sejarah arsitektur komputer -...
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Z1 / 1938,Z3 / 1941:mesin pemrograman Pertama di dunia
Z3 dan Z4 dapat dilihat di musium jerman , Padeborn
The Zuse Z3 & Z4
• First Generation– No mechanical components anymore– Vacuum Tubes
• Principle– Basic: Triode– Controllable flow within
diode by a fence– On / Off
• 1946: ENIAC machine– Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer
Electronic Computers
Lee de Forest menemukan tabung elektronik
gate anodakatoda
Filamen pemanas
Filamen memanaskan katoda yang menyebarkan electrons : termo emission
Polarisasi gate menarik elektron
6,3v
Elektronika Tabung
1906
Lee de Forest
Penguatan signal
Elektronika tabung
Masalah Utama :Tegangan besarMudah panas
Ukuran komponen ≈300 V
≈50 VGrille
Plaque
Cathode
6,3v
Makan tempat
Luas 1500 m2
30 tonnes
Jumlah 17000 tabung
Daya 140 KW
5000 penambahan setiap detik
1945 Mesin hitung tabung I bernama (ENIAC) Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer
Mesin Hitung tabung Pertama
1940 Schottky menemukan contact métal/semi-conducteur.
W. Schottky
1942 Produksi pertama dioda dengan bahan germanium berhasil untuk teknologi micromave dan radar
Ge
Pointe métallique
Masih digunakan sampai sekarang untuk HF
Dioda Pertama
Group dari Shockley mempunyai ide membuat dua dioda dari bahan yang sama (germanium).
Base
Emetor Collector
1947
Transistor bipolar
W. Schockley
Sebuah awal fabrikasi (sangat berjasa )
InIn
Ge
Type n Type p
Base
Emetteur CollecteurKesulitan utama :
Reproduksi,ketebalan.
Transistor bipolar (3)
Temuan hasil penelitian lebih lanjut untuk bahan(Silikon atau Germanium).
Si amorphe
Purification Tirage
Si polycristallin Si monocristallin
Bell Labs memperkenalkan metode untuk merealisasiakn printing Silikon monocristallin dengan kemurnian 99,7%.
1952
Pemakaian pertama Silikon sebagai pengganti germanium1954
Transistor bipolar silikon
processeur 4-8 bits, cycle mémoire : 5 micro detik.
Seymour Cray menciptakan CDC 1604, komputer pertama secara komersial
1957
Komputer transistor pertama
1958 Jack Kilby dari Texas Instruments menciptakan rangkaian terpadu pertama dengan 5 komponen pasif.
Penemuan rangkaian terpadu ( IC)
R.N. Noyce
1960 Lab. Fairchild semiconductor menyempurnakan dengan teknik planar
Rangkaian terpadu pertama dengan teknik planar
Kemajuan Transistor
Di dalam transistor Planar, semua koneksi ada di permukaan dan pada sisi yang sama.
BaseEmetteur Collecteur
N
NP
Daya tarik transistors planar
Atalla dan Kahng dari Fairchild semiconductor peletak dasar transistor pertama MOS
Penemuan Transistor MOS
Source gate Drain
1960
Hofstein & Heiman dari RCA membuat pertama IC dengan transistors MOS (8 paires de NMOS)
1963
1.5 m
m
Le MOS est parfaitement symétrique et on appelle SOURCE (d'électrons) le coté le plus négatif
Structure MOS
Au début (1962) la grille était en Aluminium d'où le nom MOS: Métal/Oxyde/Semiconducteur
Substrat à la masse (à Vdd pour les PMos) P
N+ N+
Grille
Source Drain
Isolant
Conditions normales de fonctionnement :
P
Fonctionnement d’un NMOS
N+ N+
Isolant
Vgs > 0 et Vds > 0
Vgs > 0 Vds > 0GrilleSource Drain
Accumulation de charges positives sur la grille
P
Fonctionnement d’un NMOS
N+ N+
Isolant
Vgs > 0 Vds > 0GrilleSource Drain
Création d’un champ électrique E sur la capacité MOS
P
Fonctionnement d’un NMOS
N+ N+
Isolant
Vgs > 0 Vds > 0GrilleSource Drain
E
Trous majoritaires du substrat repoussés
P
Fonctionnement d’un NMOS
N+ N+
Isolant
Vgs > 0 Vds > 0GrilleSource Drain
E
Electrons minoritaires du substrat attirés vers la grille
P
Fonctionnement d’un NMOS
N+ N+
Isolant
Vgs > 0 Vds > 0GrilleSource Drain
E
Création d’un canal de type N sous l’isolant (couche d’inversion)
P
Fonctionnement d’un NMOS
N+ N+
Isolant
Vgs > 0 Vds > 0GrilleSource Drain
EId
Caractéristiques
Caractéristiques similaires à celle d’un transistor JFET
Vds (V)
Id (mA)Vgs = 8 V La valeur de Vgs > 0 influence
directement la densité de porteurs minoritaires attirés sous la capacité MOS
Vgs = 6 V
Vgs = 2 V
La valeur de Vds > 0 influencedirectement la valeur du champ Eet donc de la saturation de Id
Cas du MOS à appauvrissement
Pour Vgs = 0, existence du canal N entre la source et le drain
Vds (V)
Id (mA)Vgs = 4 V
L’existence du canal garantit une conduction du transistor pour des valeurs négatives et positives de Vgs
Vgs = 2 VVgs = 0 VVgs = -2 VVgs = -4 V
Caractéristiques
Caractéristiques similaires à celle d’un transistor JFET
Vds (V)
Id (mA)Vgs = 8 V
Vgs = 6 V
Vgs = 2 V
3 zones de fonctionnement : Zone ohmique, Pincement, Saturation.
kelebihan :
Tempat ringkas
Syst
ème
élec
tron
ique
Circuitélectronique
Composant:Circuit intégré
Mengapa terpadu ?
Hemat energi
modular
Lebih Aman
ORGANIZATION
• Pertanyaan :
• Bagimana bentuk mesin komputasinya ?
• Bagaimana mengontrolnya ?
• Original Work ( 1946 )
• Burks, Goldstine, von Neumann:Mulai diskusi untuk merancang logika instrumen komputasi elektronik
• Hasil :
• von Neumann Architecture
• Arsitektur yang sangat dominan – bahkan sampai sekarang
• Dikembangkan 1952 oleh von Neumann– Mesin pertama berbasiskan prinsip
rancangannya– Institute for Advanced Studies computer
The IAS machine
• General purpose machine– Independent of applications– Flexible & Programmable
• 4 main units– Control unit (Instruction counter)– Arithmetic unit (Accumulator)– Input/Output unit (Connection to the outside)– Main memory
• Interconnected by simple buses
The von Neumann architecture
ArithmeticUnit
ControlUnit
Input/OutputUnit
E.g. Storage
Instructions / Program
MainMemory
Addresses
AC IRSR
PC
Von Neumann – Overview
• System structure is application independent– Fully programmable
• Programs and Data are stored in the same memory– Main Memory– Can be manipulated by the machine
• Main memory is divided into cells– Equal size– Consecutively numbered (addresses)
Von Neumann – Details (1)
• Program is composed of a sequence of instructions– Read one after the other from main memory
• Program execution can be altered– Conditional or unconditional jumps– Change the current execution– Done by loading new value into PC register
Von Neumann – Details (2)
• Usage of binary numbers– Just two values allowed per digit: 0/1– Easy to implement: voltage yes or no
Von Neumann – Details (3)
• Still the dominant architecture in current systems– Used in all popular systems / chips
• Only minor modifications– Control und Arithmetic unit combined
Result: CPU (Central Processing Unit)– New memory paths between memory and I/O
Direct Memory Access (DMA)• Additions to the concept
– Multiple arithmetic units / Multiple CPUs– Parallel processing
Von Neumann – Today
• Vacuum tubes replaced– Transistors– Smaller, more power efficient– DEC PDP-1, IBM 7094– Still large machines
• Next step: Integrated Circuits– Many transistors packed on one die– High density & reliability, low power– IBM 360 family & first Intel chips
• Many subsequent improvements
Technology Development
• Layered design– Base: Silicon– Light sensitive layers– Projection of masks– Erase parts using acid
IBM
Manufacturing
Clean room fabrication Any particle can cause
errors Special fabs required Rising costs
• Main trend: smaller and faster– Trend still continues today– Processor speeds now over 3 GHz, but problems
arise…
10 ns100 MHzVery large scale integration
1978-5
100 ns10 MHzLarge scale integration
1972-19774
1 µs1 MHzSmall and medium integrated circuits
1965-19713
5 µs200 KHzTransistor1958-19642
25 µs40 KHzVacuum tube1946-19571
Time/OpsSpeedTechnologyDatesGen.
Comparison of Technologies
• 2001: 30th Anniversary!• 4-Bit, 8-Bit Processors
– Intel 4004 (~1971)– Intel 8008
• 16-Bit Processors– Texas Instruments TMS 9900 (~1977)– Intel 8086– Zilog Z8000– Motorola MC68000– National Semiconductor NS16016
(~1978-1980)
Microprocessor History
•16/32-bit Processors(external 16-bit Bus, internal 32 Bit Structure)
• Motorola MC68010• National Semiconductor NS16032
• Additional Functionality on the Chip•Direct Memory Access (DMA) (Intel 80186)• Virtual memory management
(MC68010, Intel 80286)• Optional Coprocessor (Intel 8086/80286,
NS16032)• Extended Address Space
Microprocessor History
• 32-bit Processors– CISC Processors
• Motorola MC680x0 • Intel i386 / i486 / Pentium • National Semiconductor NS32x32 • Concept of a Processor Family• Binary Compatibility• Compatible with 16 Bit Processors
– RISC Processors• Advanced Micro Devices Am29000 (~1987)• Sun Microsystems SPARC• MIPS technologies MIPS R2000 / MIPS R3000
Microprocessor History
• 64/32-bit Processors– SUN Microsystems SuperSPARC– Motorola 88110– IBM, Motorola PowerPC 601 (MPC601)
• “Modern” Processors– 64-bit Structure– Internal Parallelism
• Instruction pipelining• Arithmetic Pipelining
– Instruction and Data Caches– Advanced Memory and Peripheral Connections
Microprocessor History
PowerManagement/Frequency
Boost(Foxton)
1MB L2I1MB L2I
Dual-core
2x12MB L3 2x12MB L3 cachescaches
with with PellstonPellston
2 Way2 WayMulti-threadingMulti-threading
ArbiterArbiter
90nm90nm
1.7 Billion 1.7 Billion TransistorsTransistors
Key Processor Features Intel’s first dual-core
processor Intel’s first processor
with >1 billion transistors 24 MB L3 cache Multi-threading Compatible with existing
Itanium 2-based systems
Targeting H2’2005
System Bus
Core
L3 Cache
Core
L3 Cache
System Bus
Core
L3 Cache
Core
L3 Cache
Core 1 Core 2
Multiple cores, Multiple threads Multiple cores, Multiple threads and L3 Cache on ONE dieand L3 Cache on ONE die
First Implementation of Key Features: Montecito
(From: http://www.intel.com)
Number of transistors doubles every 2.3 years(acceleration over the last 4 years: 1.5 years)
42 M transistors
2.25 K transistors
Increase: ~20K
Trends in transistor count
420000002000Pentium 4240000001999Pentium-III
75000001997Pentium-II31000001993Pentium1180000198980486
275000198580386120000198280286
2900019788086500019748080250019728008225019714004
# of transistorsYearModel
Technological Development
• Published in „Electronics“ in 1965– Revised in 1975
• Why does this work? (Dr. R. Isaac, IBM)– 50 % Lithography– 25 % Device and Circuit Innovation– 25 % Chip size reduction
• How long does this continue?– Problem 1: Power density– Problem 2: The Lithography Wall
Moore‘s Law (2)
• Can we compensate for loss or gain more– Architectural improvements– Massively Parallel Systems
• Example 1: ASCI Program in USA– Fastest machines in the world– Both military and research use– Capabilities grow faster than Moore‘s law
• Example 2: Hitachi RS 8000 @ LRZ/TUM– Innovative node design– Large number of individual processors
Breaking Moore‘s law
• What applications can take use of this?– Long running
• Very often: Numerical simulations– High computational
demands– Often solving of special
physical equations (PDEs)
• Some other codes from imaging/business
• Climate Modeling
• Fluid Turbulences
• Pollution Disturbation
• Ocean Circulation
• Combustion Systems
• Semiconductor Modeling
• Vision and Cognition
Applications: Grand Challenges