sedimentary and diagenetic mineral deposits: a basin ... a… · synsedimentary deposits and basin...
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REVIEWS IN ECONOMIC G E O L O G Y
(ISSN 0741-0123) Volumc 5
SEDIMENTARY AND DIAGENETIC MINERAL
DEPOSITS: A BASIN ANALYSIS APPROACH
TO EXPLORATION ISBN 0-9613074-4-7
Volume Editors
E . R. FORCE U.S. Geological Survey
Gould-Simpson Bldg. University of Arizona
Tucson, A Z 85721
J. J. E l D E L Illinois State Geological Survey
615 E. Peabody Drive Champaign, I L 61820
Short Course Convener
L B . MAYNARD Department of Geology University of Cincinnati
Cincinnati, O H 45221-0013
Series Editor: JAMES M . ROBERTSON
New Mexico Bureau of Mines & Mineral Resources Campus Station Socorro, NM 87801
SOCIETY OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGISTS
C O N T E N T S
Part I : Introduction
Chapter 1 - B A S I N A N A L Y S I S FOR T H E M I N E R A L INDUSTRY 1
T H E R O L E O F B A S I N A N A L Y S I S I N E X P L O R A H O N F O R S E D I M E N T - H O S T E D O R E D E P O S I T S 1
W O R L D - C L A S S O R E D E P O S I T S , B A S I N T Y P E A N D H I S T O R Y 5
V A R I A T I O N I N O R E D E P O S I T S A N D B A S I N S T H R O U G H G E O L O G I C H M E 8
O R E M I N E R A L O C C U R R E N C E S A N D D E P T H O F M I N E R A L I Z A H O N 8
D A T A S O U R C E S F O R B A S I N A N A L Y S I S 8 A D V A N C E S I N G E O L O G Y , G E O C H E M I S T R Y , A N D
G E O P H Y S I C S T H A T A P P L Y T O E X P L O R A T I O N F O R S E D I M E N T - H O S T E D O R E D E P O S I T S 10 CRUSTAL PROCESSES 10 LABORATORY TECHNIQUES 11 COMPUTER TECHNIQUES 11
R E F E R E N C E S 11 A P P E N D I X 13
Chapter 2 - S E D I M E N T A R Y PROCESSES AS ORE-F O R M I N G PROCESSES 17
S E Q U E N T I A L E V O L U T I O N O F S Y N S E D I M E N T A R Y A N D D I A G E N E T I C O R E D E P O S I T S 17
S O L U H O N I N T E R E A C E S A S L O C I O E M A S S I V E P R E C I P I T A T I O N 17
T H E S T R A H G R A P H I C C O L U M N A S S U C C E S S I V E E Q U I L I B R I A 18
S Y N S E D I M E N T A R Y D E P O S I T S A N D B A S I N A N A L Y S I S 19
P A L E O C L I M A T E 20 REFERENCES 20
h r t IL Basin Analysis and Sedimentary Processes
Clapler 3—RATIONALE FOR M O D E R N BASIN A N A L Y S I S APPLIED T O ORE DEPOSITS 21
H I S T O R Y O F B A S I N A N A L Y S I S 21 LUX A N D F L U I D F L O W 22 H E W O F T H E S T R A H G R A P H I C R E C O R D . . .22
. TLTIE O E S E D I M E N T A R Y G E O L O G Y 23
4 - B A S I N - F O R M I N G PROCESSES 25 r : 25 - / - S U B S I D E N C E 27
U -̂L S U B S I D E N C E 31 L _STE S T R E S S 34
. : C S U B S I D E N C E A N D G E O H I S T O R Y - - ^ - - ^ I S I S 36
Ciaoter 5—SEDIMENTARY BASIN H _ \ S S i n C A H O N 43
" U C H O N 43 - H C T O N I C B A S I N C L A S S I F I C A T I O N S 43
C L A S S I F I C A T I O N U S E D I N T H I S C H A P T E R 45 CRITERIA 45 BASIN TYPES 46
T E C T O N I C V E R S U S G E O C H E M I C A L B A S I N C L A S S I F I C A T I O N 47
Chapter 6 - B A S I N SEDIMENTOLOGY A N D S T R A T I G R A P H Y - T H E B A S I N FILL 51
P A L E O G E O G R A P H Y 51 M O D E R N PALEOGEOGRAPHIC PRINCIPLES 51 PALEO-UPWELLING 52 PALEO-DISTRIBUTION OF CARBONATE ROCKS 52
B A S I N C L A S T I C S E D I M E N T O L O G Y A N D E A C I E S . . . 54 INTRODUCTION 54 A L L U V I A L FANS 56 BRAIDED STREAMS 57 ANASTOMOSING STREAMS 58 M E A N D E R I N G STREAMS 58 E o L i A N S A N D BODIES 58 COASTAL BARRIER I S L A N D SYSTEMS 58 INTERTIDAL FLATS 58 DELTAS 59 CONTINENTAL SHELVES 59 SUBMARINE FANS 59 SUMMARY OF SANDSTONE VERTICAL SEQUENCES 61 BLACK SHALES 62
B A S I N S T R A T I G R A P H Y 64 INTRODUCTION 64 CRATONIC SEQUENCES 64 SEA LEVEL, SEQUENCE A N D SEISMIC STRATIGRAPHY 66 SEA-LEVEL EVOLUTION 68 CRITIQUE OF SEA-LEVEL CURVES BY V A I L ET AL. (I977A) A N D
H A Q ET AL. (1987, 1988) 73 IMPACT OF SEA-LEVEL ANALYSIS O N STRATIGRAPHIC
CONCEPTS 78 TRANSGRESSIVE-REGRESSIVE SEQUENCES 79
G L O B A L S E D I M E N T A R Y C Y C L E S 80 T W O PHANEROZOIC SUPERCYCLES 83 M i L A N K O V I T C H C Y C L E S 87
Chapter 7 - D I A G E N E S I S A N D FLUID M O V E M E N T -BASIN M A T U R A T I O N 91
I N T R O D U C H O N 91 S A N D S T O N E D I A G E N E S I S 91 S I M P L I F I E D O V E R V I E W O F O R G A N I C C H E M I S T R Y 95 B A S I N H Y D R O G E O L O G Y 97
Chapter 8—SYNTHESIS: BRIEF EXAMPLES OF B A S I N A N A L Y S I S 103
I N T R O D U C H O N 103 B A S I N A N A L Y S I S O F T H E N O R T H S E A 103 A R K O M A B A S I N 110 P A C I F I C O C E A N B A C K A R C B A S I N S 113 I L L I N O I S B A S I N 115 O R I G I N O F C R A T O N I C B A S I N S 118
Part H : References 121
If
Part I I I : Minera l Deposits and the Sedimentary Environment
Chapter 9 - P L A C E R DEPOSITS 131 M E C H A N I S M OF PLACER FORMATION 131
TYPES OF H Y D R A U L I C EQUIVALENCE 131 Settling Equivalence 131 Entrainment Equivalence 131 Transport Equivalence 132
PLACER ENRICHMENT BY SETTLING EQUIVALENCE 132 PLACER ENRICHMENT BY THE SEQUENTIAL OPERATION OF
DIFFERENT EQUIVALENCE LAWS 132 ENVIRONMENTS OF PLACER FORMATION 133
DEPOSITION 133 PRESERVATION 134
PREDEPOSITIONAL FACTORS I N PLACER FORMATION 134
BASIN CONTEXT 135 EXAMPLES 136
W i T W A T E R S R A N D 136 QUATERNARY SHORELINE DEPOSITS OF THE EASTERN
AUSTRALIA COAST 137 EXPLORATION 138 REFERENCES 139
Chapter 1 0 - I R O N : SYNGENETIC DEPOSITION C O N T R O L L E D BY T H E E V O L V I N G O C E A N -ATMOSPHERE SYSTEM 141
VERTICAL SEQUENCE 141 A L G O M A TYPE 141 LAKE SUPERIOR TYPE 142 RAPITANTYPE 142 C L I N T O N TYPE 142
TECTONIC SETTING 143 A L G O M A TYPE 143 LAKE SUPERIOR TYPE 143 RAPITANTYPE 143 C L I N T O N TYPE 144
EXPLORATION 144 REFERENCES 145
Chapter 1 1 - M A N G A N E S E : SYNGENETIC DEPOSITS O N T H E M A R G I N S OF A N O X I C BASINS 147
TYPES OF MANGANESE DEPOSITS 147 SEDIMENTARY GEOCHEMISTRY OF MANGANESE 147 BASIN C O N T E X T - D E P O S I T I O N A L BASIN 147 BASIN C O N T E X T - S T R U C T U R A L BASIN 150 GROOTE EYLANDT D E P O S I T - A N EXAMPLE OF
MANGANESE OXIDE DEPOSITION 151 M O L A N G O D E P O S I T - A N EXAMPLE OF
MANGANESE CARBONATE DEPOSITION 153 A N A D D E N D U M FOR PRECAMBRIAN D E P O S I T S . . . 154 EXPLORATION 155 REFERENCES 156
Chapter 1 2 - E V A P O R I T E BASIN ANALYSIS 159 I N T R O D U C T I O N 159
CLIMATIC CONSTRAINTS 159 INTRACONTINENTAL BASINS 159 M A R I N E BASINS 159
The Interface Between Inf low and Out f low 159 Heat Effects 160
I N I T I A L MARINE PRECIPITAHON 160 ARAGONITE PRECIPITATION 160 BIOTA I N A N EVAPORITE BASIN 160 GYPSUM PRECIPITATION 160 CLASTICS 162
The Clay Fraction 162 M A R I N E CHLORIDE DEPOSITS 162
The Precipitation Sequence 162 Site of Potash Deposits 163 Red and White Carnallites 163 Tachyhydrite 163 Evolution of Evaporites 164
BASIN CONFIGURATION A N D FACIES DISTRIBUTION 164 Significance of Precipitation Rates 164 Synsedimentary Subsidence 164 Area of Water Surface 164 Depth Estimates 165
CYCLICITY OF DEPOSITION 165 EPIGENETIC ALTERATIONS 165
Porosity and Permeability 165 Anhydri t izat ion 165 Sulfatization 166
SALT DOMES 166 EFFLUENTS 167
Seepage 167 Removal of Silica 167 Disposal of the Magnesium Surplus 167 Fluid Inclusions 167 Fate of Organic Matter 167 Repositories of Organic Matter 168 Release of Base Metals 168
SUMMARY •. 168 REFERENCES 168
Chapter 1 3 - M E T A L L I F E R O U S BLACK SHALES: A C C U M U L A T I O N OF C A R B O N A N D METALS I N C R A T O N I C BASINS 171
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF BLACK SHALES 171 FOUR CASE STUDIES 172
A L U M SHALE 172 N E W A L B A N Y SHALE 173 CHINESE BLACK SHALES 173 PENNSYLVANIAN BLACK SHALES OF M I D C O N T I N E N T
N O R T H AMERICA 174 SUMMARY 175 REFERENCES 175
Chapter 1 4 - S H A L E - H O S T E D DEPOSITS OF PB, Z N , A N D BA: SYNGENETIC DEPOSITION F R O M E X H A L E D BRINES I N DEEP M A R I N E B A S I N S . . . 177
VERTICAL SEQUENCE 177 ARKANSAS 177 N E V A D A 177 MEGGEN 178 SELWYN BASIN 178
TECTONIC SETTING 178 ARKANSAS 179 N E V A D A 179 M E G G E N 179 SELWYN BASIN 180
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GEOCHEMISTRY 1 8 0 Wi lOLE-RocK CHEMISTRY 1 8 0 Si i L i u R ISOTOPES 1 8 1
l -XI 'LORATION 1 8 3 CONCLUSIONS 183 KliFERENCES 183
Chapter 1 5 - U R A N I U M : S Y N G E N E T I C T O D I A G E N E T I C D E P O S I T S I N F O R E L A N D B A S I N S 1 8 7
PAI.HOPLACERS A N D THE NATURE OF THE EARLY ATMOSPHERE 1 8 7 I ) i n RiTAL NATURE OF M I N E R A L I Z A T I O N 1 8 7 M O D E R N VERSUS A N C I E N T OCCURRENCES 1 8 7 EXPLORATION 1 8 9
I 'ROTEROZOIC DEPOSITS; O K L O TYPE 1 9 0 VEK n c A L SEQUENCE 1 9 0 DIAGENETIC HISTORY 1 9 0 EXPLORATION 1 9 1
P H A N E R O Z O I C D E P O S I T S : C O L O R A D O P L A T E A U T Y P E 191 T H E BASIN A N D THE B A S I N F I L L 192 DIAGENETIC SEQUENCE 192 EXPLORATION 192
P H A N E R O Z O I C D E P O S I T S : R O L L - F R O N T T Y P E . . . 193 T H E BASIN A N D THE BASIN F I L L 194 DIAGENESIS A N D M I N E R A L I Z A T I O N 194 EXPLORATION 195
S U R F I C I A L D E P O S I T S : C A L C R E T E 195 R E F E R E N C E S 195
Chapter 16-COPPER: PRODUCT OF DIAGENESIS I N RIFTED BASINS 199
T H E K U P F E R S C H I E F E R 199 W H I T E P I N E 201 A F R I C A N C O P P E R B E L T 203 C O M P A R I S O N 204 E X P L O R A T I O N 204 R E F E R E N C E S 205
I N D E X 208
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