter and Lawler (Mullins,

2005). The expectancy theory of Vrooms (1973) are regarded as the most useful approach to

analysing the three most important variables; the individual, the job, and the work

environment, that affect motivational scheme in particular, in the use of incentive and in

construction project. This theory also centred on the idea that people prefer certain outcome

from their behaviour over others (Mullins, 2005). He proposed that individual will be

motivated to achieve a desired goal as long as they expect that their action will achieve the

goal (Bloisi, 2003). The key elements to this theory are referred to as Expectancy E,

Instrumentality I, and Valence V.

Expectancy:- This refers to the strength of a person's belief about whether or not a particular

job performance is attainable assuming that all things are equal; an employee will be

motivated to try a task, if he or she believes that it can be done.

Instrumentality: If an employee believes that a high level of performance will instrument the

acquisition of outcomes which may be gratifying, therefore management that wishes to ensure

high level of performance must be able to tie desired outcomes (positive valence) to high

employee value based on performance. Vrooms (1964) defines instrumentality as the

probability belief linking one outcome of a high-level performance, to another out a reward.

Instrumentality may range from the probability of (0 – 1) performance, and ensure that the

connection is communicated to employee.

Valence:- The term valence refers to the emotional orientation people hold with respect to

outcomes (reward). An outcome is positively valence if an employee would prefer it to not

having it. An outcome that the employee would rather avoid (fatigue, stress, noise, layoff.)


is negative valence. Outcome towards which the employee appears indifferent are said to

have zero valence. Valence refers to the level of satisfaction people expect to get from the

outcomes as opposed to the actual satisfaction they get once they have attained the reward.

Vrooms (1964) suggested that employees' expectancy, instrumentality and valence interact

physiologically create a motivation force that makes employee act in ways that brings pleasure

and avoid pains.

M = ((E → P) (P → O) V)

Where (E → P) = the workers effort performance expectancy

probability value

from 0 to 1 to achieve the expected outcome

(P → O) = the performance expectancy probability value from 0 to

1

achieve extend outcome

V = represent the valence of the expected outcome to the

individuals.

METHODOLOGY

To obtain the data required for the study questionnaires were distributed to 64 construction

firms across four states of North-Eastern Nigeria among various craftsmen (masons

carpenters, plumbers, electrician, and iron benders) under various subjects such as

demographic features of the firms. A multistage sampling technique was used to obtain the

sample size; a total of 130 craftsmen were obtained using.

𝑛 = 𝑁𝑝𝑎

(𝑁 − 1)𝐵2

4 + 𝑝𝑞

Source: Siegel and Castellan

Out of the 130 questionnaires distributed a total of 109 were returned which signifies that

84% of the questionnaire were tested using SPSS for validity and reliability which have 0.87

value which is reliable. Adequacy of presently adopted motivation factors was also tested, a

value of 1.34 grand weighted average value (GWA) was obtained which shows that most

present adopted motivational factor for craftsmen in construction site are inadequate.

Furthermore, frequency value was tested, the result shows that effective supervision rank

first and job security least with frequency mean value of 4.47 and 3.25 respectively.

Discussion

A total of one hundred and thirty copies of questionnaires were shared among the various

cadres of construction craftsmen in four state of North-Eastern Nigeria (Adamawa, Bauchi,

Gombe, Taraba) and the total of one hundred and nine (109) were returned which represent

84% of total administered questionnaire while the rest 21 accounted for 16% were not

returned. Table 1 shows the distribution of respondent by cadre, the table reveals that 23%

of total sampled craftsmen were Mason, 25% of the sampled craftsmen were Plumbers, 20%

of the sampled craftsmen across the construction firms were Electrician, and also, 18% of

the sampled respondents were Carpenters, while the rest 14% of all the sampled craftsmen

from construction firms were Iron benders. Thus, this indicates that all the sampled cadres

of craftsmen were taken approximately even. Table 2: working experience the result reveals


that 35% of total the respondents were those that spent less than five years in their respective

places of work, 22% were those that spent between 6 to 10 years in their respective

construction firms, 40% of total sampled craftsmen indicated spent between 11 to 15 years

in their respective construction firms, while the remaining 3% of respondents were those

indicated spending more than 15 years in their respective construction firms. The table also

revealed average of 11 years as average years in service for the respondents. This shows that

many craftsmen have working experience in their field of specialization and therefore,

signifies that their experiences will contribution in this research and will have great effects.

Table 3: the result reveals the overall Weighted Average value 1.34 which is less than 1.5

therefore, indicating the conclusive inadequacy of most present adopted motivational factors

for the craftsmen in various construction firms of North Eastern Nigeria.

These findings thus established the need for the construction firms to have in-depth look into

how to motivate their employee intrinsically without necessarily exhausting company revenue

on motivating workers. Table: 4 presents the motivational factors that will work well for

construction craftsmen in their other of ranking, thus, effective supervision was rated best

and therefore ranked first with 4.47% relative mean value. Supervisors should be

knowledgeable in the field assign to them and be involving in problem solving by doing so

the subordinate will have confidence in them and hence be motivated to carryout supervisor's

instruction. Alawi (2003) conducted a research on factors influencing construction

productivity in the Indonesian, the result shown the importance of supervisor and good

leadership. He then concluded that leadership/good management is the most motivational

factor that encourages positive motivation behaviour among workers. Training of workers

was is ranked second among other factors of relative frequency index, with h 4.3% relative

mean value. Training can be employed by the manger as an investment in their people at any

time due to the present increase in technological pace/trend both structural and social.

Fagbenle (2009) rank Training and development second for the identified non-monetary

incentive scheme for craftsmen. These justify the current survey conducted. Overtime is rank

third for relative frequency index, with 4.09% relative mean value Overtime is used to

compensate for low wages, this help the worker to progress faster and was happy to earn

extra pay. Overtime also contribute to the feeling that supervisors were concern about low

income being earned by workers. Craftsmen appear to be in love with overtime continually

looking for the ways to boost their pay. The younger the craftsmen the more overtime they

seek. Teamwork was rank forth elative frequency index, 4.06% relative mean value.

Smithers and Walker (2004) posit that cohesiveness among the team members is important to

achieve the project outcomes (in terms of team performance). From the motivation stand

point the team members preference for the presence of team spirit in their work environment

may be traced back to need for affiliation (McGregor,1960). Love and belonging This is rank

fifth in the relative frequency index 3.95% relative mean value Maslow (1943) in his research

arranges the need in hierarchical order and place love as third factor. The unsatisfied need at

any time is the one considered to be the most important. Rewarding appreciation got 6th rank,

this might be best explained in connection with teamwork, a firm that recognized good

teamwork needed to reward their effort to serve as model for other groups. good working

relationship between management and lower cadre ranked 7th, the rest like effective

communication, salary increase, proper job placement, rework due construction error and

job security were rated 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th and 12th respectively.


Conclusion

Current motivations being used by various construction companies in North-Eastern Nigeria

are inadequate to motivate the craftsmen in the industry. Factors that motivate one groups

could not work well with another group. Firm's wishes to motivate its workforce may do so,

there is chance of getting them motivated without spending companies last kobo (penny) on

motivation as this study suggests long list of non-monetary motivational factors that will work

well for almost all construction firms. Generally, factors been identified by this study are

categorized into intrinsic and extrinsic and if carefully adopted by construction managers will

go a long way in encouraging many unemployed youths to join the craftwork in North-Eastern

Nigeria.

Recommendations

a. Construction managers should reconsider the outdated motivational pattern utilized to

maintained performance in organization and adopts fresh motivation methods suited 21st

century.

b. There is need for construction managers to invest a lot of incentive to the craftsmen as

they constitute the larger portion of the industry, this incentive may not necessarily be

monetary as numbers of non-monetary factors has been identified as factors that can

motivate craftsmen and make them put their best while at work.

c. Construction managers should adopt the identified motivational factors in this study.

REFERENCES

Ademoroti, K.O (1994). Technological Participation of Woman in the Construction Industry.

Builders magazine.pp1-2.

Adjei, E. A. (2009). Motivational Strategies to Improve Productivity in the construction

Industry in Ghana. An unpublished M.Sc Thesis of Kwame Nkruma University of science

and Technology Kumasi Ghana.

Alawi, S. (2003). Factors Influencing Construction Productivity in the Indonesian Context.

proceeding in Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies. 1557-1571.

Bloisi, W. E. (2003). Management and Organisational Behaviour. New York: McGahill.

Fagbenle, O.I. (2009). The effect of non-monetary incentives on the performance of

construction craftsmen in Nigeria, proceedings RICS COBRA Research Conference,

University of Cape Town, 10-11th September 2009 pp 737-753.

Harris, F. & McCaffery, R. (2005). Modern Construction Management, Accra: Blackwell

publishing.

Herzberg F. (1968). The Motivation to Work, New York:

Malami, A. (2006). An Appraisal of declining productivity on lack of motivation by site

management, An Unpublished research Project, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University

Bauchi.

Maslow, A.H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50: 370-96


McGregor, D. (1960). Human Side of Enterprise. New York: McGraw-Hill

Mullins, L. J. (2005), Management and Organisational Behaviour. Great Britain; Prentice

Hall Publishing.

National Planning Commission, NPC, (2011). The Nigeria Economy: Annual Performance

Report. The Presidency, National Commission Report Abuja. Pp 25-26.

Smithers, G, L. & Walker, D.H.T. (2000), The effect of the workplace motivation and

demotivation of construction professionals, journal of construction management and

economics, 18(1), 833-841.

Vrooms, V. H. (1964). Mock and Motivation. New York: John Willey.


DEVELOPMENT AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF A SAND CHOCKING MACHINE

By

Williams A. H. & Mbudai. D.Y.

Department of Mechanical Engineering

ABSTRACT

The sand chocking machine was designed to meet the growing green effect need in the housing

sector of the economy. Building with sand filled bottles seem to be the vogue all over the

world most especially Africa. This is cost effective and very durable. It's major challenge,

however, is the fatigue associated with filling and chocking the bottles with sand manually

hence; the need of the design of the machine. Sand filling and chocking is undertaken at the

same time to get a good filling which is the target of the machine designed. The machine

when tested was found to fill a 75ml polyethylene telephthalate (PET) bottle whose diameter

is found to be 85mm at a feed height of 304mm in an average time of one (1) minute. This is

a very good result compared to the average hand chocking method employed by the American

University of Nigeria which is 2.42 minutes and increases to about 6 minutes with increase

in number of bottles to be filled per day. Its efficiency was calculated to be 63%.

Keywords: Efficiency, polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottle, Waste, Recycling.

INTRODUCTION

Waste can be referred to as any material used and discarded as unwanted or worthless.

Dishon (2014). Many of such materials abound and litter everywhere in Nigeria most

especially in Adamawa. Examples of this waste include water bottles, wine bottle, and plastic

bags. While some waste decomposes and does not constitute an aesthetic problem to the

environment nor any health hazards, other wastes including plastic bags, plastic bottles, table

water bottles, sachet water bags, alcohol bottles etc. are not biodegradable and do not

decompose there by constituting health hazards and pollute the environment. Stodgi (2013).

Waste bottles can be used to construction a building, although it is difficult to think of a

bottle as a brick. But a mud-filled bottle has been thought to be as strong as a brick and

whatever you can do with a brick, you can do with a bottle too. Verma, et al (2014).

The advantages of sand-filled bottle as a building material includes the following, Low

cost (It can be picked free from trash cans and any eatery), Non-Brittle (Unlike bricks),

Absorbs abrupt shock loads (Since they are not brittle, they can take up heavy loads without

failure), Bio-climatic, Re-usable, Less construction material, Easy to build and Green

Construction Vijayasalini (2015).

Importance of Machines

Machines of various sizes and complexities are made up of assembly of units that helps

you do work, it may help you by changing the amount of force and speed of action from

small machines like hammer, screw, lever, to complex machines like motor vehicles, aircrafts

etc. Nelkon et al (1974). The sand chocking machine is a machine to be used for proper sand

filling of bottles. It will help choke the sand in the bottle without leaving a space for the

plastic bottle to deform later when under applied pressure (load). The machine is designed in


such a way that it would sand fill and at the same time chock the sand in the bottle properly.

It can accommodate different sizes of bottle by design.

Waste and waste recycling

Waste can refer to any material used and discarded as unwanted or worthless. Many of

such materials abound and litter everywhere in Nigeria most especially in Adamawa.

Examples of this waste include water bottles, wine bottle, and plastic bags.

The PET plastic (polyethylene telephthalate) that most plastic beverage bottles are made

of is a fairly useful material. It is resilient, flexible, transparent and shock resistant. As such,

there are probably countless applications for these bottles that will give them recycling value.

Ahmed Ullah et al (2013). These PET plastic bottles can be recycled due to its properties

stated above.

Recycling is a resource recovery practice that refers to the collection and reuse of waste

materials such as empty PET plastic bottles and other beverage containers. Collins (2003).

Definition of terms used

The following terminologies are defined in order to understand the machine design and

operationality.

Machine:- A machine is an apparatus for applying mechanical power and it consist of a

number of inter-related parts. Each having a definite function.

Component:- A component is an elementary part of the machine made as one block.

Unit:- A unit is a detectable or permanent group of components.

Assembly:- An assembly is a combination of units and components performing the same

function.

Waste. Waste is an unusable or unwanted substance or material, such as a waste product.

PET (plastic) bottle:- Polyethylene telephthalate are plastic bottles used by most beverage

companies resilient, flexible, transparent and food safe. It can be recycled due to these

properties.

Waste management:- Is the method or process for recovering waste products as inputs or

resources.

Recycle:-Is a resource recovery practice that refers to the collection and reuse of waste

materials such as empty PET plastic bottles and other beverage containers.

MATERIALS AND METHOD

Materials

A machine under design should satisfy various requirements, output capacity and operating

velocity, cost (initial and operational) efficiency, weight and expected (guaranteed) life,

Asonja. (2006). The overall dimensions and transportability, uniformity of rotation, noiseless

operation, and simplicity to control, are a few important factors. Hanna J.R(1998). Individual

components should therefore have adequate strength and rigidity and effectively resist


corrosion. The use of common and cheap materials for their manufacture is also essential.

These main criteria form an integral part of the process of designing machine and is usually

carried out in the following sequence outlined below as recommended by Mallaradhya et al,

(2013).

(i) A design scheme is worked out, in which design of the component and in conjunction with

other components are greatly simplified and the forces applied to it are assumed to be

either concentrated or distributed in conformity to the given or arbitrary regulations.

(ii) The magnitude of load acting upon the components is determined. During operation,

machine elements are subjected to action of varying loads. The nature of variation of these

loads may depend on number of systematic and occasional factors. Thus, for machines

which perform definite technological functions in the production process the nature of load

variation for one production cycle remains clearly constant. In other cases, for example

automobile vehicles, the nature of force variation depends on the number of uncertain

factors. It is therefore, an important task to determine and assign the load which will act

on the machine component.

(iii) Material is selected on the basis of its physical and mechanical properties of matter,

including machinability, taking into account the economic factors of cost, accessibility etc.

(iv) Some of the most characteristic dimension of the components are determined by

calculations according to those criteria of operating capacity which are most important in

the given case and these dimensions are co-ordinated with the standard in force. As a rule,

these calculations are preliminary since they are based on the simplified schemes which

do not allow the precise evaluation of the actual operating capacity of the component.

(v) The general sketch of the assembly is drawn followed by a detailed elaboration and

indication on the working drawing of all the dimensions tolerances, classes of finish,

special production requirements (heat treatments, coating, kinds of services. etc.

(vi) Calculations are then done using the main criteria.

METHODOLOGY

The machine, in order to carry out its function, uses the connecting rod and crank shaft

mechanism. This allows for the up and down movement of the pin for chocking. Olufodun

(1994). The machine was designed through vigorous calculations and drawings necessary for

the assembly.

It is driven by an electric motor which gives it speed and uniformity in movement. It is also

responsible for vibration on the bottle stand which helps in the chocking. It has a sand

reservoir where the sand is filled before operating the machine and a manual lever responsible

for engaging and disengaging the bottle.

The frames are made from steel to enable it hold firm and for durability.

The electric motor was bought as a unit and mounted to help with the reciprocating movement

of the chocking pin via the crankshaft rotation. Without the electric motor, the machine will

have to be manually operated which will still demand labour effort and hence a defeat of one

of the objectives of the project. So, the electric motor is a major component part of the

machine.


Four numbers of bearings were use in the construction for smooth rotation of component

parts. It serves as the lead drive for the pulley system and belt drive.

When selecting materials for the components of a machine, we proceed from the following

main assumptions.

(I) From a production point of view, the material should require as little labour as possible

for the manufacture of the component.

(ii) From an operational point of view, the material should assure the proper functioning

of the elements in the unit.

(iii) From an economic point of view, the materials should favourably affect the production

cost of the component which decides the cost of the material itself and all other production

expenses.

Design considerations and calculations

i. Since it is a single cylinder two stroke crankshaft used, the chocking piston stroke is

only up and down.

ii. The sand chamber outlet should permit quick escape of sand through the nozzle into

the bottle.

iii. The amplitude, r, of the piston motion is the maximum distance on either side of the

centre of motion.

iv. The construction materials must be locally and easily available.

v. To determine the machine speed,

F = P x N

Where, F = frequency of rotation in Hertz

P = number of pairs of poles in the electric motor

N = number of revolutions per second

Therefore, synchrous speed can be determined as,

𝑆 = 𝐹 ×60

𝑃

From measurement taken by the tachometer, required speed is about 250.21rpm.

Hence,

250.21 = 𝐹 ×60

2

𝐹 = 250.21 × 2

60

F = 8.3Hz

The machine was tested using three different bottle sizes and timed to determine the average

speed of the machine. This is to compare with the conventional hand filling and chocking to

find out which is better, faster, convenient and more reliable. The results are therefore

reflected in the tables below.


Assembling of Machine

The assembling of the machine involves joining together the different units bought or

fabricated. This involves welding processes on some units while for others; it is just to tie

with bolts and nuts or force fitted into other units to make a whole.

Evaluation and Testing of Machine

The machine was tested using three different bottle sizes and timed to determine the average

speed of the machine. This is to compare with the conventional hand filling and chocking to

find out which is better, faster, convenient and more reliable. The results are therefore

reflected in the tables below.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Performance evaluation of machine

Tables 1 and 2 indicates that the machine filling is more uniform, faster and consistent

than the hand filling and chocking. The little variations in timing for the machine chocking

is found to be as a result of the sand particle sizes coming out at the time of filling. The

obvious variations in hand chocking timing shows a pattern of retrogression as the number

of bottles increase signifying fatigue on the worker.

Table 1: Time taken to fill and check sampled bottles

S/No Types of bottle used Time taken

for test 1

Time taken

for test 2

Time taken

for test 3

Time taken

for test 4

1. 500 ml Faro juice

bottle

1.15 min 1.34 min 1.39 min 1.36 min

2. 50 cl Coke plastic

bottle

1.35 min 1.39 min 1.36 min 1.35 min

3. 50 cl Faro water bottle 1.31 min 1.30 min 1.32 min 1.32 min

Table 2: Hand filling and chocking result.

S/No Types of bottle used Time taken

for test 1

Time taken

for test 2

Time taken

for test 3

Time taken

for test 4

1. 500 ml Faro juice

bottle

1.78 min 2.51 min 3.39 min 3.76 min

2. 50 cl Coke plastic

bottle

2.34 min 2.31 min 3.10 min 3.35 min

3. 50 cl Faro water bottle 1.38 min 1.50 min 3.40 min 2.69 min


Cost analysis of machine

The cost implication for a model of the machine is here tabulated by component unit

description and market price as at the time of construction.

Description Number Material Price (N)

Electrode 26 450.00

Bolt and Nut 16 Mild steel 320.00

Paint Chemical 500.00

Brush 1 80.00

Motor bike type connecting rod 1 Cast iron 750

Sharp piston 1 Cast iron 350.00

Angle iron 3 full length Mild steel 10, 800.00

Sheet metal 2 pieces of 4 x

4 sheets

Galvanized

metal sheet

16, 400.00

Electric Motor 1Hp 1 14, 000.00

Total 43, 650.00

The total cost of production of the machine is forty-three thousand six hundred and fifty naira

(N 43,650.00) which is cost effective and affordable.

Summary

From the result of the performance evaluation, the machine gives a better chocking than

hand chocking. It also is faster and saves a lot of man hour in terms of up to seven (7) hours

in daily operation considering the number of bottles successfully filled and properly chocked.

It conserves or saves energy that would have been expended manually.

It reduces labor cost as the work of six men is done in shorter time by the machine.

Conclusion

The machine gives a far better fill and chock than the conventional manual method.

From the results obtained in the tests, the machine can be said to have an efficiency of up to

63% compared to chocking manually. This means a reduction in time taken to do it manually.

REFERENCES

Ahmed Ullah, Abu Saeed, Al-mamun (2013) Application of PLCs in Bangladesh, Dhaka

international journal of scientific and engineering research.

Asonja. A (2006) The welding of unrested tube in food industry. Tractor and Power Machine,

vol 2, no 3; 106-110.

Dishon, Gina (2014) Dep Ed usec graces eco-brick launching in Apayo. www.ecotec-

africa.com

Hanna J.R(1998). Mechanics of machines, Heinemann educational books Ltd, Auckland.

189-201.


Harper Collins (2003). Collins English Dictionary – Complete and Unabridged © Harper

Collins Publishers 5th edition.

Mallaradhya H, Prakash K. (2013) Automatic liquid filling to bottles of different height.

India international journal of mechanical and production engineering.

Nelkon M and Parker, P. (1974). Advanced level physics, Heinemann educational books ltd,

London.231

Olufodun Tosin (1994). Petrol engines, Macmillan Press, Ibadan: 8-9

Stodgi, T. (2015) Eco-brick IT Santa fe. Retrieved. www.eco-brick.it.upecycle

Verma, Shruti Verma (2014) World environment day special: Eco-bricks

Vjayasalini, Baladhandabany, Gowtham (2015) International journal of computer science and

mobile computing, Vol 4 no 3: 5-7


600 x 430 mm

44 x 3 x 540 mm

44 x 3 x 501 mm

44 x 3 x 50mm

44 x 3 x 501 mm

44 x 3 x 540 mm


Key

1. Hopper

2. Sand gate

3. Electric motor

4. Disc

5. Connecting rod

6. Pivot

7. Chock pipe support

8. Electric motor base support

9. Chock pipe

10. Frame

11. Bottle

12. Bottle support

13. Adjuster

14. Base


EFFECTIVE TEACHING AND INTEGRATING POPULATION EDUCATION CONCEPTS IN

SECONDARY SCHOOLS THROUGH ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES

by

Bitrus Ishaya


ABSTRACT

Population education is an educational process which provides for a study of the population

situation in the family, the community, the nation and the world with the purpose of

developing in the citizens a rationale and responsible attitude and behavior towards improving

the quality of life now and in the future. This paper intends to explicate the position of English

Language in the teaching of population education concepts. There is hardly any English study

(language and literature) where population education concept cannot be integrated. A lesson

plan has been drawn to practically demonstrate how the integration can be successfully done

in the classroom. The paper finally advises examination bodies in Nigeria to speed up the

process of institutionalizing population education in secondary schools by inculcating in the

curriculum population related contents in Secondary schools and setting tests and

examinations on population and census related matters.

INTRODUCTION

Teaching Population education is the ultimate multi-disciplinary tool to introduce students

of secondary school ages how the human race has grown and shaped the world around us. Its

ecology, geography, economics, history, civic education all rolled into one. It is a deliberate

effort being made by the school to educate and inform individuals on the concepts of

population matters. The purpose of population is to produce a change in attitude and values;

it help people behave more responsibly and rationally; to assist individuals and communities

to make better informed decisions, and ultimately, to achieve improved quality of life for all

through better management of national resources and population related problems. To achieve

these fits, there is need to inculcate into the school system a curriculum that will abreast the

students of secondary schools and familiarize them with concepts relating to census matters

before a practical case scenario.

Fundamentally, population education aims to gather, disseminate, and study population

information at the family, community, national and international levels for the promotion of

rational decision making and responsible attitudes in population behavior. In Nigeria, English

language is critical in teaching and learning in secondary schools. The role and functions of

English language are too numerous to mention, while some see it as an all-important

language, others domesticate it.

However, Maisamari and Garba (1996) hold that in Nigeria, English has come to represent

the language not only of instruction and social interaction in our institutions of learning, but

also the language of commerce, politics, governance and the law courts.

At the secondary school level, all subjects apart from Nigerian languages and French are

taught through English language and all attempts at playing down the roles and functions of

English language seems to be strengthening the position and status rather than reducing it. It


is for this reason that population education as an educational innovation is now being

introduced into the Nigerian educational system and English language made one of the carrier

subjects.

This paper therefore intends to ask questions on how successful the effective teaching and

learning of population education concepts can be effectively integrated through English

studies. Some prominent questions that may come to mind include:

i. How effectively can population education concepts be taught through English language

within the secondary schoolwithin the secondary school setting in Nigeria?

ii. What are the special efforts needed on the part of English and literature in propagating

population concepts?

iii. What are the things expected of a teacher of English in the classroom to be able to teach

population education concepts through English studies?

Purpose of Population

The purpose of population is to produce a change in attitude and values; it help people

behave more responsibly and rationally; to assist individuals and communities to make better

informed decisions, and ultimately, to achieve improved quality of life for all through better

management of national resources and population related problems. In a publication by

UNESCO titled “Population Education: A Contemporary Concern” (UNESCO, 1978:36),

some major general goals of population education were identified. In summary, these are

provided in any given programme plan of activities to enable learners acquire knowledge,

skills, attitudes, morals and values that will enable them to:

i. Understand and evaluate the prevailing population situation in their community and

country

ii. Explore and appreciate the dynamic forces that have helped to create the present

population situation and the likely future consequences of the trends.

iii. Make conscious and informed decisions based on their understanding and evaluation of

the population situation.

iv. To become aware of the relationship between the population issues and problems and

the socio-economic development of their communities and nation.

v. Respond in a rational and responsible manner to population related issues and problems.

The Contents of Population Education

Contemporary interest in population education derives from the concern of government to

improve the standard and quality of living of their citizens. Therefore, the content of

population education program tends to be wide and comprehensive. Its subject matter is

purposeful living and national development. It is an inter-disciplinary educational program

drawing material from a wide range of subjects. The inter-disciplinary nature of population

education has made scholars in the field to resist the temptation of projecting and presenting

it as a "subject" this is why they prefer to refer to it as "program" of education which used

the thematic approach to process knowledge, skills, attitude and values it want students to


acquire. It is a dynamic and practical program and the most popular strategy is to locate and

integrate identified themes and sub-themes in specific additional subjects in the existing school

curriculum. These selected subjects are referred to as "carrier subjects" because they serve

as vehicle for the transmission of population education concepts and messages.

In the views of Yisa (1985:13), population education is problem centered and value laden.

The teacher must involve the students in problems solving and decision-making exercises.

This can only come about when the learners are actively engaged in discovery and inquiry

processes and values clarification situations. The subject matter of population education

centers on events, situations and trends that affects the lives of individuals, their families,

communities and nations today and in the future. The theme therefore, focuses on quality of

life. In Nigeria, the teaching of population education is based on eighteen (18) themes

developed by the national population education committee under the program direction and

management of the Nigerian Education Research Development Council (NERDC) of the

federal ministry of education. Generally, the key population related issue or core messages

that are constantly addresses through researches, curriculum/instructional materials

developments, population awareness and teacher training all geared towards the enhancement

of the quality of life of the citizenry and they include:

1. Family size and family welfare

2. Delayed marriage

3. Responsible parenthood

4. Population change and resource development

5. Population issues

6. Sexually transmitted diseases/AIDS and

7. Primary Healthcare Concepts

Population Concepts and Messages

Ikegulu (1999:102) identified eighteen culturally relevant themes from which curriculum

content for primary, secondary and tertiary levels of education were developed but the

(National Population Education Curriculum for Junior and Senior Secondary Schools Vol.3,

pages 9-11) identified seventeen themes and concepts as relevant to the Nigerian situation

(However, 12 of the themes have been further classified into those that can fit into English

language. These themes are not exhaustive, but for the purpose of this paper, some population

concepts which may seem unfamiliar outside population related issues may be explicated

briefly, these include:

De-facto census: A population census in which people seen are enumerated according to

where they stayed or slept on the night preceding the day of enumerator's visit. The 2006

census was a de-facto census.

An Institutional Household: A household in which members do not have any recognize head

of household is seen as an institutional household. The members may live together in the

same building or compound and share common catering arrangement, an example are

students in hostels, prisoners who take their food from the same pot and live together in the

same yard.


Homeless Household: Those referred to as homeless household do not have a fix dwelling at

the time of enumeration. The reason for being homeless could be destruction of the house by

natural disaster, demolition by authorities etc.

Homeless Persons: These are individuals who sleep in public places such as footpaths,

pavement of markets, shopping centers and motor parks.

Transient Persons: They are individuals who are on their way out of or coming into the

country at the time of enumeration and are not likely to be enumerated with their normal

households. They include transit passenger at seaports, airports and international motor

parks.

Enumeration: This is the process of interviewing all the members of a given population and

collecting socio-demographic and other information about each person.

Enumeration Area (E.A) Is an area carved out of a bigger locality with well- defined and

identifiable boundaries. It is an area that a team of enumerator is expected to cover during

the census.

Special Enumeration Area: This is an E.A that is made up exclusively of institutional

buildings and households

Post Enumeration Survey (P.E.S) This is a simple survey carried out on a fraction of the

population after a census had taken place to measure the quality of the full main census.

Census Questionnaire (Form NPC 01). The census questionnaire otherwise referred to as

Form NPC 01 is used to collect information on individuals and on characteristics of the

houses they live in by interviewing the members of each household in an EA(s).

Call-back Card (NPC 05). This is used when you want to make a return visit to a household

for enumerating one or two persons who were not available when you visited the household.

At your first visit you may find not fine some members at home. Obviously, you may not be

able to interview these absentee members of a household therefore a call back card has to be

dropped for an eventual return of the enumerator.

Census Data Summary Form: The total number of males and females are enumerated in each

household in the E.A. on the census data summary form NPC 06. This may enable the

publication of first provisional results shortly after the census ends.

House Numbering and Household-listing Forms (NPC 07 and NPC 07m)

It is done with respect to each locality in the Enumeration Area (E.A), the numbering must

be continuous to the last building in the E.A. As one systematically number and paste stickers,

the numbering is transferred to the building numbering and household listing forms (Form

NPC 07 ORIGINAL). The NPC 07 is completed in duplicate by copying the entries from the

NPC 07 ORIGINAL to the NPC 07 Duplicate and return the duplicate copy of NPC 07 to

the supervisor duly filled in and signed before commencement of the enumeration. In Form

NPC 07 buildings beyond foundation are indicated as uncompleted also, the characteristic of

building as appropriate, dilapidated, abandoned or empty structures are mentioned in NPC

07.

Apart from the concepts explained above, there is hardly any concept and message that is

hardly classified as belonging to other subject areas that English studies cannot cover since

all the concepts and messages have to be taught through English language. These concepts


and messages are what need to be emphasized in the process of teaching English language

and literature. Their full understanding will enhance their effective integration.

Integrating Population into Existing Courses

This approach explains that population education contents can be infused into the normal

teaching and learning processes in secondary school curriculum since it is by nature

interdisciplinary. To do this, it requires a pre-requisite understanding of the relationship

between population education contents and the content area of the subject as well as the choice

of appropriate entry points. It is sometimes advocated that teachers should be made aware of

population education contents and advised to introduce it where and when relevant into their

respective courses. However, whatever method is followed, the main problem of integration

approach is that of ensuring content sequence and structure.

Language Skills, Components and Teaching Methods

The skills that need to be emphasized when teaching and learning any language are

listening, speaking, reading and writing. In the process of learning these skills, components

of language teaching vis-a-vis essay writing, comprehension, summary writing with lexis and

structures are taught.

However, to be able to teach the four language skills, there is need for content or things

to teach such as words, sentences, paragraphs, passages plus prose, poetry and drama.

In teaching population concepts therefore, all six methods identified in NERD's teaching

methodologies in population education self -learning module 12 are relevant and applicable.

These methodologies are:

i. Enquiry approach

ii. Problem solving

iii. Values-clarification

iv. Discussion

v. Role-playing

vi. Dramatization

Nevertheless, some of them can be easily applied in the teaching of language and literature,

for example, dramatization, role-playing and discussion. These methods can be employed

while the use of other forms of audio-visual materials will help the teacher to be effective.

As these lessons progress, the concepts and messages are emphasized and discussed while

students are allowed to make their own decisions and there is also the need to create situations

where students keep finding out things for themselves.

Planning an English Lesson with Population Integrated Issues.

A lesson plan is very vital to any successful lesson. Therefore in this context, there is the

need to put together available materials that are needed such as textbooks for English language


and population education texts that can assist in integration process. Here is an example of a

prepared lesson.

LESSON PLAN

Class: SS I

Subject: English language

Topic: Comprehension

Sub-topic: Our population

Duration: Two periods (45 minutes each)

Objective: At the end of the lesson, students should be able to answer the comprehension

questions both orally and in written form.

Method of teaching: To adopt the discussion method of teaching

Previous knowledge: Students must have consciously or unconsciously heard about the

word population or census.

Teaching Aids: Copies of the passage

Charts with population data

Introduction: The teacher introduces the class and explains the topic.

Teacher activity: The teacher explains that population is an element, individual, or units

that meet the selection criteria for a group to be studied and from which a representative

sample is taken for detailed examination.

Students activities To listen attentively and ask questions where necessary.

Teacher activity The teacher reads and explain the technicalities involved in answering

comprehension questions

Student's activities They are asked to read the passage and answer the questions that

follow. Finally, the teacher mark their work.

Evaluation The teacher asks the following questions to ascertain whether or not the

lesson is understood.

i. Why do we need to know about our population?

ii. What is proper planning?

iii. Why do we need to know many things about the world we live in?

iv. Why does the government need information to build schools?

vi. What are the problems to encounter if there is no good planning for the future?

Conclusion

The need for population education in school curriculum is imperative especially now when

the nation's population growth is rising at an alarming rate. This follows that if Nigeria is


serious about her growing population, she should take valid population decisions, which

would lead to the development of educational program for children and youths whose

reproductive years are still ahead of them.This paper no doubt has put English language

studies in a prominent position in the teaching and learning of population related matters. It

has further identified that there is hardly any English language study components where

population education concepts and messages cannot be integrated.However, teaching

population concepts and messages through English language in secondary schools will not be

effective until all texts and examinations within the school system set questions on population

education. If texts are not drawn on grammatical structures, words and sentences with

population concepts, essay topics on population issues and summary passages with population

messages, students may not take population education serious. In a certificate conscious

environment like Nigeria therefore, the junior and senior secondary certificate examinations

must have to carry enough question items on population and census related issues. The facts

that these are terminal examinations will make students read more and understand more

population education concepts.

Recommendations

This paper hereby makes the following recommendations

i. In the teaching of population education, infusion approach should be adopted as this will

notrequire the hiring of new set of teachers and examiners.

ii. Series of related topicson population education are prepared as separate units to be added

to the existing units in thecourse of syllabus of the subjects selected as carriers of

population education.

iii. Regular seminars and workshops should be organized where teachers could be exposed to

the most effective methods for teaching population education.

iv. Government as a matter of urgency should encourage scholars in to write relevant

textbooks that young teachers can easily fall on when they are employed

REFERENCES

Brown, L., Gardner, G. and Halweilm, B. (1999) Beyond Malthus: Nineteen Dimensions of

the Population Challenge, W.W. Norton, New York.

Chapman, A., Morgan, R. Smith and Petersen, R. (eds) (1999) Consumption, Population,

and Sustainability: Perspectives from Science and Religion, Island Press, Washington DC.

Federal republic of Nigeria, (2006) Population and Housing Census: Enumerators Manual

Abuja, Nigeria

Garba, H.D. (2002) Challenges and Expectation of English Language in this Millennium.

PACEN Journal of Education Vol. 4, F.C.E. Pankshin, Plateau State.

GuzmÃ¡n, J.M., Martine, G., McGranahan, G., Schensul, D. and Tacoli, C. (2009)

Population Dynamics and Climate Change, UFPA and IIED.

Ikegulu, B. O. (1999). Methods of Introducing and Teaching Population Education in

Nigeria: Themes and perspective. In S. O. Osagie& C. Nwugwu (Ed.). Benin Festac

Printing Press Ltd.


Lutz, W., Sanderson, W.C. and Scherbov, S. (eds) (2004) The End of World Population

Growth in the 21st Century, Earthscan, London.

NERDC, (1988) Teaching Methodologies in Population Education. Self-Learning Module12

NERDC Press Lagos

NERDCP, (1987) Population Education in English for Senior Secondary Schools. NERDC

Press Lagos.

Osasinowo, W. (1988) Introduction to the Teaching of Population Education Concepts

through English. (paper presented at training of master trainers in Ilorin)

Udo, R. K. & Viederman, S. (1979). Population Education Source Book for Sub-Saharan

African. R. K. Udo et. al. (Ed.). Nairobi: Heinemann Educational Books.

UNESCO, (1979). Population Education: A Contemporary Concern. UNESCO.

Yisa, B. (1985). Introduction to Population Education. Lagos: NERIX.


APPLICATION OF DELPHI TECHNIQUES, TO INVESTIGATE THE IMPACT OF BOKO HARAM

ACTIVITIES ON EDUCATIONAL SECTOR IN NORTH-EASTERN PART OF ADAMAWA STATE

OF NIGERIA.

By

Bakari Adamu Mauda

Department of Statistics

&

Bulama H. James

Computer Department

ABSTRACT

One of the principal goals of any nation is the security of lives and properties and peaceful

co-existence of her citizenry. Insurgency/terrorism has been a major factor militating against

the state of peace in communities, state(s) or nation(s) around the world. In some part of

Nigeria, many communities are being ravaged by terrorist group known as Boko Haram

(meaning: Western education is a sin). This study investigated the impact of Boko Haram

activities on educational sector, particularly in Adamawa State, being one of the North-

Eastern States of Nigeria seriously impaired. Furthermore, the study examines the destruction

of infrastructure, lost of students and fallen standard of education in the area under scrutiny.

36 questionnaire were given out each to the Seven (7) Local government Areas (Madagali,

Michika, Hong, Mubi North, Mubi South and Gombi) affected were selected, where (252)

staff participated by providing data through “Likert” scale of self-structured questionnaire

containing 19 items, which were further reduced to 14 items by Expert Researchers through

the application of “Delphi Techniques”. Chi-square analysis indicated that lives and

properties were lost and standard of education is grossly affected. Based on these findings it

is recommended that the authorities should rehabilitate the displaced persons and adequate

security should be put in place for their wards to fully resume their normal schools’ activities

without any trepidation.

Key words: Boko Haram, Insurgency, Terrorism Students, Education.

INTRODUCTION

Ethno-Religious, Socio-Political, inequitable resource allocation and poverty level have

incited extreme tension and ongoing violence in Nigeria. “Maitatsine” a religious sect, stroke

in Yola (the State capital of the then Gongola State), in 1983. Many lives and properties

worth millions of naira were destroyed. Subsequently, insurgent activities continued in some

parts of the country even after the Military regime that ended in 1999.

Ethno-religious upheaval erupted in 2008 on the Plateau (Jos–the state capital on Plateau

state), where lives and properties worth millions of naira were lost during this clash as well.

Socio-Political mayhem emanated in the Northern part of the country after the 2011 general

elections, and as a result, many properties were vandalized (International Crises Group –

2015 Report)


In recent times –2009 to be precise, but at its peak 2012 - Borno, Yobe and Adamawa States

in the North-Eastern part of Nigeria has become one of the most volatile areas where “Boko-

Haram” – a religious militia – ravaged many towns and villages through their nefarious

activities. Many lives were lost and properties worth Millions of naira got destroyed through

the activities of these terrorists. “Boko-Haram” is the deadliest terrorist group ever

experienced in the country. At present, many people abducted are still under their (Boko-

Haram) custody, including over 200 Chibok school girls. Efforts are being employed to

salvage the abductees and to destroy them (the terrorists) through a special task force set-up

by the Federal Government of Nigeria and military troupes from neighbouring countries of

Niger, Chad and Cameroon; the task-force is gaining grounds, though the fight is still 0n-

going.

While the fight against Boko-Haram is on-going, attacks on famers by “Fulani Headsmen”

in Benue, Taraba, Adamawa State, and some parts of the Country is another recent show of

crises. – Just to feed their cattle by all means; this calls for a serious concern. The focus here

is the student and the standard of education in relation to the Boko-Haram crises.

The Delphi method is a structured communication technique, originally developed as a

systematic, interactive forecasting method which relies on a panel of experts. (Harold

Linstone, Murray Turoff (1975)). In the standard version, the experts answer questionnaires

in two or more rounds. After each round, a facilitator provides an anonymous summary of

the experts' forecasts from the previous round as well as the reasons they provided for their

judgments. Thus, experts are encouraged to revise their earlier answers in light of the replies

of other members of their panel Green, Armstrong, and Graefe (2007). It is believed that

during this process the range of the answers will decrease and the group will converge

towards the "correct" answer. Finally, the process is stopped after a pre-defined stop criterion

(e.g. number of rounds, achievement of consensus, and stability of results) and the mean or

median scores of the final rounds determine the results. (Rowe and Wright (1999)). (Murray

Turoff (1970) urged that other versions, such as the Policy Delphi have been designed for

normative and explorative use, particularly in the area of social policy and public health.

Michael Adler, ErioZiglio (eds.) (1996) said that in Europe, more recent web-based

experiments have used the Delphi method as a communication technique for interactive

decision-making and e-democracy (Maurizio Bolognini (2001)


Adamawa State is one of the states that experience frequent insurgency attacks in the

Northern-Eastern part of the Nigeria. As a result, many lives and properties were lost.

Students are one of the major victims of Boko Haram attacks. Many of them were either

killed in their schools, abducted, died in the jungle trying to flee or missed. Some schools

were burnt completely others had to closed as a result of attack or threat letters from the sect.

Aim and Objectives of the Study

1. The major aim is to ascertain the effects of insurgency on educational sector in the area

under scrutiny.

The objectives are to assess:


1. If schools were close down.

2. If students were killed, abducted or missed.

3. The educational standard presently.

Research Questions: In light of the importance of matters arising, it is essential to answer the

following research questions:

i. Were schools closed as a result of insecurity?

ii. Were students kidnapped or killed at school?

iii. Does insecurity affect student's performance?

Hypothesis

H0 1=during the insurgency period lives and properties were lost.

H0 2=Insurgency affect student's standard of education

H0 3=Government can help those students affected by insurgency to continue their education

METHODOLOGY

Design

This research is a descriptive research of the survey type. Questionnaire was used to

ascertain the effects of insurgency on educational sector in the area under scrutiny. Likert –

type scale was used to indicate the intensity of agreement and disagreement towards indecision

about a statement. The numbers 4,3,2,1 were chosen to make it easier for the respondent to

make choice in completing the questionnaire. Thus,

4 represents SA----Strongly Agreed,

3 ,, ,, A----Agree,

2 ,, ,, D---Disagree,

1 ,, ,, SD---Strongly Disagree

Population and Sampling Technique

The population for this study consisted of all the Local Government in Adamawa State

that suffered most from the attack by Boko Haram. The seven Local governments are,

Madagali, Michika, Hong, Mubi-North, Mubi-South, Maiha and Gombi. However, 36

questionnaires were distributed to each local government making a total of 252 people.

Data Collection

Research assistants were engaged by the researchers to administer the questionnaires in

the seven local governments under consideration, to obtain the primary data.


Data Analysis

This study is descriptive research designed to investigates, the role of Delphi technique in

dealing with crises. The collected data were coded and the statistics used for analysis are, the

mean, standard deviation and chi-square.

Research question 1 During Boko Haram attack were lives and properties lost in your area?

TABLE 1 below: shows the Means and Standard Deviation of the respondents on the research

question 1

S/No Items x s.d Remark

1. Schools in our area were closed 3.82 0.39 Agree

2. Some of our students lost their lives or kidnapped 3.31 0.61 Agree

3. Some schools were burnt down or destroyed by

Boko Haram members in our area

3.78 0.54 Agree

4. We lost almost all of our belongings 2.99 0.77 Agree

5. Many children lost their parents 2.98 0.83 Agree

6. Most students are still feeling the shock of

insurgency up to date

3.52 0.88 Agree

In table 1 above, it is indicative that all the respondents agreed to items (1,2….6) with Mean

(x)

ranging from 2.98 to 3.82. This suffices that lives and properties were lost during Boko

Haram

attack.


7. Some matured IDP’s school girls got pregnant during

and after the insurgency period

3.08 0.68 Agree

8. Some students got job doing to earn a living and left

school

3.25 0.62 Agree

9. Most parents can’t sponsor their children to school now

due to poverty.

3.79 0.41 Agree

10. Most IDP students don’t pay much attention to school

now as compared to period before the insurgency

(Boko Haram)

2.87 0.97 Agree

11. IDP’s schools were not getting attention from

government

2.98 0.83 Agree


From table 2 above, the results show that all the respondents concurred with items 7 to 9

with Mean ranging from 2.77 to 3.79. Which is enough to say that the upheaval by the

terrorists did grossly affected the pupil's standard of education in areas under study.

Research question 3: Can government help the students in those areas attacked by insurgency

to continue their education?

Possible ways to alleviate the suffering of IDP schools and those re-captured areas.

Table 3: Means and standard deviation of response on research question 3 above.


12. Government should secure the safety of all lives and

properties of peoples that went back to retake areas from

Boko Haram

3.96 0.21 Agree

13. Free education should be given to all IDP’s where ever

they are

3.82 0.39 Agree

14. Food items and certain basic essential materials should be

made available to them free

3.70 0.46 Agree

15. Shelter and health facilities should be given to all IDP’s

students monthly or quarterly to encourage them and to

take care of some of their basic needs

3.92 0.28 Agree

16. Certain amount of money should be given to all IDP’s

students monthly or quarterly to encourage them and to

take care of some of their needs.

3.25 0.73 Agree

17. Some re-creational facilities should be made available to

all IDP camps to make them feel not neglected.

3.33 0.46 Agree

18. Girls that got pregnant should be encouraged to continue

with their schools

3.30 0.75 Agree

19. Schools and houses destroyed by Boko Haram should be

re-build immediately after government retakes the towns

or villages

3.87 0.34 agree

Table3 above shows passionate appeal by the respondents to the government to as a matter

of urgency protect the future of the students by recreating enabling and conducive learning

environment for the IDP's and the captured alike so as to resume school. This is clear from

the mean results (3.96 -3.25).


Expert Researchers

Team of expert researchers were employed to carryout series of consultations on the initial

19 itemed “Likert" scale self-structured questionnaire; after a number of iterations' 14 items

were considered most appropriate, as shown below.

Research question 1: During the Boko Haram attack were lives and properties lost?

TABLE 4: Shows the means and standard deviation of response to research question 1.


1. Some of the students lost their lives, kidnapped or in IDP

camps

3.31 0.61 Agree

2. Some schools were burnt or destroyed by Boko Haram in

our area many children lost their parents

3.78 0.54 Agree

3. Most students are still feeling the shock of insurgency up to

date

3.52 0.88 Agree

4.

From table 4 above, The mean obtained on the research question; “were lives and properties

lost during the invasion” indicated that items 1,2,3 and 4 were agreed upon by the respondents

with mean ranging from 2.98 - 3.78.

Research question 2: Did insurgency affect student's education?

Table 5: Mean and standard deviation of the people's response on aftermath of Boko Haram

activities.


5. Some matured IDP’s school girls got pregnant during and

after the insurgency period

3.08 0.68 Agree

6. Some students got jobs doing to earn a living and left school 3.25 0.62 Agree

7. Most IDP students don’t pay much attention to school now

as compared to period before the insurgency (Boko Haram)

2.87 0.97 Agree

8. IDP’s schools were not getting attention from government 2.77 0.98 Agree

From table 5, the mean score obtained on the research question Aftermath of Boko Haram

activities clearly indicates that items 5, 6,7 and 8 were agreed upon by the respondents with

mean score ranges between 2.77 to 3.25.


Research question 3: Can government help those students affected by the activities of Boko

Haram continue with their education?

Table 6: Means and standard deviation of response on research question 3 above.


9. Government should secure the safety of all lives and

properties of people that went back to retake areas from

Boko Haram

3.96 0.21 Agree

10. Free education should be given to all IDP’s where ever they

are

3.82 0.39 Agree

11. Food items and certain basic essential materials should be

made available to them free.

3.70 0.46 Agree

12. Certain amount of money should be given to all IDP’s

students monthly or quarterly to encourage them and to take

care of some of their basic needs

3.25 0.73 Agree

13. Some re-creational facilities should be made available to all

IDP camps to make them feel not neglected.

3.33 0.46 Agree

14. Schools and houses destroyed by Boko Haram should be re-

build immediately after government retakes the towns or

villages

3.87 0.34 Agree

From table 6, the respondents agreed with items 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14 with mean range

of 3.25 - 3.96, as the possible ways to alleviate the suffering of IDP schools and those in re-

captured areas by the government.

Discussion of Findings

From all the three tables of the data analysis based on the respondent's level of agreement

and disagreement as related to the stated research questions of this study.

Research question 1: Reveals that the four items on the table 4; were lives and properties lost

were as a result of insurgency; indicates that the respondents are in agreement with all the

statements raised.

Research question 2: Reveals that the 4 items on the table 5; did insurgency affect student's

education – showed that all the respondents agreed with all the assertions moved.

Research question 3: Reveals that the six items on the table 6 - can government help those

students affected by insurgency to continue with their education - clearly showed acceptance

by all the respondents to all the statements raised.


Testing of Hypothesis

Hypothesis testing is one of the statistical methods used to assess the level of acceptance or

rejection of the various hypothetical statements. Here, alpha (α) at 5% level of significant

was considered.

From Table 4, 5 and 6, the Chi-Square results obtained are:

S/No Items Chi-square

tabulated values

Chi-square

calculated values

Decision rule

1. Hypothesis 1 𝑥0.95(9)2 = 16.919 164.715 Reject H0 and accept

H1

2. Hypothesis 2 𝑥0.95(9)2 = 16.919 146.399 Reject H0 and accept

H1

3. Hypothesis 3 𝑥0.95(15)2

= 18.307

366.178 Reject H0 and accept

H1

Hypothesis I

Chi- square calculated of 164.715 was higher than that of a tabulated value. Therefore, Ho

was rejected at 5% significant level and concluded that lives and properties were lost due to

attack by Boko Haram.

Hypothesis 2


was rejected at 5% significant level and concluded that insurgency did affect the student's

standard of education.

Hypothesis 3


was rejected at 5% significant level and concluded government can play a greater role in

educating the students that were affected by insurgency.

Conclusion

The research has indicated that almost all the items raised by the researcher were agreed

upon by the respondents. 100% of the respondents highly concurred with all the items on the

questionnaire, as their rates were rated above mean. This indicates that lives and properties

of people in the affected areas were lost. Many students and their parents lost their lives and

are rendered homeless, helpless and pathetic.

This study also reveals that Boko Haram attack in the area in question has affected the

standard of education.

1. Analysis of the data obtained has made the researcher to draw the following conclusions:

2. Some of the students lost their lives, kidnapped or in the IDP camps.


3. Some schools were burnt down or destroyed by Boko Haram members.

4. Many school children lost their parents

5. Some matured wandered school girls got pregnant during this mayhem.

6. Some students had to sort for menial jobs as an alternative to live – school not a priority.

7. Students in IDPs are in contest between what to eat and attending classes; which is

obvious that, paying attention to school now, and when compared to period before the

insurgency (Boko Haram) can never be the same; lowers standard of education.

Recommendations

The researchers hereby proffer the following recommendations:

1. Stipend/scholarship be given to the affected students periodically to encourage them

and to take care of some of their basic needs.

Some re-creational facilities should be made available in all IDP camps to make them

feel not neglected.

2. Schools, houses and other institutions destroyed by Boko Haram be re-constructed

immediately in the recaptured towns and villages so that the IDP camps be

decongested.

Government should secure the safety of all lives and properties of the returnees.

3. Students in these areas should undergo psychological therapy as possibility of trauma

cannot be ruled out.

REFERENCES

Green, Armstrong, and Graefe (2007): Methods to Elicit Forecasts from Groups: Delphi and

Prediction Markets Compared. Forthcoming in Foresight: The International Journal of

Applied Forecasting (Fall 2007). PDF format

Harold A. Linstone, Murray Turoff (1975), The Delphi Method: Techniques and

Applications, Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, ISBN 978-0-201-04294-8

Hiltz, S.R., Turoff M. (1978), The Network Nation: Human Communication via Computer,

Addison-Wesley, ISBN 978-0-262-08219-8 Maurizio Bolognini (2001) (in Italian),

Democraziaelettronica. Metodo Delphi e politiche pubbliche (Electronic Democracy.

Delphi Method and Public Policy-Making), Rome: CarocciEditore, ISBN 88-430-2035-8.

An example of e-democracy application is DEMOS (Delphi Mediation Online System),

whose prototype was presented at the 3rd Worldwide Forum on Electronic Democracy, in

2002.

Michael Adler, ErioZiglio (eds.) (1996), Gazing Into the Oracle: The Delphi Method and Its

Application to Social Policy and Public Health, London: Kingsley Publishers.

Murray Turoff (1970), "The Design of a Policy Delphi", Technological Forecasting and

Social Change 2, 2.

Rowe and Wright (1999): The Delphi technique as a forecasting tool: issues and analysis.

International Journal of Forecasting, Volume 15, Issue 4, October 1999.


Rowe and Wright (2001): Expert Opinions in Forecasting. Role of the Delphi Technique. In:

Armstrong (Ed.): Principles of Forecasting: A Handbook of Researchers and

Practitioners, Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

WWW. Responsibilitytoprotect.org/index.php/crises/crisis-in-Nigeria. Retrieved February,

2016.


INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT) EDUCATION AND TVET IN

TERTIARY INSTITUTIONS IN NIGERIA

By

Daniel Peter & Bulama H. James

Department of Computer Science

ABSTRACT

Information and Communication Technology Education in Nigeria has gradually become a

necessity in Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET). In order to achieve

the desired educational goals, ICT Education has to be incorporated as an essential

ingredient of teaching and learning technical skills. Internet as a component of ICT is strongly

used even in developed countries to enhance teaching and learning of Technical and

Vocational Education and Training (TVET). This paper attempted to show the relevance of

ICT Education in teaching and learning Technical and Vocational Education and Training

(TVET). It also seeks to address the benefits of ICT education in every aspect of learning in

tertiary schools in Nigeria. The paper also highlighted the challenges facing ICT Education

and TVET in Nigeria and the need for maintenance and upgrade of the laboratories.

Keywords: ICT, TVET

INTRODUCTION

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) for education has become a necessity in

Nigerian's education sector. In fact, it can be said that without functional ICT education and

the facilities in our schools, such schools might not be able to effectively achieve the desired

educational goals. Internet, as a component of ICT is strongly used even in the most

developed nations to facilitate teaching and learning especially in technical and vocational

training. Idowu et al (2004) argues that “the internet is, and will continue to play an important

role in transforming higher education”. However, it is sad to note that the implementation

and development of ICT in education has been basterdized due to lack of ICT facilities,

laboratories, power supply, etc and only used as a theory and not in realistic form and pursuit.

Internet, in many African countries (Nigeria inclusive), has mostly been affected by poor

financial and technical management and sometimes based on the inefficiencies by the

telecommunications sector. The internet infrastructure in most tertiary institutions is

inadequate when the students/computer ratio is compared. Many experts have accepted that

4 to 5 students per computer ratio is considered reasonable for learning. However, a ratio of

1:1 will very much enhance teaching and learning in the Nigerian schools unlike student-

computer ratio of 10:1 (Jegede and Owolabi, 2005) or more as obtainable in most of our

public school. Many countries now regard understanding ICT and mastering the basics skills

and concept of ICT as a part of core education (Noor-Ul-Amin, 2013). ICT has the potential

to innovate, motivate and engage students in learning technical and vocational skills which

otherwise might not have been engaging and of interest to the students. Adeoye, Oluwole and

Blessing (2013) confirm the fact that ICT has immensely contributed to the quality and


quantity of teaching, learning and research in traditional and distance educational institutions

more especially in Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET).

To some extent, Technical and Vocational education cannot be taught effectively in the

absence of ICT facilities since some courses requires the use of computer systems, peripheral

devices, internet, etc. This is so because the present technological age has brought about a

lot of innovation where technical and vocational skills can be learnt and perfected through

simulation of real-world engineering practices. This facilitates the learning through virtual

practice which makes teaching and learning interesting and long lasting. It enhances teaching

and learning by engaging learners through interesting and challenging activities such as

experimentations, simulations, project, seminars, group discussions/work, etc. ICT

education has the potential to motivate and engage students learning and creates room for

academic interaction and research which consequently helps to relate school experiences to

real work practice that can in turn create economic viability for tomorrow's works and

national growth. It is difficult and may even be impossible to imagine future learning

environments that are not supported in one way or another, by Information and

Communication Technology (Punie, Zinnbauer and Cabrera, 2006). There is a belief that

ICT has an important role to play, it changes and modernizes the educational system and

creates different ways of learning which makes the learning interesting and easy to recall

what was learnt.

ICT in Education

The use of computer and ICT in Technical Education in Nigeria is getting an increasing

support. Computer education is spreading very fast in schools and not only in developed

countries, but increasingly in developing ones as well. Computers in schools were mostly

used for administrative purposes only, but since the introduction of ICT into the education

curriculum in schools at all levels, the teaching of ICT skills is being embraced for teaching

of all subjects. However, Iloanusi and Osuagwu (2012) argued that ICT in Nigeria education

is still at the preliminary phase. Although ICT is being taught in the Nigerian institutions,

because of some factors that is affecting the teaching-learning of the ICT such as irregular

power supply, unsteady internet access, poor maintenance culture, etc, one will agree that to

some extend the Nigerian schools have not fully utilize all the potentials. This is largely due

to a number of factors that limit the infusion of ICT in the Nigerian educational system. This

is partly because no much investment is being made compared to other investments such as

finance, banking sector and the GSM communication.

Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) which include radio and television, as

well as newer digital technologies such as computers and the internet - have been touted as

potentially powered enabling tools for educational change and reform (Tinio, 2002). When

these tools such as radio, television, computers, Internet, application soft-wares, etc., are

used correctly, it is said to expand and advance technical education. Education quality is

being raised and helped significantly in making teaching and learning engaging where real-

life problems can be solved. Tinio (2002) asserts that, ICT has the potential for increasing

access to and improving the relevance and quality of education. ICT is being used today as

one of the strategies to improve education which subsequently brings development. It greatly

facilitates teaching and learning, and absorption of knowledge, thereby, offering

unprecedented opportunities to developing country like Nigeria to improve its educational

system. Today, teachers and students have access to millions of articles, books and other


academic materials for research as a result of the ICT. The Network Society has created a

platform that has increased the availability of Education for all. This has broken the barriers

that used to exist between knowledge, traditional schools, and libraries that were the

gatekeepers of knowledge. The traditional constraints of time can easily be overcome when

this modern method of teaching and learning is used. Bartlett et al (2013) reported that in

November 2011, Ericsson gathered ICT leaders, world-renowned professors, top politicians

and inspirational global leaders to discuss how ICT can shape future learning. It was noted

that the importance of ICT can never be underestimated in transforming education because it

provides the tools and resources needed such as the computer system, internet, application

software’s, etc in teaching and learning. Any nation that seeks economic development will

certainly make ICT the centre of its education. This is simply because ICT offers new and

creative ways of combining classroom experience, laboratory/workshop learning,

connectivity of the students and teachers, especially in the development of TVET in an online

tutorial. Reliable internet connectivity and consistent power supply is essential in order to

achieve the desired goal.

In addition, ICT is used to reach out to greater number of students especially where

teachers cannot be physically present to teach a course. Technical skills can easily be learnt

and understood much better when simulation of the skills is used in the learning process.

Geographical distance is no longer a barrier in obtaining education as a result of technologies

such as the teleconferencing and distance education which is gradually taken its grip in

Nigeria.

The Role of ICT in TVET

In recent years, exploitation of information technology has been on the increase in schools

in all aspects of the study. Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) is a

type of education and training that prepares a person for employment. It is a deliberate

intervention which makes people productive after gaining education in areas of economic

activity. Practical skills can easily be taught and learnt using ICT. Programmed instruction

in form of software and interactive video made it easy for practical skills to be taught using

ICTs (Saud et al 2011). Practical skills can now be delivered virtually through an organized

ICT setup. In time past, such practical skills can only be taught using hands-on learning only.

But now, ICT revolution in education has removed distance from education, making

knowledge more accessible by all.

The use of ICT in TVET is more and more being used for teaching and learning and has

made it possible to cover wider curriculum content in a day as a result of the use of video in

teaching and thereby making the teaching efficient and enjoyable by the students. It is clear

that ICT are an emerging force in TVET, with the potential to transform technical and

vocational education (Kafka, 2013). In the increasing global interconnection of network,

newer technologies help to simplify teaching and learning technical education, more learning

materials are being made available even for free. It is clear that ICT is getting an appreciable

impact on training and education in general. However, education and training need to be

harnessed in a way that is favourable for the poorest in order to provide more widespread

access to good quality Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) (Kafka,

2013). With the use of ICT teaching-learning, it has become more affordable than the

conventional method. It enables students from resource-poor country to improve their

learning outcomes in which Nigeria is not an exceptional.


The Benefits of ICT Education in TVET

The benefits of ICT education in TVET are overwhelming. ICT is gradually changing the

way people learn, which offers a new alternative method of learning where traditional

classroom is not necessarily needed. This method provides an opportunity to the learner to

access education at any time of the day, thereby making the education flexible and convenient,

this has been adopted by most tertiary schools in Nigeria. ICT allow the delivery of education

to adapt an individual needs as opposed to having the individual adapt to how the education

is delivered (Chinien, 2003). Most schools in Nigeria now have ICT centre to facilitate the

modern technique of teaching-learning.

Beside providing a free atmosphere to study, ICT has simplified research and development

in teaching and learning. It made research materials easy to access and more comfortable.

Internet/Web-Based training provides enabling environment where a student can access and

study course materials online. A student can equally enjoy a real time interaction with his

tutor. Other facilities such as chat and messaging, discussion boards, application sharing, etc

are equally available where a student can take advantage of these tools. Audio tele-conference

is the simplest and most inexpensive of the available interactive learning technologies (Steven,

2001). It is a telephoning system which enables multiple learners to be able to connect to

each other with an instructor in a real time. This is done through audio conferencing that

effectively creates a conference of instructor and a group of learners on a platform where

people can communicate simultaneously. Audio tele-training is usually done by providing

advanced copy of print materials along with other visual aids that can facilitate learning.

Hauenstennis (1970) developed a model of psychomotor skills organized on the sequence of

learning practical skills to include: Observing; Imitation; Manipulating; Performing and

Perfecting. In the model, learning of the skills start with observation of the skills and is

followed by imitating the practical and the student seek the perfect the concept. Practical

skills however can however can only be achieved by performing the practicals in the

workshops/labs.

Trained man power is required for the growth of every nation. Technical and Vocational

Education and Training (TVET) is the popular means by which training of skill manpower is

produced for economic and industrial growth of the country (Nigeria). TVET prepares human

resources needed in the changing world of work. With adequate ICT facilities in the Nigerian

institutions, the study of technologies can be effectively achieved. Saud et al (2011) reiterated

that, indeed, practical skill can be delivered virtually via a well-organized ICT set up and

that gone are the days where practical skills were taught using hands-on learning only.

Interactive application softwares and video have made it easier for practical skills to be

acquired using ICT. The use of ICT in teaching, training and learning cannot be obsolete,

rather the need for up-grading and retraining of workers in order to meet up with the

information age. Preparing people for self-employment is the aim of TVET which also serves

as a medium of evolution for people in this world of work.

Challenges Facing ICT Education in Nigeria

ICT Education and TVET can only be successful where equipped computer laboratory and

qualified teachers are available. In some of our schools, though ICT education are being

taught, there is insufficient systems to practice what is being taught, while some that have

are faced by lack of power or internet connectivity problem where by the laboratories are not


functional, especially only to convince accreditation team that a laboratory really exists.

Iloanusi and Osuagwu (2012) assert that indeed students do not have enough computer

laboratories or libraries, and that students who can afford laptops have to purchase one for

their use. Due to the problem of internet connectivity, staff, students and researchers

normally depend on campus business cyber cafes in order to get their research or study done.

According to Iloanusi and Osuagwu (2012), students and staff only browse when it is

necessary due to high cost of browsing. In this type of situation, it is certain that learning

conveniently and smoothly may not be there due to these bottle necks. In most of our schools,

internet subscription and maintenance of the ICT laboratories have become matters of

concern. However, if ICT education in TVET is to exist for upliftment of education, then

there is need for commitment to ensure that ICT laboratories are maintained and upgraded as

changes takes place in ICT equipment. Although there is an improvement in the electricity

power supply, more effort is being coveted in order to carry out successful research in our

universities and other institutions. Without the internet, access to interactive simulation of

some technical skills might not be possible. Not only that, but as much as possible the

computer systems should be readily available to individual students and teachers. According

to Torruam and Abur (2013), “computer laboratories are largely non-existent in many public

schools across the country” and that where such laboratories exist, they are nothing to cheer.

Computer labs should not be neglected where ICT skills are to be taught, but it should be

viewed as a fundamental facility without which the teaching and learning of ICT skills in

TVET would not be realistic.

The need to have qualified teachers for teaching ICT courses especially in TVET is

imperative. According to UNESCO and Microsoft (2011), the successful integration of ICT

into the classroom greatly depends on the ability of teachers to structure the learning

environment in a way that will enable technology interaction which leads to collaboration for

students to have conducive learning environment. When ICT teachers in Nigeria have the

required skills, teaching and learning becomes interesting and motivating. The teaching skills

required will include innovative ways of using technology focused on specific changes in

teaching which can encourage students to develop interest in learning.

Advantages and Disadvantages of ICT in TVET

Information and Communication Technology has swiftly changed the educational system

and the way people communicate in many ways. It is a powerful tool used for adapting to

the ever-changing demands of a global information society. Although ICT has some enormous

advantages such as making some common tasks simple and facilitates communication from

one geographical area to the other. It is a vast field which include virtually all technologies

that can store, receive or transmit signals electronically. Below are some advantages of ICT

in TVET:

i. Motivating Factor.

Using the ICT in teaching and learning motivates many students to learn. The use of

technology is captivating for most young people. They find it very exciting and interesting

about the internet and therefore enhances learning. It helps in providing additional learning

activities that is not readily available in the conventional class settings.


ii. Cooperative learning.

Internet promotes cooperative learning and creates more engaging classroom thereby creating

dialog among the students. For example, using the class discussion forum through emails in

a way that is different from what is obtainable in the classroom.

iii. Fast Communication.

Fast communication across the geographical barriers exist through the use of information

technology thereby making it easy for students to be involved in collaborative projects from

any part of the world. Because the world has been reduced to global village, it is possible

through the use of the ICT tools for students to have a unique learning experience that cannot

be obtain in the classroom.

iv. Accessing research materials.

With the use of the Internet, it has now become very easy to have access to research materials

which otherwise might not be possible access in the Library locally.

Disadvantages:

Although ICT have so many advantages in TVET it is not without some disadvantages such

as:

I. Access to ICT tools such as internet or computer might not be feasible to students

in rural areas. Some tertiary schools are located in rural areas and might face

weak internet access or power supply problem that would not enable the students

access every web page such as graphic and videos successfully due to poor internet

connectivity. Having uninterrupted access to the material is very crucial if a

success teaching and learning is to be achieved.

II. Lack of moral value implementation of some websites can be a barrier to

successful learning. In such situation it is necessary to have a teacher who will act

as the facilitator who will guide the student in order to achieved the desired goals.

III. Student can easily be a victim of Plagiarism this is so because some web site

claims to help students in their course work but normally end up into submitting

the exact work for grades. Plagiarism can be minimized by the use of the online

services such as http://www.plagiarism.org/ to check if the paper is copied from

the internet.

IV. Students privacy cannot be guarantee completely when online, this is because

criminals, marketers and hackers are always seeking ways to break into ones'

privacy.

Conclusion

The paper discussed on the need to have Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

education in Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET). Particular emphasis

was made on ICT, that for higher institutions to achieve their desired goal in teaching and

learning technical skill, ICT education cannot be neglected. The study has shown that ICT

has contributed much to the quality and quantity of teaching, learning and research in both

traditional and distance education. The paper highlighted the need to have ICT education in


all arms of the educational structure in Nigerian. It is not just enough to have ICT in the

curriculum of education in Nigeria, but the need to ensure that the facilities are provided and

the required manpower and the enabling environment to ensure the policy is fully adhered to.

It was noted that several technical skills at advanced levels have to be simulated before

actualizing it for human use. ICT education cannot just be taught theoretically without an

equipped ICT laboratory and the qualified teachers required to teach the courses.

Recommendations

In order to have achievable and successful Technical and Vocational Education and Training

(TVET) the following is recommended:

i. There should be functional ICT tools such as the Computer, Printer, Internet,

application softwares, etc.

ii. There should be available stand by generator in case of power failure.

iii. There should be qualified personnel that will be able to use the ICT tools for the

teaching and learning of the technical skills.

iv. The training centre for the technical skills need to be funded in order to meet the

challenging needs, especially the upgrade of the tools and for general maintenance.

v. There is need to revise the curriculum from time to time in order to meet up with the

technological changes in the IT world.

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THE FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR STUDENTS' PERFORMANCE IN ORAL ENGLISH IN

SELECTED SECONDARY SCHOOLS, IN YOLA METROPOLIS

by

Wada, Richard Sylvester, & Wappa, John Peter


ABSTRACT

This research work takes a spectacular look at the speech production and the numerous

problems associated with the achievement of the set objectives of teaching and learning oral

English in five selected secondary schools in Yola metropolis. Questionnaires were

administered to both teachers and students of the selected schools, and the result obtained

was analysed using the simple percentage. The study shows that the availability of qualified

teachers and the adequacy of teaching facilities could help in the improvement of teaching

oral English in schools. Therefore, based on the findings, the study recommends that

emphasis should be placed on the provision of qualitative teaching facilities, qualified

teachers and a handsome amount of time be allotted for the teaching of oral English on the

schools' time-tables.

Keywords: Performance; Oral English; Secondary School.

INTRODUCTION

English is a second language in Nigeria. It is widely spoken in schools and offices, it is the

means of instruction in schools and it serves as a means of communication in places of

worship, and other societal functions in Nigeria because of the diversity of the language and

diverse nature of the country.

In the light of the aforementioned, there is the need for proficiency in the use of English

language among teachers as well as the students. Therefore, there is the need for the teaching

of oral English in Nigerian schools. Oral English needs to be taught by teachers who are

articulate in the field. The pronunciation of the English sounds is different from reciting the

English alphabets. Not all professionals in English have the knowledge of oral English. Some

teachers of English language shy away from teaching oral English in schools because of its

complex nature. The complex nature includes some aspects such as the consonants, the

vowels, the intonation, the stress and the segmental and supra-segmental features to mention

a few. To have a smooth flow of oral English teaching in schools, there is the need for

teachers to be properly trained. When efficient teachers are allowed to handle the subject,

students may perform creditably well in oral English.

In this study, the researcher intends to find out the factors responsible for performance

by students in oral English and how teachers' effectiveness can be improved upon to enhance

qualitative output and suggest ways in which some of the problems can both be resolved in

respect to the students and the teacher.

Oral English teachers most at times are very difficult to come by in schools, this is because

the teachers to an extent have little or no knowledge of the subject matter. Some of the

teachers who are brave enough to teach the subject give students substandard information or

the wrong information in most instances. Oral English is not theoretically taught; it is

something that should be practically taught in a laboratory with all the necessary gadgets put


in place. This study looks into the shortage of professional teachers in the field which is a

problem to efficiency and effectiveness and proffer ways in which some of the defects can be

corrected.

The aim of this study is to find out ways in which the teachers' effectiveness and students'

performance in oral English can be improved upon. This will be achieved through the

following: by examining the teachers' effectiveness in the teaching of oral English,

identifying the students' performance in English language and by analyzing the instructional

materials used in the teaching of oral English in schools.

Oral Communication and Teachers Effectiveness in Oral English Teaching

Joseph (1996) opines that Oral communication, while primarily referring to spoken verbal

communication typically relies on words, visual aids and non-verbal elements to support the

conveyance of the meaning. Oral communication includes discussion, speeches,

presentations, interpersonal communication and many other varieties. In face to face

communication the body language and voice tonality plays a significant role and may have a

greater impact on the listener than the intended content of the spoken words. A great presenter

must capture the attention of the audience and connect with them. For example, out of two

persons telling the same joke one may greatly amuse the audience due to his body language

and tone of voice while the second person, using exactly the same words, bores and irritates

the audience. Visual aid can help to facilitate effective communication and is almost always

used in presentations for an audience.

John (1989) believes that Phonetics is the only study of the sounds of a language. Phonetics

also deals with the inventory and structure of the sounds of speed. Human language has a

variety of sounds, called phones from a Greek word “phone” meaning (sound voice) or

speech sounds but not an infinite number of them.

There are two ways of approaching phonetic; one approach studies the physiological

mechanisms of speech production. This is known as articulatory phonetics. The other is

known as Acoustic phonetics, it is concerned with measuring and analysing the physical

properties of the sound waves we produce when we speak. Both approaches are indispensable

to an understanding of speech.

The paramount aim of the educational system is the social development of individuals so

that they may contribute maximally to the educational and economic development of the

society. The importance of oral English to the development of an individual is necessary.

When oral English is perfectly taught and students thoroughly understand the concept, it will

help the students in the future when they eventually become teachers. Teachers need to teach

the knowledge and skills which make oral English successful. A motivated student in

secondary school will have the intent for learning in science, art, literature, history and human

behaviour as a foundation for the child to have good social and vocational fulfilment. So, oral

English for the student is very vital and so must be recognized in the secondary school

curriculum.

Hadden (1991) said teachers of English and teachers of speech have the responsibility of

educating students in oral English language. There is the need for teachers to go for training

in other to improve their teaching and be better teachers in oral English. Sometimes teachers

of English language are hesitant to become deeply involved in the teaching of oral English in

schools. The major reason for hesitation by teachers to teach the subject is the fact they have


not been properly trained. The beginner teacher of oral English should be prepared to create

integrated learning experiences on entering the classroom.

Yano (2001) pointed out that the potentialities afforded by oral activities to assist readers

to interpret the substance of oral English and to appreciate it are an art all too often has

remained unexploited in the classroom. The knowledge of oral English reflects in every

aspect of life and not only in the English language. In literature, oral reading of a dialogue

can bring about a change in the intended or actual intention of the dialogue and if the reader

does not articulate the word in the dialogue properly and it can also negatively affect the

artistry of the rhythm of the work. Similarly, perfect articulation of words in a dialogue can

create meaningful intonations, pauses, and stress pattern upon which the dramatic effects of

the communicative event depends. Because of the receptive nature of oral English, the teacher

must be prepared to integrate as a communicative skill the oral communicative arts. The

teacher must be sensitive to the students' needs and also motivate them to speak purposefully.

The teacher must also be knowledgeable about the purpose and ways they speak in other

to assist the students in their development of skills in interpreting the spoken symbols. As

essential as the media is in teaching of oral English to Senior Secondary School Students, it

has been observed that most teachers do not use them. Some teachers that use them do not

use them effectively while some teachers have been unduly attached to using the same media

types which invariably has rendered oral lessons monotonous and boring. The media types

should be varied and teachers should prepare their students “by teaching them to ask and

respond to questions effectively, by giving them practice speaking, and by encouraging

classroom participation” (Tagg, 1996; Umunadi, 2009; Deang, 2012; Olaitan, Oniyanji,

Ojerinde and Onifade, 2012).

Students Performance and Techniques for Effective Teaching of Oral English

In rating English language speaking performance of normative speakers, certain

objectively measurable features of pronunciation are certainly relevant to true score variance.

On the other hand, variance due to rather background and disposition counts as measurement

errors. Hook et al (1970) talk about the issue of knowledge and skill on the part of the teacher,

according to them, “teachers need to know more than most of us do. We need, especially, to

know more about children than most of us do, so that, when each child comes to us in this

place called a school, we can help the student become the utmost that he is capable of

becoming, but we do not always do that”. They go further to explain that. “A specialized

methods course and carefully supervised student teaching can contribute extensively to the

prospective teacher's knowledge and skill. The rapidity with which the child learns language

is accounted for by the degree of motivation the child has. This is the view of Skinner and

Bloom Field as cited by Arhagba and Atonuje (2011).

According to Moedjito (2008, p.130), 'it is accepted as axiomatic by language teachers

that good pronunciation is a necessity for the mastery of a language'. The first thing the

teacher needs to do to improve the teaching of pronunciation is to identify the objectives of

his teaching. These include: accurate pronunciation, correct intonation, good phrasing and

fluency, intelligible communication of meaning, communicative competence. According to

Ogunsiji (2004, p.26), in teaching pronunciation, the learners 'should be made familiar with

the sound patterns of the language in order to reduce the occurrences of mother tongue

interference'. The emphasis should be on maintenance of proper pronunciation of English


sounds by the learner so as to be able to communicate meaning intelligibly. For example,

there is a difference in the pronunciation of /tʃ/ and /ʃ/ as in 'watch' and 'wash'. But there is

no difference in the pronunciation of the sounds by some Nigerians such that 'watching

television' and 'washing television' sound alike.

There are some techniques which when employed by teachers in the teaching of oral

English can enhance their effectiveness. These techniques some of which have been discussed

by Egwuogu (2004) include oral drills and repetitions, modelling, pronunciation games,

debates and impromptu speeches, role-playing/dramatization, simulation, panel discussions,

use of actual and concrete objects, recitation and storytelling, excursions, questioning and

turn-taking, reading aloud, matching sounds to form words and identifying the missing

sounds, free or guided conversation, and group activity.

Challenges of Teaching Oral English in Nigerian Secondary Schools

Jowitt (1991) confirms that the emphasis on proficiency in spoken English was introduced

in the New National Curriculum in English language for Nigerian Secondary Schools in the

1980s. It was previously neglected in the teaching of English in Nigeria as oral English was

made optional for the West African School Certificate students (though a compulsory course

for teacher grade II examinations). Roach (2000) confirms that pronunciation teaching has

not always been popular with teachers and language theorists and in the 1970s and 1980s. It

was fashionable to treat it as a rather outdated activity. It was claimed that it makes learners

try to sound like native speakers of Received Pronunciation, which became difficult and led

to repetitive exercises, and it also failed to give importance to communication.

Jowitt (1991), comments about the negligence of oral English teaching on teachers. He

stated that pupils unconsciously relied on mother tongue models when deprived of

consistently reliable guidance from teachers, as indeed many of teachers did: assuming that

there was a perfect correspondence between sound and spelling. Anthony (2001) and Uche

(1998) emphasize the difficulties of acquiring oracy skills. According to Williams (1990), the

factors to be enumerated could be categorised under one factor – the interference of mother

tongue. It is worth noting that for the non-native speakers, the mother tongue always affects

the acquisition of the second language. This has always, been a major problem in oral English

or pronunciation teaching especially in Nigerian schools.

Unoh (1986) also examines the situation of oral English in Nigerian secondary schools.

He asserts that teaching of English pronunciation in Nigeria suffers from peculiar handicaps

unknown to the teaching of English language or any other school subject (for that matter).

For any subject to be effectively taught, there are at least two very important conditions that

must be met: (i) a high degree of motivation on the part of both student and teacher; and (ii)

the teachers' competence in the subject, and his or her mastery of the techniques of imparting

knowledge in it. While the aforementioned conditions are rarely achieved in the teaching of

English Language, they are also hardly met in the case of the teaching and learning of English

pronunciation.

Okoli (2000) comments on the need to be proficient in the sound system of a new language

and explains that English should be pronounced in the accent normally chosen as the standard

form especially the model most often recommended for foreign learners studying standard

British English and also Received Pronunciation.


The teaching of oral English in Nigerian secondary schools has previously been

overlooked. However, recent development in the teaching of English Language requires

greater emphasis on this aspect of English language. Oral English complements the

understanding and the use of English language so as to improve the standard of spoken

English.

According to Idris (2001), not much has been achieved since the introduction of oral

English in our West African School Certificate and National Examination Council due to the

problems associated with the teaching and learning of oral English. There are existing

publications on phonology written by Linguists such as Gimson, Daniel Jones, David Jowitt,

Peter Roach, among others. Recently, there is the emergence of new publications particularly

on Oral English by other language teachers, researchers and scholars such as Mannell, Cox,

and Harrington (2009), Akperero (2000), Enyeazu (2001), Idris (2001) and Jauro (2006).

This development has gone a long way in bringing oral English into focus.

Components of Effective Oral Language Instruction

“Oral Language is the child's first, most important, and most frequently used structured

medium of communication. It is the primary means through which each individual child will

be enabled to structure, to evaluate, to describe and to control his/her experience.

In addition, and most significantly, oral language is the primary mediator of culture, the way

in which children locate themselves in the world, and define themselves with it and within

it” (Cregan, 1998, as cited in Archer, Cregan, McGough, Shiel, 2012) at its most basic level,

oral language is about communicating with other people. It involves a process of utilizing,

thinking, knowledge and skills in order to speak and listen effectively. As such, it is central

to the lives of all people.

Although the Curriculum places a strong emphasis on oral language, it has been widely

acknowledged that the implementation of the Oral Language strand has proved challenging

and “there is evidence that some teachers may have struggled to implement this component

because the underlying framework was unclear to them”. The early years are a period in

which young children are using language to learn not only about their world but also how

language can be used to serve many purposes. This knowledge is referred to as pragmatic

knowledge (Otto, 2006). One component of pragmatic knowledge is conversational skills.

Ninio and Snow (1999) as well as Weiss (2004) assert that how well children develop

conversational skills can influence how well they interact with others (as cited in Otto, 2006).

To a certain degree, children pick up this knowledge naturally, but an astute teacher or parent

plays a vital role in assisting children in their ability to be good conversationalists.

Conversing with children is not the only way to increase vocabulary, however. The

strategies teachers use while reading with and to children can also build their word banks.

Asking open ended questions (questions in which there is no right or wrong answer and to

which the adult does not “know” the answer) helps teachers assess children's comprehension

but also helps them learn more vocabulary words (Whitehurst et al., 1988, as cited in Wasik,

2006). Kerry (1982) asserts that the vast majority (approximately 80%) of “teacher talk” in

classrooms is focused on tasks: giving instructions, providing information, or correcting

behaviour. Of this talk, 80% of it consists of low-level questions that ask children to recall

information rather than open-ended questions requiring children to think at higher levels (as


cited in Jalongo, 2008). A very important consideration in using any questioning technique

is the “wait time” given to children as they formulate their response.

In addition to giving children ample time to formulate answers, how teachers respond at

that point can encourage or discourage future participation in discussions (Otto, 2006).

Attentive body language, expanding children's responses, asking clarifying questions, and

using reflective listening techniques are ways to support children's continued participation in

current and future dialogues (Otto, 2006).

The Problems of Poor Teaching Procedures

Bright and McGregor (1970) talk about what most teachers do to enhance effectiveness in

the teaching of Oral English. In their words, “The majority of teachers still use reading aloud

as their main weapon in the battle to improve their pupils' Oral English. They then listen for

mistakes and “correct” the items as they arise by interrupting the reader and requiring him

to repeat a word or phrase in accordance with the model they provide”. Bright and McGregor

argue that this procedure is objective and is objectionable on a number of counts which

include the fact that:

i. It interferes with the proper business of the reading lesson, which is to create

imaginative response in the mind of the learner.

ii. Where it is used frequently, it slows down reading speed whereas the objective is to

increase it.

iii. It provides a small amount of practice for a few individuals and bores everybody else.

iv. It is highly embarrassing to the reader. Indeed, it is not unusual for a large number

of corrections to lead to a deterioration of performance.

v. The pupils' practice, such as it is, is random instead of specific. Nobody knows

whether the next thunder bolt will fall on an error of pronunciation, stress, intonation

or phrasing. After interruptions in a paragraph, teachers have even been known to

complain about lack of fluency and urge pupils to read with more expression.

vi. The exercise of reading unprepared literary material aloud is too difficult for all but

the best students.

vii. Unless students are going to be teachers or announcers, the ability to read aloud is of

little practical value compared with the ability to play an effective part in

conversations, discussions and committee meetings.

viii. Reading aloud of this kind is purposeless. Nobody listens because everybody has the

text.

In the opinion of Bright and McGregor, “reading aloud” is not a solution but a problem to

the effective teaching of Oral English. They point out that it could interfere with the reading

process, slow down the reading speed, and bore the student, and so on.

Methodology

The study examined the factors responsible for students' performance in oral English. The

study focused on staff and students of five selected secondary schools within Yola metropolis:

the schools selected include: Government Day Secondary School, Karewa, General Murtala


Mohammed College, Yola, Government Girls' Secondary School, Yola, Government Day

Secondary School, Luggere and Capital Day Secondary School, Yola.

A survey research design was used for the study. Njodi and Bwala 2004 are of opinion

that considerations should be paid to the conditions that exist with practices that prevail in

the teaching of oral English in secondary schools across the country. A sample is a subset of

a population selected for the purpose of a study, it is a fraction of the whole, selected to

participate in the research (Burns & Grove, 2001). In this research a subset of 40 students

and 10 teachers was selected for the study. The procedure for the research is the random

sampling technique which involves the selection of a given number of variables from a

population.

The questionnaire was personally administered to the respondents, and later collected. The

structured questionnaire was used to capture the relevant data needed for the study. Simple

frequency and percentage distribution was adopted. The data collected was presented in

tabular form and frequencies

Results and Discussion

Table 1: Teacher related response

Responses/Frequencies

S/No Items/Questions Yes No

1. Does ineffective teaching methodology cause student’s

poor performance in Oral English?

85 15

2. Are you satisfied students’ response in Oral English

language class

22 78

3. Do you have enough teaching aids for Oral English? 11 89

4. Are all the recommended text available for the

subjects?

14 86

5. Do you have a language laboratory in your schools? 00 100

6. Do you think the lack of language laboratory affect the

teaching of Oral English?

95 05

7. Do you have enough periods for Oral English in the

school’s Time- Table?

92 08

Total 325 375

Percentage % 35.99% 41.53%

Description for the above table

The above table shows that 85% of the respondents indicate that ineffective teaching

methodology militate against students' poor performance in English language while the

minority of 15% of the respondents think otherwise. 22% of the respondents are contended

with the response of their students in class while 78 respondents state that is 78% of the

respondents are of the opinion that there should be an improvement in the response of students

in class. Consequently, it can be deduced that students find oral English difficult that is why

they seem not to respond well in class. 11% of the respondents are contended with the

teaching aid they have in the school while 89% of the respondents are of the opinion that

there should be an improvement in the teaching aid used in the schools for the teaching Oral


English. Equally, 14% of the respondents are of the opinion that the schools do not lack the

recommended text books that are required for the teaching of oral English, while 86% of the

respondents believe a lot more in terms of provision of the required text for the teaching of

oral English should be put in place.

Meanwhile, it is obvious that the school does not have a language laboratory which is a

bad sign for the school and the learning of oral English cannot effectively take place. So,

there is no doubt that almost all the teachers agree to the fact the non- existence of a language

laboratory in the school is a huge milestone in the quest to give a sound knowledge of the

concept of oral English to the students. As 92% of the respondents agree that they have

enough time for oral English language teaching on the Time-Table, while 08% of the

respondents said that the periods allotted on the time-table is not sufficient for the effective

learning of oral English,

Table 2: Student related response

8. Do you like Oral English lesson? 45 65

9. Do you take Oral English in your terminal exams? 95 05

10. Does the Oral English teacher go to class regularly? 22 78

11. Do you study Oral English on your own? 45 55

Total 202 203

Percentage % 49.88% 50.12%

Description for the above table

In table 2, 45% of the students do not like oral English lessons while 65% like the lesson.

This therefore, indicates that a lot of the students in the schools are not comfortable with oral

English classes. However, a greater number of the students are comfortable with the subject.

Item serial number 9 on table indicates that 95% of the respondents agree to the fact they

always take the terminal exams in oral English; and only 05% of them say they do not from

this it can be deduced that even though these students take terminal exams in oral English

they still find it difficult to pass the exams; and as for the class attendance by teachers who

teach oral English, 22% of the students say the teachers do attend class regularly, and78%

of the students say that the teachers do not come to class regularly which can definitely affect

the students' performance. Failure of teachers to go to class signifies certain traits of

problems, some of which can be lack preparedness on the part of the teachers and

incompetence to an extent. The table equally shows that 45% of the students surveyed say

that they have extra time to study oral English on their own, while the remaining 55% only

rely on what is taught in class. It is pertinent that class work alone cannot give the students

the required knowledge in oral English and so students should be encouraged to study more

on their own.


Conclusion

The basic aim of this study was to identify the problems of teaching oral English in

Government Day Secondary School Karewa, General Murtala Mohammed College, Yola,

Government Girls' Secondary School, Yola, Government Day Secondary School, Luggere

and Capital Day Secondary School, Yola.

The researcher was able to identify that there is a need to make more efforts towards the

teaching of oral English in schools. Students will learn a great deal in the concept of oral

English if the right learning environment is provided. The study was conducted through the

use of questionnaires which were administered among the teachers and students and they

responded based on their personal experience s and opinions.

The major findings of the research work that show the problems that to poor performance

by students are: inadequate teaching materials and insufficiency of qualified teachers as well

as poor motivation by and of the teachers is a major setback in the learning and teaching of

oral English. It simply means that the materials required for good teaching are not there

which makes teaching and learning very tedious. There is a lack of motivation on the part of

the teachers which makes students to lose interest. Lastly, the students are not given enough

periods for learning oral English in most of the schools.

Having done a critical review of the problems of teaching oral English, there is need for

a turnaround taking into consideration the various issues in this study and findings made. The

research hereby makes the following recommendations towards the production of effective

oral English students. There is need for the government to maximize efforts in the provision

of adequate materials. Most importantly, language laboratories and equipment should be

provided for the teachers and students to engage in constant practice of the Received

Pronunciation (RP) pattern of English language.

There should be more emphasis on the quality and quantity of the teachers who are

employed and sent to teach English in the secondary schools. The English teacher must be

competent enough to handle the subject; the basic availability of teachers should be within

the limit of one teacher to Thirty (30) student (1:30). The greater task lies on the teachers

themselves, who are considered as the conveyors of information and foundation of

knowledge. There has to be determination of their side to impact knowledge on their students.

They should also device a means of encouraging and motivating the students towards

developing affection for oral English. Teachers should as well try as much as possible to

avoid mother tongue interference when they use English words before the students.

The school administration should also allocation enough time or teaching and learning of

oral English in the timetable. Apart from the fact that language learning is perfected through

regular practice and consists of usage, the incorporation of audio-visual or aural aids should

be rated of greater importance in the study of language codes and rules; especially oral

English. This will provide a basis for an alternative linguistic environment which is another

basic criterion for efficiency in language learning.


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POVERTY ALLEVIATION PROGRAMME ON ECONOMIC GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN

NIGERIA

By

Joshua D. Zoaka

Department of Economics

ABSTRACT

This paper examined the effect of poverty alleviation programme on economic growth and

development in Nigeria. A general view was done on the importance of poverty alleviation

programme as a means of achieving economic development and strategies, to achieved

economic growth through poverty alleviation. However, poverty is a pressing problem today

in Nigeria and government have been trying their best to curb this economic menace through

the program of poverty alleviation programme (PAP) in conjunction with the Nigeria

agricultural cooperative and rural development Bank (N.A.C.R.D.B). Therefore, it concluded

that Poverty has been identified as one of the major macro-economic problems, which hinder

development. Poverty is more severe in developing countries where Nigeria belong:

Recommendations were also made and they include that poverty alleviation program should

concentrate on agricultural in rural areas. There is need for government to discourage

resources mismanagement through programme like war against indiscipline (WAI) and

rehabilitation and expanding infrastructure facilities.

INTRODUCTION

Poverty alleviation is a process of reducing poverty, while economic development is the

process that viewed as a multi-dimensional phenomenon involving changes in structure in

structure and capacity as well as the output changes in organizational changes which affect

efficiency and responsiveness to new demand. Invariably development embodies

enhancement of capacity of a society of function for the wellbeing of its members in the long

run. Poverty has been defined as “a condition where people's standard of living deteriorates,

that is the amount of income (or consumption) association with minimum accepted level of

nutrition and other necessities of everyday life are lacking (Smith, Stephen 2006).

In Nigeria today poverty is a pressing problem and there is a serious attempt to arrest it.

Different administrations have tried to curb it. The World Bank (2000) agrees that the large

number of people living in Africa, Asia and Latin America are poor due to their standard of

living, most of them live in compacted homes, some are experiencing ill health and diseases,

absence of portable water and lack of financial security, invariable shelter, wealth and

clothing and lack of enough food which brings about malnutrition and some associated

diseases.

The existence of the improvement in the socio-economic formation of a society is been

ensured by development. The alleviation of poverty in any economy, it is a necessary

condition for economic development to be attained, since poverty and development goes hand

in hand with development of human beings in terms of literacy level, finance level, health

level, political freedom and emancipation, equal opportunities in term of jobs, and

environment which facilitate and ensure steady growth and development in the economy. For


development to be fostered and consolidated, some wants must be satisfied and met. Thus,

these wants are the availability of basics of human needs such as clean and portable drinking

water, food which is rich in colorific value, shelter, clothing, good and responsive health

care system, qualitative education, and most of all security without which the others cannot

be achieved.

In a nutshell, the essence development encompasses a wide range of values, needs and

things which ensure that a nation moves forwards.


A number of programs have been introduced in the past by different government (both

military and civilian), yet we hardly point out some of the achievement of such programs.

Those various program were aimed at reducing the low standard of living to a minimal level.

Increase enough income and consumption in order to live meaningful life. If demand income

and saving are low, investment also is bound to be very low. This study is therefore aimed

at mapping out how poverty alleviation programmes can be used to achieve economic

development in Nigeria. The research looked at Nigeria experience in the alleviation of

poverty and programmes directed towards the removal of heavy strains on the populace,

such as low income, unemployment and diseases.

Objectives of the Study

The broad objectives of the study are to assess the effect of poverty alleviation programme

on economic growth and development in of Adamawa State

The specific objectives include:

i. To examine the cause and effect of poverty in Adamawa State.

ii. To assess the measures and strategies adopted to achieve economic development through

poverty alleviation.

iii. To show the importance of poverty alleviation as meant of achieving economic growth

and development in Nigeria.

Significance of the Study

The study offers contribution to existing knowledge on poverty alleviation in Nigeria as

well as insight into the cause and effects of poverty. Thus, they will be helpful to students

who wish to grasp the fundamentals of poverty in Nigeria.

Researchers and planners will be offered skills and techniques which will be meaningful

in economic development of the nation.

Scope of the Study

This study assesses the effect of poverty alleviation programme on economic growth and

development in Nigeria, but was restricted to Adamawa state as a case study.


THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Concept and Nature of Poverty

The concept of poverty has generated a lot of controversies pertaining its definition.

Some contributions have been made at showing the problems of what constitute poverty

and how to identify the poor at any particular point in time. Economic in quality has long

been associated with human existence; poverty it is known today is much more recent

phenomenon, at a certain point in history and is tied to a particular form of economic and

social organization. Poverty is not the same as inequality although they are closely related.

To be poor is not just to have less than others, it is also to be without the means of security

the necessary requirement of life.

The inequality denotes difference in income or wealth. The Oxford English Dictionary

(2005) stressed that it is: inequality, disparity in magnitude or quality of income or wealth

and believes inequality carters on measuring the fact of occupying a more or less

advantageous position. People are considered poor if their standard of living falls below the

poverty line, that is the amount of income or (consumption) associated with a minimum

acceptable level of nutrition and other necessities of everyday life (World Bank, 2000). This

definition makes clear choice on three issues to be decided upon when identifying the poor,

these are, whether an objective or subjective measure. If an objective one, which of the

possible dimension of poverty is to be focus on. Given the dimension to be adopted in

identifying the poor it depends whether to fix poverty lines in absolute or relative terms.

William (1981) closes objective approach with income or more often standard of poverty

line. The choice of the concept of poverty would be highlighted shortly before the aspects of

poverty are looked at. The first conceptual issue about poverty is whether to use a subjective

or objective approach that is the dimension of poverty to be analysed chosen with reference

to those things or criteria held to be most important in this measurement either by society or

by the poor themselves.

The second issue concerned indicators, and this illustrate that income poverty is just one

of several dimensions of poverty which ranges from basic needs to political freedom. The

third conceptual issue is whether to use an absolute or relative definition of poverty. An

absolute poverty line can be set with respect to minimum consumption need for survival

purpose, often determined in relation to calorie requirement whereas relative poverty takes

to accounts societal norms so that definition of the minimum socially acceptance level of

consumption tends to rise with a country's overall standard of living. The genesis of poverty

lies in the origin of capitalism, within a capitalism economy, workers do not own or confront

the means of production, the factories they work in or the tools they work with, instead the

seal their labour power to those who own the means of production in returns ways. What

laborers produce does not belong to them, but to those who employ them, the surplus is taken

by the owners of the means of production. (Maduagwu & Anthony, 2000)

Poverty is viewed as consisting of lack of resources in an absolute sense. In this viewpoint,

the poor are these who are unable to maintain a minimum subsistence level of living. This is

known as the absolute subsistence concept of poverty. Novak (1998 ) argued that poverty is

much more than just a level of income, it also involves question of power and lack of

choice and he confirmed that poverty is seen in the context of class. According to him, if

a society is divided between those who own nothing but their labour, power and those who


own the mean of production of wealth, are in position to command the livelihood of the

majority who do not own anything except labour power.

Essentially, it is easy to identify the poor. They have meagre incomes , they are illiterate

and in poor health , they have short life spans, their colonies in take are below minimum,

they lack access to basic necessities of life , such as clothing, food descent shelter and are

unable to meet social and economic obligation, they lack scale with which to get gainful

employment they have adequate possession or economic asset and sometime lack self-esteem

(Olayemi, 1995)

Poverty Alleviation in Nigeria

Poverty has earned recognition in the extent of its ravaging society and the affairs of

humanity at the international, national and local levels. The need exists now for urgent actions

towards its eradication and control. Indeed, poverty is a snare. It is dehumanizing it must be

eradicated (World Bank, 2002).

In a bid to overcome poverty, government initiated different policies and programs

between 1986 and 2004 to alleviate it. These programmes include: Community Bank (CB)

National Poverty Eradication Programme (NAPEP), Poverty Eradication Programme (PEP)

Directorate of Food Road and Rural Infrastructure (DFFRI) Direct Employment (NDE),

People Bank of Nigeria (PBN) Family Support Programme (FSP) National Economic

Empowerment Development Strategy (NEEDS), Better Life Programme (BLP) and Family

Economic Advancement Programme FEAP whose aim were to ameliorate the suffering of

the people by providing them employment opportunities and access to credit facilities to

enable them establish their own business.

Faced with the problem of poverty in the country by successive government in the past,

the Federal Government under the present democratic to dispensation put in place policies

and programme to ameliorate the suffering of the people. These policies are initiated at home

and received support from abroad including the World Bank. For instance, in a bid to reduce

poverty, the World Bank has assisted the country in various projects. Since 1961 that Nigeria

joined the World Bank, the country has received assistance of 120 projects worth $1.87

billion (World Bank 2006). These projects includes:-

a. The Micro Small and Medium enterprises (MSMES)

This is use $32 million project which aims increase the performance and employment

levels of micro-small and medium enterprises in selected non-oil industry subs-sectors in

three targeted states of the country. The purpose of this scheme is to diversify the Nigerian

economy from replying solely on crude oil as her source of foreign exchange earner.

b. Local Empowerment and Environmental Management Project (LEEMP):-

This is a US $70 $70 million operation, that seeks to strengthen the institutional framework

at all three levels of government (Local Government, State and Federal Government) to

support an environmentally sustainable, and socially inclusive development and to pro-state

beneficiary’s participation in the planning, co-financing, and implementing of multispectral

micro-project (IBID).


c. The Second Nation Fadama Development Project

This is a US $100 million project with objective to sustainable increase in income of

Fadama resources (fishers, gardeners, hunters, and pastoralist and service providers). The

purpose of this project is to provide meaningful means of livelihood to nomadic cattle's rears

in the northern part, hunters, and fishermen in the southern part of Nigeria with a view to

enhancing their living standard.

Courses and Effect of Poverty

The poverty in Nigeria is essentially related to income distribution. Income is not enough

to go round so that everybody has enough. Many of the factors responsible for

impoverishment in Nigeria can also be attributed to under development economy factor socio-

cultural, technology, over population and capital deficiencies. (Afouja, 2003).

a. Rapid Population Growth

Population growth in the developing world has been more rapid that is was in Europe and

America (Known Hung, 1976). Nigeria population problem is largely, due to growth rates

rather than density. Nigerian's population was projected to have raised to 95.2 million from

93.3 million in 1993 thus growing annual growth rate of 3.6 percent in (Nigeria Population

Commission 2006). The Nigerian's population is approximately 148 million (CBN 2009).

b. Under Development

The most obvious reason for poverty is under development of the country. It makes a large

percentage of the populace to go without even the most essential needs of daily life because

total national income and hence aggregate consumption is too small to the enormous size of

the population (Seers, 1969)

c. Inflation

A continues and persistent like in the general price rise the purchasing power of money

falls and they lead to the improvement of the lower middle and poorer section of the society.

d. Low Capital Formation

Nigerians level of savings has been generally low and thus not augured well for productive

investment in Nigeria. This is partly due to capital flight and dept accumulation and has thus

hindered economic development. The needs of capital formation or accumulation become

imperative if viewed in the context of increasing a country`s stock of real capital.

e. Technological Backwardness

A very serious obstacle to economic development of developing countries is the nation of

technological backwardness. In several case this a greater obstacle than the scarcity of capital,

which has been given a somewhat exaggeration importance. For instance, while the discovery


of minerals and export market can lead to increase income for all, but technology

backwardness does make it possible (Agwumike, 2003).

f. Unemployment Rate:

In economic, it is wildly agreed that inflation and unemployment are indirectly related.

When the level of employment raises inflation rate falls and vice versa.

g. Corruption

This is a serious problem in the country. Money which accrued to governments at all level

are stolen and kept in private Bank Account, at home and abroad by public officials. No

meaningful investment which would have generated employment for the people could take

place in an environment plagued with corrupt practices.

h. Regional Disparities

The distribution of poverty is not even in the country there exist extreme disparities

accounting for the poverty of the people of certain region against property of others. For

instance, Lagos, Port Hart Court and Kano are the richest in term of per capital income on

the basic of rapid industrialization.

Various Circle of Poverty

Aspect of various circle of poverty area as follows:-

i. Since less money is spent per capital on school attained by student, they spent fewer

years in school, perform poorly and must often do not obtain Certificate, Diploma

and Degree which are essential for getting jobs (Chambers, 1995).

ii. Health Nutrition and Safety: -

The poor have less nourishing diet and more birth defects, accident diseases and

mental illness than others, they more likely to have reduced intelligence quotient

(IQ).As results of these factors of taking food, that does not have high calorific

value plus absent of proper prenatal and infant sensory deprivation, the poor are

more likely to be alcoholic and narcotic addicts. Absenteeism at work and school,

low energy and low productivity level.

Poverty Alleviation and Development

Poverty alleviation is defined as a process of reducing lessening or abolishing poverty.

The word alleviation could be used in various ways for the purpose of this research,

alleviation means reduction. Economic development is process of improving the quality of

human lives. Raising people living levels that is their income does this and consumption level

will improve medical services, education e.tc will be put through relevant growth processes,

the creation of condition that are conductive to the growth of people self-esteem through the

establishment system and institution which promote human dignity and respect and increasing


people freedom to drive by entering the range of their choice variable. For instance,

increasing varieties of consumer's goods and services (Myrtal, 1976).

Economic development is viewed as an act of process whereby the economic goes through

process of natural growth differentiation or evolution by a successive change from a less

perfect to a more perfect or more highly organized state.

The World Bank (2006) state the primary task of development is to eliminate poverty. the

United Bank for Africa (UBA) Business and Economic Digest emphasizes that in the long

run, the permanent solution to the problem of poverty is through a calculated and conscious

economic growth in the range of 5-7 percentage.

The pervasiveness of poverty in Nigeria is so compounding that there were thought of

proffering acceptable and workable modalities, if its eradication in the long run is not only

intimidation, alleviation, goes hand in hand. Without poverty alleviation, development in any

economic particularly Nigeria is impossible. In this view, social welfare is seen as function

of Nigeria development.

Conclusion

In conclusion, poverty is one of the micro-economic problems that are hindering economic

development in Nigeria. Government in its efforts to alleviate poverty s among people has

introduce a number of programmes, which is believed to effective in alleviation poverty, but

the problem is that limited number of people are benefiting from such programmed. Also,

other problem like inflation are making things thing difficult for the impact of such programs

to be felt.

Recommendations

Based on the literature and the conclusion above the researcher wishes to recommend that-:

i. Tackling major policy lapses head on which have depraved agriculture and agro- business

the former prominence that these enjoyed in a year past. This is certainly even more

relevance in the case northern Nigeria.

ii. There is need for government to discourage resources mismanagement through

programmers like war against indiscipline.

iii. Government should provide generous and attract time incentives for private initiate

programmed could be in form of grants, tax break, or seed capital for starting new

economic activities that would aim at rehabilitate the poor.

iv. The poor should be help and thought how self- help cooperatively initiated in implement

project, by first identifying their need, prioritizing those need and designing and implement

strategies regarding same.

vi. Pro-poor policies should target education health and housing.


vi. Sponsorship of micro-credit programmed which world aid women and girls improve their

lot at the rural areas. Mainstream economic activity for privet alleviation world require a

detailed, step by step and systematic analyses of the nation and northern Nigerian's

agricultural policy in particular. It is however, recommended that a tri-partite approach be

adopted in this regard to include the public sector, private and NGO'S for accountability.

On the prorate side inched world-be formers, at various levels private agro-business

enterprise, and venture capitalist.

REFERENCES

Afouja B. and Ogunika O.F (2003): “meaning measurement, and courses of poverty” (Pp:

316).

Agwumike, fidelis (2003) an appraised of poverty reduction strategies in Nigeria: Central

Bank of Nigeria (CBN) (2009) economic and financial review, vol 39 no. 4 Chambers R

(1995): poverty livelihood whose reality counts” a policy paper commission by UNDP for

the world bank summit for social development.

Known. Hung (2000): the concept of power: identify the causes and ideas of poverty east St.

Louis action research project.

Maduagwu, Anthony (2000) alleviating poverty in Nigeria Africa economic analysis.

Myrtal (1976): “Poverty eradication as indices for economic development”

Novak T. (1998): “Poverty and they state, an historical sociology” University Press

Philadelphia is edition Pp: 185-188”.

Oleyemi J. K. (2001) a survey of approach to poverty alleviation” a paper presented at the

national workshop on integration of poverty alleviation strategies into place and

programme in Nigeria. Oxford English Dictionary (2005) Oxford University Press

Seers O. (1969): the meaning of development international development counted and

measuring of social and economic development: Pp: 102-107

Smith, Stephen (2006): how to help the poor out of poverty” retrieved from htt://www.global

policy forum.org.com.

William, G. (1981) “The World Bank and the Problem” in Rural

World Bank (2000), World Development Report, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

World Bank (2006), Nigeria: Poverty in the midst of Plenty. The Challenge of Growth with

Inclusion. A World Bank Poverty Assessment.

World Bank (2002) The Assault on World Poverty. John Hopkins University Press,

Baltimore, USA.


THE NEED FOR ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC GRAPHICS IN ENGINEERING AND RELATED

CURRICULA

By

Mohammed Usman Michika

Electrical/Electronic Department

ABSTRACT

This paper documents the needs of electrical and electronics graphics to introductory general

engineering graphics curricula. It includes an overview of the architectural, mechanical, and

electrical/electronic graphics language. The electrical/electronic field is the largest branch

of engineering and continues to grow. This dynamical changing field interfaces with

architectural, civil, mechanical, industrial, computer, and other many disciplines of

engineering. A common, seamless, and interrelated graphics language is used to prepare

drawings and diagrams by engineering design group. Electrical/electronic graphics is

frequently overlooked in introductory engineering graphics courses and texts. Electrical and

electronic graphics is part of the universal engineering graphic language used to prepare,

read, and interpret plans, and should be included in engineering and related curricula. This

paper describe how electrical/electronic graphics can be incorporated to effectively introduce

students to design, creative thinking, visualization, and the understanding of the widely used

graphics language.

INTRODUCTION

Engineering graphics is a fundamental communication medium used by technically trained

people worldwide to design, construct, and operate structures, machines, or products. The

registered professional engineer assumes a working and legal responsibility for the technical

correctness of a device or design as represented by the engineering graphic language.

Engineering graphics cannot be described in English nor visualized in math. It is a unique

language which is indispensable in generating, forming, reading, and transmitting ideas.

Graphics is a universal technical language without equal: a vocabulary of engineering with

its own alphabet, symbols, abbreviations, slang, terms, idioms, grammar, and conventions.

The design effort is hampered by the inability of engineers to read their design plans or to

read the interfacing plans of the other engineering disciplines. Graphic illiteracy creates a

schism in engineering not only between applied and research engineers but also between

engineers of different disciplines. Industry readiness requires a working knowledge of the

engineering graphics language. Graphic illiteracy should not be tolerated in the Information

Age.

The Disciplines of Engineering Graphics

The three main disciplines of engineering graphics are architectural, mechanical, and

electrical/electronic graphics. Architectural graphics is generally used in the representation


of large-scale structures, machines, or products. Examples include: buildings, bridges,

towers, ships, aircraft, pipe, vent, and cable systems. Architectural graphics has been used

since ancient times, and is more widely used in modern times as structures become larger

and more complex. The methods of architectural representation include orthographic (plans

and elevations) with associated sections and details, axonometric, and perspective.

Mechanical graphics is generally used to represent objects at or near full size – for

example: half or double size. Major mechanical drawing methods include detail and assembly

drawings. Methods of pictorial representation include orthographic, axonometric, and

oblique drawings with associated details, sections, and developments. Mechanical graphics

has become more highly developed and widely used during the Industrial Revolution.

Mechanical graphics is frequently taught as the only “engineering graphics”, with

architectural and electrical/electronic graphics omitted.

Electrical/electronic graphics represents the largest of engineering disciplines, surpassing

all others in the 1970's. This is the newest form or dialect of engineering graphics with most

of its growth occurring in the twentieth century. Electrical/electronic graphics differs

markedly from the more closely related architectural and mechanical graphics. Electrical and

electronic symbology and drawings are not drawn to scale unless required by a structure

(printed-circuit board) or machine interface. The electrical and electronic engineering

drawings include block, line, schematic, wiring, terminal, and logic diagrams. Architectural

and mechanical based electrical/electronic drawings include: contracts, guidance,

arrangement, and installation drawings.

Description of Electrical/Electronic Graphics

The electrical/electronic graphics language functions as a common interface between the

major engineering disciplines and is in common usage throughout industry worldwide. For

instructional purposes, the presentation of electrical/electronic graphics to first-year students

may be divided into two divisions.

The parent division, electrical graphics, may be taught as generation, transmission, and

distribution of electrical power for residential, commercial, and industrial users. Industrial

users include lighting, heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC), and most types of

equipment operation. All engineering graphics students should know basic electrical graphical

symbols including receptacles, switches, batteries, fuses, and circuit breakers. Cable and

wiring drawings, including their colour coding, and wire connectors should also be presented.

Student design projects might include basic power riser diagrams, circuit mapping,

transmission diagrams, and substation layouts.

The electronics graphics division is far larger than the electrical graphics. Electronics

graphics may be taught as the processing and control of electrical energy in small amounts.

Electronics includes: computers, circuitry of appliances, guidance and control systems, and

communications networks. Electronics symbols include many discrete components from

integrated circuits to be a power vacuum tube. Students should recognize basic electronic

symbols such as transistors, diodes, resistors, inductors, capacitors, relays and solid-state

circuitry including a variety of internal descriptive and external interconnection symbols.


Student design projects include the application and interconnection of power tubes,

transistors, solid-state and integrated circuits as applied to alarms, radios, televisions, and

computers.

Suggestions for Curriculum Delivery

The electrical/electronic education model includes emphasis on visualization, training in

form and arrangement, rapid and accurate sketching techniques [1] and electrical/electronic

based computer software packages such as AutoCad for printed-circuit wiring. The

widespread use of freehand sketching and electrical/electronic-based computer software

within the industrial application of electrical/electronic graphics the documents the need for

its instruction. Presentation of curriculum material may evolve towards competency-based

instruction. The curriculum material may be delivered, taught, and evaluated Just-In-Time

so that the preceding and following knowledge is linked. The electrical/electronic engineering

graphics is incorporated into an introductory engineering course. It is delivered under the

following four topics:

Drafting Practices

i. Diagram Titles states the type of diagram or components

ii. Drawing Size and Format, specified by ANSI Y14.1, describes drawing sheet size

and layouts.

iii. ANSI Line Weight Conventions are used for electrical and electronic diagrams.

iv. Lettering is size and font is specified. 4. Standards

Symbols

i. Graphic Symbols (ANSI Y32.2) describe how combinatorial symbols can be drawn

and explained on the drawing.

ii. Graphical Symbols include geometrical design representing an electrical or electronic

device or component.

Diagrams

i. Power Riser Diagrams may be the most frequently used diagrams on electrical

working drawings. They show the required components and how these components

are interconnected.


ii. Circuit Mapping uses numbers and electrical symbols that describe the working

drawing of the electrical system.

Block Diagrams are similar to flow charts. They typically consist of interconnected

single lines and rectangular blocks that indicate major functions of component parts

of a circuit or system.

iii. Line Diagrams consist of single lines and graphic symbols. They are typically used to

indicate the course of the circuit or system with principal circuit connections.

iv. Schematic Diagrams are elementary diagrams that consist of single lines, graphic

symbols

v. that show circuit connections and functions without showing the physical size, shape,

or location of devices. They are used in performing design calculations, selecting

components, and troubleshooting the circuit.

vi. Wiring Diagrams or Connection Diagrams are used to show the connections of

component devices which form the circuit. They show the general physical

arrangement of and the internal and/or external connections.

vii. Terminal Diagrams are used to show the internal circuits of a unit or device and its

relationship to the terminal configuration, locating the terminal with respect to the

shape or outline of the device. Logic Diagrams contain logic symbols and notes, and

the details of signal flow and control.

Standards

i. ANSI Y32.9-1972 (Reaffirmed 1989) American National Standard Graphic Symbols

for Electrical Wiring and Layout Diagrams Used in Architecture and Building

Construction IEEE Std 815-1975 (Reaffirmed 1989) Standard Graphical Symbols for

Electrical and Electronics Diagrams (ANSI/DoD approved)

ii. IEEE Std 815A-1986 Supplement to Standard

iii. Graphical Symbols for Electrical and Electronics Diagrams (ANSI/DoD approved)

iv. Z10.1 – Abbreviation for Scientific Engineering Terms

v. IEEE STD 200-1975 (Reaffirmed 1988) Standard Reference Designations for

Electrical and Electronics Parts and Equipment (ANSI/DoD approved)

vi. Students should become familiar with selected Institute of Electrical and Electronics

Engineer (IEEE) standards, American National Standard Institute (ANSI) standards,

and International Standards Organization (ISO) standards, National Fire Protection

Association (NFPA) standards, and Electronic Industry of America (EIA) standards,

as well as general specifications (GEN SPECS) and military circuit specifications


(MIL SPECS). Students should understand how, where, and when to apply governing

standards to electrical and electronic design.

Future Curriculum Development

For several years, the IEEE and ANSI have worked with the ISO Secretariat to devise a set

of international standards for Documentation and Graphical Symbols. These will include four

subsets of graphical documents:

i. Graphical Symbols for Diagrams that will contain rules for symbol elements, basic or

general symbols, qualifying or additional symbols, conceptual symbols, and rules for

different forms and orientations of symbols.

ii. Documentation that will contain graphical symbols for use in documentation and for

use on equipment; general rules for preparing technical documentation of a device,

equipment,

iii. system, or plant, including diagrams, charts, and other descriptions; definition and

coordination of the information required to plan, develop, describe, install, maintain,

and operate a device, equipment, system, or plant, taking into account all facilities of

information processing systems, their data handling and system independent data

exchange formats.

iv. Graphical Symbols for Use on Equipment that will contain standards for the creation

of graphical symbols; the graphical symbols themselves, and graphical symbols for

use on equipment.

v. Data Sets for Libraries of Electric Component Data that will contain standards for

data sets suitable for inclusion in libraries of data (in human-readable and machine-

readable and processible form) on electric components, including electronic and

electromechanical components to be used in computer-aided design, manufacturing,

and testing; including technical data elements, geometrical shapes, graphical symbols,

and models for simulation of the function.

The following is a list of available IEEE standards categories for which documents have been

developed. In establishing curriculum topics for graphics, the asterisked (*) categories are

suggested for inclusion in graphics course(s).

IEEE Standards Categories

Aerospace Electronics

Antennas & Propagation

Circuits & Systems*


Communications*

Information Technology*

Abbreviated Test Language for all Systems (ATLAS)*

Bus Architectures & Microprocessors/Microcomputers

Computer Glossaries

Design Automation

Local & Metropolitan Area Networks (LAN/MAN) (802's)

Portable Applications (POSIX)

Software Engineering

Test Technology

Electrical Insulation

Electricity Metering

Electromagnetics

Electron Devices*

Instrumentation & Measurement

Magnetics Medical Device Communications

National Electric Code*

National Electrical Safety Code*

Nuclear Engineering

Power Electronics*

Power & Energy*

Cement Industry Applications

Dispersed Power Generation

Electric Machinery

Insulated Conductors

Insulation Coordination


Marine Transportation

Petroleum & Chemical

Pole Line Hardware

Power Capacitors

Power Dielectrics & Insulation

Power Distribution & Regulating Transformers

Power Generation

Power Systems

Protective Relaying

Roadway Lighting

Static Power Converters

Substation & Switchgear

Surge-Protective Devices

Transmission Line Construction

Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics, & Frequency Control

Symbols, Designations, & Units*

Students should at least be aware of the above categories

and their general content. They will learn the details on the job.

Transmission & Distribution

Conclusion

An industrial strength graphics program based on a balanced architectural, mechanical,

and electrical/electronic graphics will prepare students for upper-level courses and

employment in the engineering field. A deficiency in graphics education creates a vertical

weakness in the engineering curriculum as it impacts the design process in future courses.

Student enhancement of electrical/electronic graphics material is necessary so they can read

and prepare design drawings, communicate creative design effectively, and visualize the

entire engineering project. Graphic literacy across the engineering spectrum creates a

common base among applied and research engineering, engineering technology, designers,


drafters, and technically trained people worldwide. Enhancement and enrichment of

electrical/electronic graphics is vital to all engineering and technical disciplines.

REFERENCES

Hansberry, Eric W. (1989), “Sketching in the Graphics Curriculum”, Proceedings of ASEE-

EDGD Mid-Year Meeting

Hansberry, Eric. W (1990), “The Need for Architectural Graphics in the General

Engineering Curriculum”, ASEE 1 Annual Conference

Hulbert, Thomas E., Hansberry, Eric W., and Angus, Robert B. (1995), Just-In-Time

Education: An Idea Whose Time is Overdue, Proceedings of ASEE Annual Conference

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