Select Bibliography

Listed below are works of a general nature. They exclude the references given elsewhere in this volume. Except as noted, the dates given are for first editions. For more comprehensive bibliographies see my trilogy: Impact of Western Man, A Study of Europe's Role in the World Economy 1750-1960, rev. ed., Washington DC, 1982. America's Impact on the World, A Study of the Role of the United States in the World Economy, 1750-1970, London, 1975. The Struggle for World Power, 1500-1980, London, 1981.

Acheson, D., Power and Diplomacy, Cambridge, Mass., 1958. Adamthwaite, A.P., The Lost Peace: International Relations in Europe

1918-1939, London, 1980. Addington, L.H., The Patterns of War Since the Eighteenth Century,

Bloomington, Ind., 1984. Albrecht-Carrie, R., The Meaning of the First World War, Englewood

Cliffs, N.J., 1965. Ambrose, S., Rise to Globalism: American Foreign Policy Since 1938,

4th ed., New York, 1985. Andrews, K.R., Trade, Plunder and Settlement, Cambridge, 1983. Aroian, L. and R.P. Mitchell, The Modern Middle East and North Africa,

London, 1984. Ashton, T.S., The Industrial Revolution, Oxford, 1948. Ashworth, W., A Short History of the International Economy, London,

1962. Barnet, R., Global Reach, New York, 1974. Barnett, A.D., China's Economy in Global Perspective, Washington, DC,

1981. Barraclough, G., An Introduction to Contemporary History, London, 1964. Barraclough, G., ed., The Times Atlas of World History, London, 1978. Bartlett, C.J., The Global Conflict, 1880-1970: The International Rivalry of

the Great Powers, London, 1984. Baumont, M., The Origins of the Second World War, New Haven, 1978. Bianco, L., Origins of the Chinese Revolution 1915-1949, Stanford, Cal.,

1971. Blakemore, H., Latin America, London, 1966. Boorstin, D.J., The Discoverers, New York, 1983. Boxer, C.R., Four Centuries of Portuguese Expansion, Berkeley, Cal., 1969. Braude!, F., The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of

Philip II, 2 vols., New York, 1972. Brierly, J.L., The Law of Nations: An Introduction to the International Law of

Peace, Oxford, 1955.

243

244 Select Bibliography

Bull, H., The Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in World Politics, New York, 1977.

Bushnell, D. and N. Macaulay, The Emergence of Latin America in the Nineteenth Century, New York, 1988.

Butterfield, H., The Origins of Modern Science, New York, 1956. Carr, E.H., The Bolshevik Revolution 1917-1923, 3 vols., London, 1953. Carr, R., Spain 1808-1975, 2nd. ed., Oxford, 1982. Carr, W., Poland to Pearl Harbor, London, 1985. Cipolla, C.M., The Economic History of World Population, Baltimore, 1962. Clark, G.N., Early Modern Europe from about 1450 to about 1750, London,

1957. Claude, I.L., Power and International Relations, New York, 1962. Clissold, S., Latin America: New World, Third World, New York, 1972. Craig, G.A., Force and Statecraft: Diplomatic Problems of our Time, New

York, 1983. Curtin, P., The Atlantic Slave Trade, Madison, Wisconsin, 1969. Daniels, R.V., Russia, the Roots of Confrontation, Cambridge, Mass.,

1985. Davidson, B., Africa in History, London, 1968. Davis, D.B., Slavery and Human Progress, New York, 1984. Dawson, C., The Dynamics of World History, New York, 1956. Deane, P., The First Industrial Revolution, Cambridge, 1965. Dehio, L., The Precarious Balance, New York, 1962. Divine, R.A., Causes and Consequences of World War II, Chicago, 1969. Draper, T., Israel and World Politics, New York, 1968. Easton, S.C., The Rise and Fall of Western Colonialism, New York, 1964. Edwardes, M., Asia in the European Age, London, 1961. Elliot, J.H., Imperial Spain, 1469-1716, London, 1963. Emerson, R., From Empire to Nation: The Rise to Self-Assertion of Asian and

African Peoples, Cambridge, Mass., 1960. Fairbank, J.K. and Teng Ssu-yu, China's Response to the West, Cam­

bridge, Mass., 1954. Fairbank, J.K. ed., The Chinese World Order, Cambridge, Mass., 1968. Fieldhouse, O.K., The Colonial Empires: A Comparative Study from the

Eighteenth Century, London, 1966. Fisher, C.A., South-East Asia, London, 1964. Foreman-Peck, J.A., A History of the World Economy: International Econ-

omic Relations Since 1850, Brighton, Sussex, 1983. Fulbright, J.W., The Arrogance of Power, New York, 1966. Fussel, P., The Great War and Modern Memory, New York, 1975. Gann, L.H. and Duignan, P., Africa and the World, San Francisco, 1972. Gansler, J.S., The Defense Industry, Cambridge, Mass., 1980. Gillard, D., The Struggle for Asia 1828-1961, London, 1977. Gilpin, R., War and Change in World Politics, Cambridge, 1981. Graebner, N.A., America as a World Power, Wilmington, Del., 1984. Hall, D.G.E., A History of South-East Asia, New York, 1955. Halle, L.J., The Cold War as History, London, 1967.

Select Bibliography 245

Halperin Donghi, T., The Aftermath of Revolution in Latin America, New York, 1973.

Hanke, L., Modern Latin America, Princeton, 1959. Harrison, J.A., The Chinese Empire, New York, 1972. Heilbroner, R.L., Marxism: For and Against, New York, 1980. Herring, G., America's Longest War: The United States and Vietnam

1950-1975, New York, 1979. Herring, H.C. and H.B., A History of Latin America, New York, 1955. Hillerbrand, H.J., The World of the Reformation, New York, 1973. Hobsbawm, E.J., The Age of Revolution 1789-1848, London, 1962. Hsii, 1., The Rise of Modern China, New York, 1975. Johnson, P., Modern Times: The World from the Twenties to the Eighties,

New York, 1983. Jones, F. C., Japan's New Order in East Asia: Its Rise and Fall1937-1945,

London, 1954. Kann, R.A., A History of the Habsburg Empire 1526-1918, Berkeley, Cal.,

1974. Kedourie, E., England and the Middle East, London, 1956. Keegan, J., The Second World War, London, 1989. Keen, B. and M. Wasserman, A Short History of Latin America, Boston,

1980. Kennan, G.F., Russia and the West under Lenin and Stalin, Boston, 1961. Keylor, W.R., The Twentieth-Century World: An International History,

Oxford, 1984. Khouri, F.J., The Arab-Israeli Dilemma, Syracuse, New York, 1968. Kindleberger, C.P., The World in Depression: 1929-1939, Berkeley, Cal.,

1973. Knorr, K.E., The Power of Nations, New York, 1975. Koch, H.W., ed., The Origins of the First World War, New York, 1972. Kohn, H., The Age of Nationalism: The First Era of Global History, New

York, 1962. Lach, D.F., Asia in the Making of Europe, Chicago, 1965. Lamb, D., The Arabs: Journeys Beyond the Mirage, New York, 1987. Landes, D.S., The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Indus-

trial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present, Cam­bridge, 1969.

Langer, W.L., An Encyclopedia of World History, Boston, 1972. Laserson, M., Russia and the Western World, New York, 1945. Levin, N., The Holocaust: The Destruction of European Jewry, 1933-1945,

New York, 1968. Lewis, B., The Arabs in History, London, 1950. Linder, S.B., The Pacific Century, Stanford, Cal., 1986. Marriss, S., Deficits and the Dollar: The World Economy at Risk, Washing­

ton DC, 1985. Mayer, A.J., Politics and Diplomacy of Peacemaking, New York, 1967. McEvedy, C., The Penguin Atlas of Recent History, Harmondsworth,

Mddsx., 1982.

246 Select Bibliography

McNeill, W.H., The Pursuit of Power, Chicago, 1982. Mead, R.O., Atlantic Legacy, New York, 1969. Minogue, K.R., Nationalism, New York, 1967. Morgenthau, H.J., Politics among Nations, New York, 1948. Mortimer, R.A., The Third World Coalition in International Politics, New

York, 1980. Moulder, F.V., Japan, China, and the Modern World Economy, Cambridge,

1977. Myrdal, G., The Challenge of World Poverty, New York, 1970. Needham, J., Science and Civilization in China, vols. 1-5, Cambridge,

1954-1962. New, J.F., The Renaissance and the Reformation: A Short History, New

York, 1969. Nogueira, A.F., The Third World, London, 1967. Oliver, R. and A. Atmore, Africa since 1800, London, 1969. Panikkar, K.M., Asia and Western Dominance, London, 1953. Parry, J.H., The Age of Reconnaissance, London, 1963. Paxton, R.O., Europe in the Twentieth Century, New York, 1975. Pipes, R., The Russian Revolution, New York, 1990. Polanyi, K., The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of

Our Time, New York, 1944. Price, A. G., The Western Invasions of the Pacific and its Continents, Oxford,

1963. Reischauer, E.O., J.K. Fairbank, and A.M. Craig, East Asia, rev. ed.,

Boston, 1989. Reischauer, E.O., Japan: The Story of a Nation, New York, 1974. Reynolds, R.L., Europe Emerges: Transition Toward an Industrial World-

Wide Society, Madison, Wisconsin, 1961. Riasanovsky, N.Y., A History of Russia, New York, 1963. Robertson, E.M., The Origins of the Second World War, London, 1971. Robertson, J., Future Wealth, London, 1989. Romein, J., The Asian Century, Berkeley, California, 1962. Rosenberg, N. and L.E. Birdzell, How the West Grew Rich, New York,

1986. Rostow, W.W., The World Economy, Austin, 1978. Schell, J., The Fate of the Earth, New York, 1982. Shafer, R.J., A History of Latin America, Lexington, Mass., 1978. Skidmore, T.E. and P.H. Smith, Modern Latin America, New York, 1984. Smith, W.C., Islam in Modern History, Princeton, 1957. Snyder, L.L., The New Nationalism, Ithaca, New York, 1968. Spear, T.G.P., India: A Modern History, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1961. Spence, J., The Gate of Heavenly Peace, New York, 1981. Stavrianos, L.S., Global Rift: The Third World Comes of Age, New York,

1981. Stein, S.J. and B.H., The Colonial Heritage of Latin America, New York,

1970. Taylor, A.J.P., The Origins of the Second World War, New York, 1962. Taylor, R., The Sino-Japanese Axis, New York, 1985.

Select Bibliography 247

Taylor, T., Munich: The Price of Peace, Garden City, N.Y., 1979 Toland, J., The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire, New

York, 1970. Toynbee, A.J., Mankind and Mother Earth: A Narrative History of the

World, New York, 1976. Treadgold, D.W., The Great Siberian Migration, Princeton, 1957. Trevor-Roper, H.R., The Rise of Christian Europe, New York, 1965. Troeltsch, E., Protestantism and Progress, Boston, 1958. Van Alstyne, R.W., The Rising American Empire, New York, 1960. Van Leeuwen, A.T., Christianity in World History, London, 1964. Viljoen, S., Economic Systems in World History, London, 1974. Wallerstein, I.M., Africa: The Politics of Independence, New York, 1961. Wang, G., China and the World Since 1949, London, 1977. Webb, W.P., The Great Frontier, Boston, 1952. Wight, M., Power Politics, London, 1978. Wilson, C.H., The Transformation of Europe 1558-1648, London, 1976. Wolpert, S., A New History of India, rev. ed., Oxford, 1989. Wrigley, E.A., Population and History, New York, 1969.

Notes

1. The historian-philosophers Ernst Troeltsch (1865-1923), Bene­detto Croce (1866-1952), and R.G. Collingwood (1889-1943) con­sidered the comprehension of the present as the final goal of all historical study. Understanding the present is not the only legit­imate goal of history, but it is a very important one.

2. Published in Leipzig in nine volumes, 1883-1888. 3. A.O. Hirschmann, National Power and the Structure of Foreign Trade,

1945, examines the relation between economic and political power.

4. Contrary to the western Greco-Roman tradition, which is mental and intellectual, Gandhi epitomized India's spiritual traditions. Gandhi was fortunate in that he was not opposed by out-and-out tyrants either in South Africa or India. Had he been opposed by someone like Hitler or Stalin, not much would have been heard of his "soul force".

5. Consider the examples of regional co-operation (such as the EEC) that have taken place in every continent since 1945.

6. A point emphasized by the philosopher Karl Jaspers (1883-1969): "All the crucial problems are world problems". See his The Origin and Goal of History, London, 1953, the first part of which deals with "World History".

7. See J. Huizinga (1872-1945), "Fundamentals of Culture", In the Shadow of Tomorrow, 1936.

8. The French astronomer and mathematician, Pierre Simon Laplace (1749-1827), the father of present-day futurists, thought differ­ently: "Give me full knowledge and I will predict the future precisely," he said.

9. The line that had been drawn along arbitrarily chosen meridians of longitude was moved 270 leagues to the west in 1494. The new line brought Brazil within the Portuguese half of the world.

10. The German philologist and philosopher, Friedrich W. Nietzsche (1844-1900) expressed in his Der Wille zur Macht the will to power and the cult of force.

11. The years 1300-1450 were a virtual Gotterdammerung of feudal Europe.

12. Caesar and the Christian God had unified Europe; nationalism was to diversify it. One of the strongest root causes of the First Great War, 1914-1918, was an excess of nationalism.

13. Prior to the mid-nineteenth century, the term "Christian nations" was used regularly in western diplomatic exchanges. After Mus­lim Turkey was invited to join the Concert of Europe in the mid-nineteenth century, the term "civilized nations" was substi­tuted for "Christian nations".

249

250 Notes

14. In the early sixteenth century they were thought to number about fourteen million as against Spain's five and England's two-and-a­half million.

15. The Islamic religion began with Mohammed's flight from Mecca to Medina on 16 July, AD 622 (the hajira). The basic statement of Muslim belief is contained in the shahadil, which holds that "There is no God but Allah, and Mohammed is His prophet." The whole of Mohammed's revelation is written down in The Koran. Like Judaism and Christianity (but unlike other Asian religions, such as Hinduism or Buddhism), Islam claims to be the most perfect revelation of God's will. In their monotheism (the worship of a single god) Islam and Christianity are the two branches of the Judaic tree. Islam differs from Judaism and Christianity in that it has no ten commandments. Instead it has a definite set of laws -the Shari'a, or straight path- which provides guidance to every aspect of a Muslim's life. The god of Islam, unlike the Christian god of love, is a god of power who tempers his justice with mercy.

16. It continues to do so. See chapter 8, note 149. 17. Europe had responded to the growing Islamic threat by closing its

ranks under the papacy and the renewed Roman (later the Holy Roman) Empire. Charlemagne was crowned as emperor in AD 800. Its counter-attack took the form of eight major crusades launched between 1096 and 1270.

18. Between 1512 and 1520 the Ottomans also conquered Syria, Pales­tine, and Egypt.

19. Blocked in Europe, the Arabs extended their rule in Africa. Hun­dreds of years later the western Christians would make similar inroads into the "Dark Continent". The success of Islam - one­third of the present African population is Muslim- far exceeded the gains of Christianity. Islam imparted a sense of time (five times a day the faithful must worship) and direction (in praying they must tum to Mecca).

20. When the Prophet Mohammed died in AD 632, Ali, his son-in-law was denied his right to become Islam's leader. But Ali persisted in his claim and in AD 656 was installed as the rightful successor (caliph) to Mohammed. Five years later he was assassinated by religious rivals. His son Hussein, who now fought to establish his own claim as Islam's leader, was subsequently tortured and killed at Karbala in Iraq. Karbala, the place of Hussein's martyrdom, was used by the Shi'ite Iranians as a rallying cry in their recent war against the Iraqi.

21. Persian for Mongol. 22. The development by the British of a deeper sense of responsibility

toward the Indians had, in fact, preceded the Mutiny, and is reflected in the emancipation of slaves, the abolition of female infanticide, and the suppression of Suttee (the burning of Hindu widows). Other changes took place in education, administration, and the dispensing of justice. The growing use of the English

Notes 251

language after 1833 encouraged the study of western science and political ideas.

23. Its population in the fifteenth century, 100-130 million, is thought to have been twice that of the whole of Europe.

24. The conquest of China by the nomadic Mongol horsemen and their more numerous Turkish allies in the fourteenth century is an example of a more civilized, cultured people being overwhelmed by a less refined, more aggressive foe. However primitive the Mongols may have appeared, they founded the largest con­tiguous empire there has ever been. Marco Polo, carrying a Mon­gol "passport" in the form of a seal, made an unhindered journey from the Mediterranean to the Yellow Sea in the late thirteenth century. Only the Egyptians in the West (in 1260 at Ain Jalut, Palestine), and the Japanese in the East (1274 and 1281), were able to withstand the Mongol tide.

25. Confucius, known originally as Kung Chui (551-479 BC) was a public administrator and teacher who profoundly influenced Chinese philosophy and ethos.

26. As President Theodore Roosevelt did with his "Great White Fleet" almost half a millennium later.

27. See Philip F. Riley and Others (eds.), "Cheng Ho: Ming Maritime Expeditions," in The Global Experience, Readings in World History since 1500, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1987, Vol. II, pp. 3-5.

28. Much earlier, at the naval battle of Lepanto in 1571, Venice and her allies had destroyed Islam's hold on the eastern Mediterra­nean, with the result that Venice became the most powerful state south of the Alps.

29. Jacob Burckhardt's The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, 1860, provided the first rounded synthesis of Italy's contribution. On the contributions of Arab Spain, Byzantium, and Northern Ger­many, see Wallace K. Ferguson, The Renaissance in Historical Thought: Five Centuries of Interpretation, New York, 1948. Despite all the work that has been done: in character, causes, and geographi­cal and chronological limits, the Renaissance remains one of the most intractable problems of historiography.

30. Copernicus studied at Padua and Bologna. In 1503 he obtained his doctorate of canon law at Ferrara. Galileo was professor of math­ematics at Padua.

31. See J.B. Bury, The Idea of Progress, New York, 1955. 32. The stress upon personal salvation is reflected in the works of

St Augustine (AD 354-430) The Confessions, AD 400; Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) The Leviathan, 1651; and Martin Luther (1483-1546).

33. Christianity combined a material with a spiritual role. It is not only concerned with the resurrection of the spirit, but of the body as well.

34. Christianity's certainty is sometimes ascribed to the fact that like Judaism and Islam, it is monotheistic, that is, it knows only one God.

252 Notes

35. Spain's contending material and spiritual elements eventually culminated in the Spanish Civil War (193fr.1939).

36. One of the principal aims of the order of the Jesuits, founded in 1534 by the Spaniard Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556), was to counteract the Protestant Reformation.

37. Contrast this with the English novelist, Tobias George Smollett (1721-1771), who wrote at a time when England's respect for money and commerce grew by the hour: "Without money, there is no respect, honour, or convenience to be acquired in life."

38. Spain's population in 1500 was about nine million; by 1700, because of war and empire-building, it had fallen to approxi­mately six million. Especially significant were the terrible losses Spain sustained in Germany and the Netherlands during the Thirty Years War, 1618-1648.

39. See Werner Sombart, Der Moderne Kapitalismus, 1928. 40. The Spanish Inquisition, established in 1478, had much more

popular support than we are sometimes led to believe. Contrasted to the greater horrors that have been committed in our own age, its victims were relatively few, and strictly accounted for.

41. See Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, London, 1930. See also Hisao Otsuka, translation by Masaomi Kondo, The Spirit of Capitalism, The Max Weber Thesis in an Economic Historical Perspective, lwanami Shoten, Tokyo, 1982.

42. See R.H. Tawney, Religion and the Rise of Capitalism, London, 1936. 43. With the shift of trade from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic,

Antwerp (before Spain sacked it in 1576) had become an inter­national port rivalling Genoa and Venice.

44. Said Spain's Don Francisco de Quevedo y Villegas (1580-1645): "As poor men we conquered the riches of others; as rich men these same riches are conquering us."

45. Even though a Spanish state did not yet exist in 1492. The Recon­quista was chiefly the work of Castile.

46. Although we tend to link Dutch fortunes with the sea (in 1670, Dutch tonnage equalled that of England, France, Portugal, Spain, and the German states combined), agricultural improvements were also important. See Jan De Vries, The Dutch Rural Economy in the Golden Age, 1500-1700, Yale, New Haven, 1974.

47. Europeans reached the Americas long before Columbus. See Tim Severin, The Brendan Voyage, New York, 1978. Also Alfred W. Crosby, Ecological Imperialism, Cambridge University Press, 1986, chapter 3, "The Norse and the Crusaders". Artifacts found off the coast of Brazil suggest that the Romans may have discovered the New World before the birth of Christ.

48. Portuguese power in the Indian Ocean in the sixteenth century rested upon its superior naval artillery. The capture by the Portu­guese of Goa (1510), and the Strait of Hormuz (1515), made their control of the Indian Ocean possible. The Muslim fleets, though superior in numbers, were no match for them.

Notes 253

49. See Geoffrey Parker, The Military Revolution, Cambridge Univer­sity Press, New York 1989.

50. Sea power was all-important during the past half millennium. 51. Broken by da Gama, who returned in 1499 from the East with

pepper, cinnamon, and cloves. He had sailed in a single, un­broken voyage from Southern India to Lisbon {bypassing Venice, the entrepot for the European spice trade). It took about twenty years for the Muslim merchants who controlled the shorter route to Europe through the Red Sea to partly reassert their control of the eastern trade.

52. In 2540 years of recorded Chinese history the Yellow River has flooded 1590 times.

53. See E.L. Jones, The European Miracle, Cambridge University Press, 1981 and W.H. McNeill, Rise of the West: A History of the Human Community, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1970.

54. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832), Faust. In contrast the genius of Greek culture was its capacity to be diverted from action to the study of action.

55. Lao-tzu, its founder, was born c.600 BC. 56. Even allowing for the Persian and Mogul miniatures. 57. Daoism aims at individual salvation, but it is mystical rather than

rational. 58. A student in Tokyo does not say his father is an attorney or a

mechanic. He says his father is an attorney with Mitsubishi or a mechanic with Toyota.

59. After the French philosopher Rene Descartes, c.f. Chapter 5. 60. See William Woodruff, Impact of Western Man, A Study of Europe's

Role in the World Economy 1750-1960, rev. ed., Washington DC, 1982.

61. And the same is true of Vasco da Gama's rounding of Africa in 1497, and Ferdinand Magellan's attempt to circumnavigate the globe in 1519.

62. So much so that in 1707, England and Scotland began to call themselves the United Kingdom of Great Britain. The song Rule Britannia, Britannia rules the waves dates from 1740.

63. Coupled with British victories at Wandewash (1760), Pondicherry (1761), and Buxar (1764).

64. Little more than a century after Waterloo, British supremacy was undermined by the far greater strain imposed by the First Great War. Conditions in the post-1918 years were to prove much less favorable to Britain than they had been after 1815.

65. See Chapter 8. 66. See Alfred W. Crosby cited above, Chapter 9, "Ills". 67. In the Ottoman Empire all railroads were operated by European

companies; in China most of the railroads belonged to Europeans by 1911. The same was true of Africa and South America.

68. Its introduction to Africa is said to have altered the course of African history. According to some writers, maize helped to offset

254 Notes

the loss of lives caused by the slave trade. Statistically, very little is known.

69. Karl Jaspers, in his Origin and Goal of History, p. 76, quotes the German philosopher Hegel: "The Europeans have sailed around the world and for them it is a sphere. Whatever has not yet fallen under their sway is either not worth the trouble, or it is destined to fall under it."

70. Though the Czars of Moscow would rule over the Ukraine only after the mid-seventeenth century.

71. In 1700, Russia (with about 17.5 million people) was the most populous state in Europe next to France (19.0 million). Britain's population at this time was about 9.0 million; the Habsburg Empire 8.0 million; Prussia 2.0 million; Spain 6.0 million.

72. See J.V. Stalin, Works, Vol. XIII. 73. The 1908 poem "On the Field of Kulikovo" by the Russian poet

Alexander Blok is a brilliant distillation of the Russian view of war and the nature of power.

74. In 1849 Russia had helped put down a rebellion against the Austrian throne. In 1866, when Prussia threatened Austria, Rus­sia left Austria to her fate.

75. Although the Treaty of Berlin of 1878 had granted Serbia its independence, the coveted territories of Bosnia and Herzegovina remained under Austrian occupation.

76. England's Richard the Lionhearted, whom English schoolboys are taught to respect, could sit unmoved at Acre (during the Cru­sades) while 2,700 infidel Muslims were beheaded before him. Alas, when compared with history's other dark figures, such as the Mongol Timur (Tamerlane), Richard emerges as relatively unimportant in the history of carnage.

77. See W. Bruce Lincoln, Red Victory, New York, 1990. 78. See Robert Conquest, The Harvest of Sorrow, Oxford, 1986. 79. Stalin's mother had hoped that her son might become a priest.

She attached little importance to his appointment as General Secretary of the Communist Party. "Had he remained in the Church," she lamented, "he could have become a bishop."

80. Russia was the last European country to free its serfs. Abolished in 1861, serfdom has provided the legacy of what Yevtushenko calls poiterpelost, Russia's servile patience.

81. The word science comes from the Latin word scientia which means knowledge. Until quite modern times "knowledge" also meant "magic." The Sanscrit word "Vidya" has this double meaning.

82. Made possible by Johannes Gutenberg's (1400?-1468?) discovery of moveable type.

83. The Greek astronomer Aristarch had put forward a sun-centered theory in the third century BC, but the time was not ripe and his ideas were rejected. See Hans Blumenberg, translation by Robert Wallace, The Genesis of the Copernican World, Cambridge, Mass., 1987.

Notes 255

84. Gerardus Mercator (1512-1594), a Flemish cartographer, was the first to draw a map of the globe based on his scientific Mercator projection.

85. History being paradoxical, it took a conservative scholar like Copernicus to cause a revolution by looking at the universe in an entirely unconventional way.

86. Darwin's "law of organic nature" and Marx's "economic law of motion," as well as the work in psychology of Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), and Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) strengthened the deterministic, mechanistic trend of western society.

87. To the faithful, the major religions of the world offer a greater degree of certainty than western science. Unlike so-called "scien­tific truths", the absolute truths of religion are unchanging. Re­ligion is not "the opium of the people", as Marx held, but a necessary antidote to the uncertainties of life. Man may never know the absolute, may never find the true meaning of life, but he cannot help seeking it.

88. Technology is derived from the Greek word "techne" meaning art or skill.

89. Arnold Toynbee, who popularized the term, dates the Industrial Revolution to the reign of George III (1760-1820). See E. A. Wrig­ley, Continuity, Chance, and Change: the Character of the Industrial Revolution, Cambridge University Press, New York, 1988.

90. Watt made Newcomen's engine more economical in fuel. He also developed the rotary motion to drive other kinds of machinery. The first known Newcomen engine was erected in 1712.

91. Though it is not until 1957 that world trade in manufactured goods exceeded the trade in primary produce.

92. At the time of the arrival of the Spaniards, Mayan, Aztec, and Inca populations were in the region of 0.5, 12, and 8-10 million re­spectively.

93. Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela. 94. See note 66. 95. It has been estimated that the native population of North America

numbered approximately one million. 96. Estimates are twenty-one million native Americans, twelve

million blacks, and, among the European casualties, eight million Spaniards.

97. See Alfred W. Crosby cited above. 98. Imports of gold at Seville between 1503 and 1560 totalled hun­

dreds of millions of grams. Silver production of the Spanish Indies in 1570 was about five times Europe's and Africa's combined production thirty years earlier.

99. Friedrich von Gentz, "On the Influence of the Discovery of America on the Prosperity and Culture of the Human Race." translated and quoted in H.S. Commager and Elmo Giordanetti, Was America a Mistake?; An Eighteenth Century Controversy, New York, 1967, p. 219.

256 Notes

100. One of the heroes of the American Revolution, the French Mar­quis de Lafayette, said: "Humanity has won its battle. Liberty now has a country."

101. "And God ... said ... replenish the earth and subdue it; and have dominion over ... every living thing that moveth upon the earth ... " Genesis, I, 28.

102. One of the few battles of any consequence between native Indians and United States Army units.

103. See Daniel Cosio Villegas, American Extremes, University of Texas Press, Austin, 1964. pp. 37-38, who speaks of Mexico as a miracle of survival; in contrast he describes the United States as a miracle of fecundity.

104. See William Woodruff, America's Impact on the World: A Study of the United States in the World Economy, 1750-1970, London and New York, 1975, p. 39. The quotation is from W.W. Howard, "The Rush to Oklahoma," Harpers (18 May 1889) pp. 391-2.

105. Western Europe experienced a fall in agricultural prices, land rents, and land values.

106. Then as now, the countries most attracted by a gold standard were those that stood to gain from it. Because of its access through its ally Portugal to Brazilian, and later Australian and South African gold deposits, Britain led the way. The countries that would gain most from a return to the gold standard are South Africa and the Soviet Union - the leading producers and pos­sessors of gold. If Japan, the United States and Britain seem reluctant to return to the gold standard it is because they stand to gain least. Yet the world economy needs an international monet­ary standard. Yesteryear it was the British pound tied to gold. Today, in contrast, it is the American dollar, the currency of the world's leading debtor nation.

107. Recognition of America's changing place in the world was made by the European powers in 1892 when their diplomatic represen­tatives in Washington DC were upgraded from minister to am­bassador.

108. Comparative figures, per capita, were US $377; Britain $244; Germany $184; France $153; Italy $108; Austria-Hungary $57; Russia $41; Japan $36. Similarly its national income of $37 billion far exceeded that of Germany $12 billion; Britain $11 billion; Russia $7 billion; France $6 billion; Italy $4 billion; Austria­Hungary $3 billion; and Japan $2 billion.

109. See Chapter 4. In 1910, realizing how close to war they had been, Russia and Austria pledged their support of the status quo.

110. Helmuth von Moltke, chief of the German Staff at the outbreak of war, is thought to have exaggerated the importance of railways in general mobilization. Nevertheless, strategy (even by 1870) de­pended less on soldiers' legs and more on railway wheels.

111. In the 1880s Britain had built about four-fifths of world shipping. 112. See Michael Balfour, The Kaiser and his Times, Boston, 1964, p. 425.

Notes 257

113. "Were Germany united," said the English writer David Hume in 1748, "it would be the greatest power that ever was in the world."

114. The United Kingdom's share of world manufacturing output declined from 22.9 per cent in 1880 to 13.6 per cent in 1913. A similar downward trend is reflected in Britain's share of world trade which fell from 23.2 per cent in 1880 to 14.1 per cent in 1911-1913.

115. In 1913 France's GNP, its share of world manufacturing produc­tion, and its national income were all about half of those of Germany. On the eve of war it planned to mobilize 80 divisions, the Germans 100.

116. Ominously, in the Treaty of 1871 between Germany and France, mention of soldiers' graves (foreshadowing the carnage to come) is made for the first time.

117. See Richard Hough, The Great War at Sea, Oxford, 1983. Hough maintains that the unrelenting pressure of the Royal Navy was the prime factor which led to the defeat of the Central Powers on land by 1918.

118. Although the machine-gun had had devastating effect in the Russian-Japanese War of 1904-1905, the war plans of the conti­nental powers left it out of account.

119. At that time France was conscripting 89 per cent of its eligible young males; Germany 53 per cent. Germany's army budget grew from $204 million in 1910 to $442 million in 1914. Similar figures for France were $188 and $197 million.

120. The First International was established in London in 1864. Karl Marx drafted its constitution. The Second International was formed in London in 1889. The Third International resulted from meetings held at Bern in 1919. Since then there have been two separate international organizations of labor: the Third Commu­nist International in Moscow, based on revolutionary principles, and the non-revolutionary Labour and Socialist International in Zurich. When war came, despite all rhetoric, the labor movement shed its internationalism.

121. Before the war ended the 4 per cent (on average) of the national incomes being spent by the combatants before 1914 on armaments had risen to something in the region of 25 to 30 per cent.

122. Rupert Brooke, ''The Dead," The Complete Poems, New York, 1977, p. 148.

123. In 1900 western Europe accounted for ninety per cent of world industrial production.

124. There was even controversy how dead German airship crew should be buried in England- as soldiers (with military honors), or as pirates.

125. The decision, said the German Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg, who had resolutely opposed the move, meant "finis Germanil.le."

126. For the sharp divergence between official and non-official ac­counts of this tragedy - which turned the United States public

258 Notes

against Germany - see Colin Simpson, The Truth about the Lusita­nia, Boston, Mass., 1972.

127. Rupert Brooke, "Peace," cited above, p. 146. 128. Wilfred Owen, "Dulce Et Decorum Est," The Complete Poems and

Fragments, Vol. I: The Poems, New York, London, 1984, p. 140. 129. Published in English in New York in 1926. Spengler jolted people

out of their unreasoning faith in the providential nature of pro­gress.

130. Poland had been divided in 1772, 1793, 1795, and 1815 because Britain and France would not risk war. It regained its freedom in 1918, not because of President Wilson, but because Austria­Hungary, Russia, and Germany were convulsed and defeated.

131. In 1929 the Serbo-Croat-Slovene state became Yugoslavia. 132. Under the leadership of Eamon de Valera (1882-1975) Ireland

(except Northern Ireland) eventually obtained independence under the Republic of Ireland Act which came into operation in April1949.

133. During 1915 and 1916, Sir Henry McMahon, British High Com­missioner in Egypt, exchanged ten letters with Hussein ibn Ali, Sharif of Mecca. The purpose: to enlist Arab support against the Turks. The promise behind the correspondence, however am­biguously worded, was Arab independence. See British Parliamen­tary Papers, 1939, Misc. No. 3, Cmd. 5957.

134. The Balfour Declaration was contained in a letter dated 2 Novem­ber 1917, addressed to Lord Rothschild, a British Zionist leader (who had, along with President Wilson's legal aide, Louis Bran­deis, an American Zionist, already helped in its drafting). It was signed by Britain's Foreign Secretary, Arthur James Balfour, and appeared in the London Times, 9 November 1917.

135. The Dawes and Young Plans were terminated by the Lausanne Conference in 1932.

136. The Revolution of 1905 had forced Nicholas II (who had come to the throne in 1894) to accept an elected Duma (parliament), but its power was limited.

137. In 1903 the Russian Socialist Democratic Party had split into two groups: the Bolsheviks, who wanted party leadership to be re­stricted to a select number of revolutionaries, and the Menshe­viks, who wanted a wider membership and a more democratic leadership.

138. See Leon Trotsky, A History of the Russian Revolution, vols. 1-3, New York, 1932.

139. 25 October by the old Julian calendar then used in Russia. 140. The election returns, made known in November 1918, showed the

Bolsheviks with 225 out of the 707 delegates. 141. The separate peace treaty between Germany and Russia is only

one of the milestones in a long and often co-operative relation­ship. Following the Treaty of Rapallo in 1922, Russia secretly assisted Germany to rearm.

Notes 259

142. See W. Bruce Lincoln, cited above. 143. See J. Bradley, Allied Intervention in Russia 1917-1920, New York,

1968. 144. Contrary to the commonly held opinion that pre-revolutionary

Russia was a country of economic stagnation, Russia's growth rate between 1908 and 1914 was 8.8 per cent. In overall production it lagged behind the Western powers.

145. See Chapter 12. 146. Marx's determination to seek redemption in this life rather than

from this life was really a return to the Judaic past; for ancient Jewish theology saw virtue as being rewarded not in the hereafter, but here on earth.

147. It was the socialist theoretician Eduard Bernstein (1850-1932) who said that Marxism is Calvinism without God. Marxism has the comfort of faith and religion without belief in a supreme being.

148. See Max Weber cited above. 149. See David B. Barrett World Christian Encylopedia, Oxford University

Press, 1982, from which the following figures (and estimates) concerning the major faiths are taken.

Adherents of the world's religions in millions and as a percentage of world population

1900 % 1980 % 2000 %

Christian 558 34.4 1,433 32.8 2,020 32.3 Atheist 3 .2 911 20.8 1,334 21.3 Muslim 200 12.4 723 16.5 1,201 19.2 Hindu 203 12.5 583 13.3 859 13.7

Buddhist 127 7.8 274 6.3 359 5.7 Jewish 12 .8 17 .4 20 .3 Other 516 31.9 433 9.9 467 7.5

Although the center of Christian missionary work is now in the Americas rather than the Far East, large Roman Catholic popula­tions persist in the Philippines (about 40 million, 79.7 per cent of the population), Vietnam (about 2 million, 3.9 per cent), South Korea (about 1.5 million, 3.9 per cent), Indonesia (about 4 million, 2.7 per cent), Taiwan (about 1/2 million, 2.7 per cent), Papua New Guinea (about 3/4 million, 27 per cent). Islam has also expanded. (See Map XV)

150. Mikhail Gorbachev, Perestroika, New York, 1987. 151. Members of the Society of Jesus, founded by the Spaniard Igna­

tius of Loyola in 1534, and given Papal authorization in 1540, played a leading role in all early East-West relations. The Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689), the first treaty concluded between China and the West, was their doing. In providing a bridge between East and West, they also introduced Confucius to Europe, and the Bible, Copernicus, and Euclid to China.

260 Notes

152. See Philip F. Riley and Others (eds), The Global Experience, Vol. II, cited above, pp. 26-27.

153. Certain Jesuits remained behind in Peking to care for the dynastic calendar. Almost two centuries later in 1939 the pope decreed that ancestor worship and Confucian rites were not incompatible with the dogma of the church.

154. For centuries now the Japanese have been living in more concen­trated masses than the westerners- which helps to account for the inclination of the Japanese towards group action and group or­ganization.

155. See Philip F. Riley and Others, cited above, pp. 31-32. 156. On the inequity of British importation of opium into China, see

J.K. Fairbank and Ssu-yu Teng, China's Response to the West: A Documentary Survey, 1839-1923, Camb., Mass., 1954, pp. 24-27.

157. In 1836 British sales of opium in China totalled $18 million; Chinese sales of tea and silk to the British amounted to $17 million.

158. Four new ports - in addition to Canton (Ghangzhou) - were opened up for western trade; trade was regulated to benefit western interests; under the principle of extra-territoriality, British subjects in China could only be tried by British laws. Hong Kong was leased to Britain.

159. The famine of 1877-1879 in northern China left ten million dead. 160. Gun production was restricted as a safeguard against insurrection

under the long peace of the Tokugawas; more importantly, in comparison with the much more widely used sword, a gun was culturally unacceptable. See Noel Perrin, Giving Up the Gun, Bos­ton, Mass., 1979.

161. During the First World War Japan had made demands upon China that threatened China's independence. In 1915 Japan es­tablished its rule in Shantung, Manchuria, and Inner Mongolia.

162. In 1921 Outer Mongolia declared its independence. In 1924 it became the Mongolian People's Republic and was recognized as such by China in 1946; its independence was guaranteed by China and the Soviet Union in February 1950. Tibet's experience was much more ill-starred. Following the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, Communist China proceeded to enforce its will in Tibet. Since the revolt of 1959, when the Dalai Lama fled to India, any aspirations for Tibetan independence have been brutally suppressed.

163. Sun Yat-sen founded the Republic of South China in 1911. See H.Z. Schifferin, Sun Yat-sen and the Origins of the 1911 Revolution, University of California Press, 1969.

164. See E. Hahn, Chiang Kai-shek: An Unauthorized Biography, New York, 1955.

165. For a first-hand view see the autobiography of Han Suyin, Book Three, Birdless Summer, London, 1968.

166. The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 made the Chinese the first nationality specifically banned from immigration into the United

Notes 261

States. United States hostility to Japan and the Japanese grew only after its victory over Russia in 1904-1905. The most conspicuous example was President Roosevelrs World War II order to intern Japanese Americans.

167. See David Kaiser, Economic Diplomacy and the Origins of the Second World War, Princeton, N.J., 1980.

168. See Alan Bullock, Hitler: A Study in Tyranny, New York, 1952. 169. See J.M. Keynes, The Economic Consequences of the Peace, New York,

1920, which did much to create the legend of the "Carthaginian Peace" imposed on the Germans at Versailles. An economist of unusual brilliance, Keynes later attained fame as the architect of national economic policies. His unorthodox General Theory of Econ­omy, Interest and Money (London, 1936), which among other things introduced the idea of deficit spending by states in recession, aroused controversy among economists throughout the world.

170. See D.M. Smith, Mussolini: A Biography, New York, 1982. 171. Most historians attribute the nine-fold increase in Nazi votes to

the deepening of the economic crisis. Yet the communal elections of 1929- a relatively prosperous year- show that the appeal of the Nazis had already begun to grow.

172. History says otherwise. Since ancient Greece and Rome, the demagogue has always been the strangler of civilization.

173. Tacitus tells us that the Roman Republic succumbed to the Cae­sars because people became sick of disorder.

174. The onset of the Great Depression began with the commercial collapse of the United States in 1929. By 1932 Germany's output and trade had fallen to about half their 1928 figures.

175. See "Great Men in History'', Chapter 7, Morris R. Cohen, The Meaning of Human H1'story, New York, 1947.

176. His racist laws, his insistence upon Aryan superiority, and his intended colonization of the Slav lands separate Hitler from the German statesmen who preceded him.

177. The League's failure to halt Mussolini in Abyssinia convinced Hitler that the democracies lacked the will to uphold the Covenant of the League.

178. Czechoslovakia was one of a number of nation-states (others were Austria, Hungary, Poland, Yugoslavia, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania) which came into existence as a result of the First Great War. Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania gained their independence as a result of the breakdown of Russian rule in 1917-1918. Except for Finland, they were repossessed by the Soviet Union under the secret protocol of the Soviet-German frontier treaty of 1939.

179. For my generation, the word appeasement had a pejorative connotation. However, before 1938 the term was commonly understood to mean a necessary and desirable relation between nations. See Andrew J. Crozier, Appeasement and Germany's Last Bid for Colonies, London, 1988.

180. See Anthony Read and David Fisher, The Deadly Embrace: Hitler,

262 Notes

Stalin, and the Nazi-Soviet Pact 1939-1941, London, 1988. In 1940 the USSR forcibly annexed Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. Fin­land, attacked in the winter of 1939, offered heroic resistance, but by March 1940 was forced to accept Russia's terms. Because it had violated the Covenant, the USSR was expelled from the League of Nations on 14 December 1939.

181. In the First Great War the Germans had invaded Belgium not knowing what the British would do. This time they knew that an attack upon Poland would bring Britain (and France) into the war. Earlier, on 31 March, sixteen days before Hitler entered Prague, Chamberlain had announced in Parliament that if Poland were to be attacked. "His Majesty's Government would feel themselves bound at once to lend the Polish Government all support in their power." Having declared war, Britain and France found them­selves virtually unable to help Poland.

182. Influential in helping to form American policy was J.P. Kennedy (United States ambassador in London). Like many other ardent American isolationists, he supported the powerful America First Movement led by the famous aviator Charles Lindbergh. The America First Movement, which at one time appeared to rep­resent the majority opinion in the United States, died within hours after Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941.

183. Well might Winston Churchill write: "I slept that night with the peace of one who knows he has been saved."

184. Including Edouard Daladier, Georges Bonnet, Pierre Laval, Stan­ley Baldwin, Samuel Hoare, Ramsay MacDonald, John Simon, Edward Halifax, and Neville Chamberlain.

185. In 1938 Germany devoted to war preparation seventeen per cent of its GNP, an amount exceeding that of Britain, France, and the United States combined.

186. See Lieutenant Commander P.K. Kemp, RN (Ret.), Key to Victory, Boston, 1958, p. 26.

187. Only Portugal, Switzerland, Sweden, Eire, and Turkey succeeded in remaining neutral.

188. At this point United States' naval protection against German warships was advanced to the mid-Atlantic; economic and mili­tary aid was given to Britain.

189. "The hand that held the dagger," said President Roosevelt in a speech made at the University of Virginia on the same day, "has struck it into the back of its neighbor."

190. In an effort to keep France in the war, Churchill offered France what Cromwell had earlier offered the Dutch: common citizenship.

191. Churchill refused to compromise. 192. See H.G. Dahms, Die Geschichte des zweiten Weltkrieges, Munich,

1983, p. 211, note 64. German civilian deaths from Allied bombing were in the region of 570,000, p. 621, note 15.

193. See W.H. Baldwin, Battles Lost and Won, New York, 1966, pp. 112-113.

Notes 263

194. Emulating Hitler's annexation of Czechoslovakia in 1939, Musso­lini annexed Albania. With disastrous results, he went on to attack Greece in October 1940.

195. These efforts were frustrated by communist resistance led by Marshall Tito ijosip Broz, 1892-1980) who later became head of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

196. See John Toland, Infamy, Pearl Harbor and its Aftermath, New York, 1982. Toland argues that Roosevelt and his top advisors knew about the planned attack but remained silent in order to draw the United States into the war.

197. For three years, from June 1941 until June 1944, the Red Army inflicted over 90 per cent of German Army battle losses.

198. At the outset of the battle, in October 1942, the British had overwhelming superiority in the air, three times the number of soldiers, and six times as many tanks as the Germans and the Italians.

199. Being an ally rather than an enemy was to make a very great difference to Italy once the war was done.

200. The odds against the Germans on the eastern front were formi­dable: in manpower, in armor, in aircraft, they had a fifth, or less than a fifth (especially in the air) of Russia's strength. Yet in the course of the Russian campaign, more than five million officers and men surrendered to the Germans.

201. The Allies had an almost inexhaustible supply of troops, a 20 to 1 advantage in armor, and a 25 to 1 advantage in aircraft. In addition they had complete command of the waters separating Britain from the continent.

202. Although none of the Japanese victories had a crippling effect on overall allied strategy.

203. Although Truman thought the bomb would save half-a-million Allied lives, a worst-case scenario of the time envisioned 20,000 deaths.

204. The Japanese had 600,000 troops in the area. 205. World War II Deaths

Military Civilian Jewish victims0

Austria 380,000 145,000 (60,000) Belgium 9,600 75,000 (25,000) Britain 271,300 60,00000

British Commonwealth 133,000

Bulgaria 18,500 n.a. 14,000 China 1,324,500 10,000,000" Czechoslovakia 6,700 310,000 (250,000) Denmark 4,300 n.a.

(continued on p. 264)

264 Notes

Military Civilian Jewish victimso

Estonia 140,000 .... Finland 79,000 n.a. France 205,700 173,300 (65,000) Germanyoo 4,000,000 3,100,000 188,000 Greece 16,400 155,300 (60,000) Hungary 147,400 280,000 (200,000) Italy 262,400 93,000 (8,000) Japan 1,140,400 953,000 Latvia 120,000 .... Lithuania 170,000 .... Netherlands 13,700 236,300 (104,000) Norway 4,800 5,400 900 Poland 320,000 6,028,000 (3,200,000) Romania 519,800 465,000 (425,000) USA 292,100 USSR 13,600,000 7,720,000 (1,252,000) Yugoslavia 305,000 1,355,000 (55,000)

Total 23,054,600 31,584,300 5,906,900

o Figures in parentheses are also included as civilian casualties. oo Figures taken from H. G. Dahms cited above p. 616. • Estimate . .... Baltic States (228,000). Source: Robert Goralski (ed.), World War II Almanac, New York, 1981.

206. See Amo J. Mayer, Why did the Heavens Not Darken? The Final Solution in History, New York, 1989. Also Charles S. Maier, The Unmasterable Past: History, Holocaust and German Identity, Cam­bridge Mass., 1989. Also Lucy S. Dawidowicz, "Perversions of the Holocaust," Commentary, October 1989.

207. Not Italy, which avoided indictments by changing sides in 1944. 208. Said Jackson: "The wrongs which we seek to condemn and pun­

ish have been so calculated, so malignant and so devastating, that civilization cannot tolerate their being ignored because it cannot survive their being repeated". Robert H. Jackson, "Opening Ad­dress" in Trial of German War Criminals, Senate Doc. no. 129, 79th Cong., 1st sess., Washington DC, Government Printing Office, 1946, p. 1.

209. See H.G. Dahms cited above, p. 618. 210. Those on trial at Nuremberg and Tokyo used the same defense as

Shakespeare's soldiers accused of crime in Henry V: "We know enough if we know we are the king's men. Our obedience to the king wipes the crime of it out of us."

211. See Ann and John Tusa, The Nuremberg Trial, New York, 1984, also, R.H. Minear, Victor's Justice: The Tokyo War Crimes Trial, Princeton, 1971.

Notes 265

212. At the Cairo Conference in 1943 Roosevelt had insisted on treating China as the fifth power. Churchill had demurred.

213. About one-third of present-day Poland was German territory. The Yalta settlement not only laid the groundwork for future discord between Poland and Germany, it also made Poland a hostage to Russia.

214. Because the Russians were now feared more than the Germans, and the weakening of Germany would have meant the strength­ening of Soviet Communism, some Americans and Britons (par­ticularly Churchill) prevented Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau from reducing Germany to a pastoral state. The Russians were the strongest supporters of the Morgenthau Plan.

215. A communist-led attempt to seize power in Greece in 1944 was thwarted by British intervention. Further communist attempts to seize power (1946-1949) were foiled by United States intervention.

216. In current dollars, its GNP had risen from approximately $80 billion (1939) to $220 billion (1945). America came out of the war with two-thirds of the gold reserves, half the world's manufactur­ing output, half the world's exports, half the world's income, and half the world's shipping.

217. See Thomas B. Cochran, The Nuclear Anns Industry, Natural Re­sources Defense Council, Washington DC, 1987.

218. See Jonathan R. Adelman, Prelude to the Cold War, London, 1988. 219. Roosevelt's ideas reflected the same grand design for world peace

put forward by Mettemich, the Austrian foreign secretary, in the Holy Alliance of 1815. It is chiefly due to Roosevelt that the idea of a United Nations came to fruition. President Wilson had had a similar aim in helping to form the League of Nations in 1919.

220. See Nicholas Bethell, The Last Secret: The Delivery to Stalin of Over Two Million Russians by Britain and the United States, New York, 1974.

221. In October 1947 the Cominform (successor to the Comintern- the Third Communist International- which was dissolved by Stalin in 1943) was reestablished to coordinate communist action through­out the world.

222. In numbers of dead (292,131), it was the costliest war they had fought since the Civil War (214,938).

223. Proposed in 1947 by United States Secretary of State, General George Marshall (1880-1959), it provided western European countries (the aid was rejected by the Soviet bloc) with $13 billion of economic and financial assistance. Introduced in 1948, Marshall Aid was discontinued in 1952. See Michael J. Hogan, The Marshall Plan, Cambridge, 1987.

224. See Ann and John Tusa, The Berlin Blockade, London, 1988. 225. Member states in 1990 were: Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Federal

Republic of Germany, France (nominal membership since 1966), Greece, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Turkey, United Kingdom, and the United States.

226. The death of the Portuguese dictator Ant6nio de Oliveira Salazar

266 Notes

in 1968 prompted a struggle between the militarists and the communists.

'227. Born the son of a farmer, Mao Zedong helped found the Chinese Communist Party in 1921. After 1935 he dominated it. After 1949, having defeated the Nationalist forces, he became the first Chair­man of the People's Republic of China, a position he held until his death. Contrary to Marxist doctrine, he was the first communist leader to express the view that revolution must come from the peasantry rather than the urban proletariat. See Stuart Schram, Mao Tse-Tung, New York, 1966.

'228. It included Australia, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philip­pines, Thailand, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

'229. It was meant to guard against possible Russian aggression. It included Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, Turkey, and the United Kingdom. Although the United States had sponsored the defense agree­ment, it refused to become a full member. Iraq withdrew in 1959.

230. See Robert Conquest cited above. 231. The year that hostilities between the Soviet Union and Japan were

officially terminated. With Russian opposition withdrawn, Japan took its place as a member of the United Nations.

232. See P.F. Riley cited above, pp. 257-262. 233. On 20 May 1989 India became the first Third World nation to

admit developing an intermediate-range ballistic missile. 234. See Chapter 12. Eighteenth-century revolutionary France and

twentieth-century Czarist Russia are historical warnings of the dangers involved in reckless borrowing.

235. Although the composition of output and different relative prices make any comparison of GNP's hazardous, ranked by 1988 real gross national product in trillions of 1988 US dollars, the general magnitudes are as follows: United States $4.86, USSR $2.54, Japan $1.76, Germany $0.87, France $0.76, Britain $0.76, Italy $0.75.

236. The Indian National Congress Party, which eventually succeeded in its struggle for independence, was greatly assisted at its outset by Englishmen.

237. See M.K. Gandhi, An Autobiography, Boston, Mass., 1957. 238. See H. Belitho, ]innah, London, 1954. 239. He was the first Prime Minister of independent India (1947-1964);

and was four times President of the Indian National Congress Party (1929--1930, 1936-1937, 1946, and 1951-1954). See The Auto­biography of ]awaharlal Nehru, New York, 1941.

240. The military dictator of Burma, Ne Win (born 1911), who has influenced the course of events in Burma more than any other man since 1945, received his military training from the Japanese in Formosa (Taiwan) in 1941.

241. Achmed Sukarno (1901-1970) helped to found the Indonesian National Party in 1928. In 1955 he hosted the Bandung Conference of non-aligned African and Asian nations. In 1959 he assumed

Notes 267

dictatorial powers. In 1967, following a military coup, he was deposed.

242. Part of the old Ottoman province of Damascus (most of which is now Israel) came under the British mandate for Palestine in 1921. In 1946 it was renamed Jordan.

243. Approved at the San Remo Conference in 1920, the Balfour Dec­laration was incorporated into the mandate for Palestine granted to Britain by the League of Nations in 1922. In the Palestine National Charter adopted by the Fourth Palestine National As­sembly, Cairo, 17 July 1968, the Balfour Declaration was declared "null and void."

244. The publication in 1896 of Theodor Herzl's ]udenstaat precipitated Zionism as an active Jewish world movement.

245. Even earlier than the figures given above, a 1893-1894 census by the Ottoman Empire, which controlled Palestine until the end of the First World War, showed a total of 9,817 Jews in Palestine and 371,969 Muslims.

246. The report of the King-Crane Commission of 1919 was considered pro-Arab and anti-imperialist. The Commissioners recommended that a greatly reduced Zionist program be attempted by the Paris Peace Conference. "This would have to mean ... that the project for making Palestine distinctly a Jewish commonwealth should be given up."

247. OPEC was founded in 1960. Members in 1989 were Algeria, Ecuador, Gabon, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, and Venezuela. Saudi Arabia, Iran, and Iraq lead both in oil quotas and reserves.

248. Israel has always refused to negotiate with the PLO because it denied Israel's right to exist. In 1985, King Hussein of Jordan and Yasser Arafat of the PLO declared their willingness to make peace with Israel provided Israel withdrew from the territories occupied in 1967. Also in 1985 Arafat undertook to accept United Nations Resolution 242 guaranteeing Israel's right to exist if the United States explicitly endorsed the right of Palestinians to self­determination. On 13 November 1988 the PLO accepted U.N. Resolution 242.

249. In September 1978 meetings took place between President Jimmy Carter, Egyptian President Anwar Sadat, and Israeli Prime Minis­ter Menachem Begin to formulate a 'peace plan' to lessen the growing tensions in the Middle East between Arabs (including Palestinians) and Jews. Although a Peace Treaty between Israel and Egypt was signed in 1979, whereby the Sinai was returned to Egypt, in 1990 the basic problems - the future of the occupied territories, the question of Palestinian autonomy, and the inter­national status of Jerusalem- remained unaddressed.

250. See Tariq Ali, Can Pakistan Survive? The Death of a State, New York, 1984.

268 Notes

251. See Michio Morishima, Why has Japan 'succeeded?', Cambridge, England, 1982.

252. The eighth and ninth were both French; US Citicorp ranked tenth. Twenty-eight of the world's largest banks were owned by Japan. The next in line were the United States with thirteen, West Germany and France both with ten. In 1990 Japan had the world's leading financial institutions; its stock market capitalization was more than half of the world total; its Postal Savings Bureau was the largest savings institution in the world. The Japanese not only save money, they save everything. They are just as psychologi­cally impelled to save as Americans are to spend. See Akio Morita, Made in Japan, Tokyo, 1987.

253. See Annual Survey of World Business, Wall Street Journal, 21 Sep­tember 1990.

254. Although West Germany's trade surplus with the rest of the world in 1989 exceeded that of Japan ($30 billion a month com­pared with Japan's surplus of $20 billion) one heard few com­plaints against it. One reason why there is less criticism is that Germany's trade surplus is more evenly distributed in the world.

255. See Japan's Economic Challenge, Joint Economic Committee, Con­gress of the United States, October 1990, Section VII.

256. See Martin and Susan Tolchin, Buying into America, New York, 1988. For a more sanguine view see Edward M. Graham and Paul R. Krugman, Foreign Direct Investment in the United States, Washington DC, 1990.

257. According to a 1987 study by the American Chamber of Com­merce in Japan (A.C.C.J.), "foreign companies have invested more in Japan in the last five years than they had in the previous thirty years combined."

258. Compounding America's overwhelming reliance on Japanese funds has been the gradual shift in the United States from saving to spending. Compared to Japan (fifteen per cent) and West Germany (thirteen per cent), the United States personal savings rate had fallen from nine per cent of GNP in the mid-1970s to three per cent in 1989.

259. Public and private United States debt in 1988 totalled about $9 trillion - more than twice the country's GNP. Of this sum, private consumer debt (which had grown 40 per cent over the previous three years) accounted for $2.2 trillion. In mid-1987 consumer installment debt stood at a record $591 billion; Ameri­cans were buying on credit about 18-20 per cent more than they were earning.

260. In 1987 the increase in China's GNP equalled South Korea's total GNP.

261. Taiwan's effect upon the world economy still exceeds that of the People's Republic of China. As Taiwan's currency is tied to the US dollar (the same is true of South Korea, Singapore, and Hong Kong), depreciation of the dollar helps to boost Taiwan's competi­tiveness.

Notes 269

262. In 1978 Japan signed a Treaty of Peace and Friendship with China. 263. In 1988-1989 exports of Australian manufactured goods were

valued at almost $23 billion. 264. But since 1985 being increasingly wooed by the Soviets. The USSR

has improved its ties with Egypt, Oman, the United Arab Emi­rates, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Jordan. With its increased naval presence in the Persian Gulf, the United States is trying to offset the advance of Soviet influence.

265. Prior to Britain's nineteenth century intervention, Kuwait was an Ottoman province controlled from Basra. In 1922, to protect its interests, Britain drew borders which denied Iraq access to the sea.

266. The percentage of Asian migrants entering the United States multiplied more than four times between 1960 and 1980: from roughly nine to 42 per cent of total immigration. Immigrants from Latin America almost doubled: from about 20 to 40 per cent. Europe, at one time the chief source of United States immigrants, provided only ten per cent of the total in 1988.

267. In addition to the wonders of ancient Egypt, the sub-Saharan empires and kingdoms of Ghana (eighth to eleventh century), Mali (twelfth to fourteenth century), and Songhai (fourteenth to sixteenth century) were known for their cultural richness.

268. Founded as a colony for freed American slaves, it gained its independence in 1847. The slave trade was outlawed by the leading European powers (and the United States) in the first half of the nineteenth century, but continued to flourish between East Africa and the Middle East.

269. Following the Berlin Conference of 1884, Germany took posses­sion of Togoland and Cameroon. It also obtained a block of coastal land which became German South West Africa. Germany lost these territories to Britain in 1919.

270. Proclaimed the protectorate of German East Africa in 1890. In return for a German promise to keep out of Uganda, the British gave up German Heligoland, which they had obtained from Denmark in 1815. German East Africa, later called Tanganyika, with all other German possessions in Africa were seized by the British during World War I.

271. See Lance E. Davies and A. Huttenback, Mammon and the Pursuit of Empire, Cambridge, 1988.

272. See T.R.H. Davenport, South Africa: A Modern History, 2nd ed., 1978.

273. Despite the almost uniformly discouraging history of such measures in the present century, in the 1980s the United Nations tried to strengthen its hand against South Africa by imposing sanctions. American sanctions have been lifted against Poland, but in 1989 they remained in force against Cuba, Libya, Nicaragua, and South Africa. In 1990 the United Nations imposed sanctions against Iraq. See Robin Renwick, Economic Sanctions, Harvard University Cen­ter for International Affairs, Cambridge Mass., 1982.

270 Notes

274. On 12 February 1990 Nelson Mandela was released after 27 years in prison.

275. On African accomplishments see "Whose Dream Was It Anyway? Twenty-Five Years Of African Independence", Michael Crowder, African Affairs, January, 1987.

276. The OAU sought the furtherance of African unity, the coordina­tion of the political, economic, cultural, health, scientific, and defense policies, and the elimination of colonialism in Africa.

277. AIDS, which is spreading at an alarming rate in some parts of Africa, might be a crucial factor determining future demographic trends.

278. In 1921, after seven years of dispute, the USA paid Colombia $25 million for the loss of its Panama territory.

279. Proclaimed by President James Monroe on 2 December 1823, it forbad further colonization of the western hemisphere by Euro­peans. However, until well into the twentieth century, it was the British not the American navy that guarded the Latin American republics from outside political interference and military intimida­tion.

280. In the nineteenth century national rivalries and boundary dis­putes caused the republics to fight at least five wars among themselves. Between 1825-1828 Brazil fought Argentina. Between 1842-1852 Argentina fought Uruguay and then Brazil. Between 1864-1870 Paraguay fought Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina. Be­tween 1836-1839 and 1879-1883 Chile fought Peru and Bolivia.

281. On 19 January 1917 the German Foreign Secretary Alfred Zimmer­mann sent a coded message to von Eckhardt, German Minister in Mexico, trying to enlist Mexico's support in the event the United States entered the war. The Germans undertook to restore Mexico's lost territories in New Mexico, Texas, and Arizona. The message was intercepted and released to the USA press on 1 March 1917.

282. The League intervened twice during the 1930s: in efforts to halt warfare between Bolivia and Paraguay (192S-1938), and Peru and Colombia (1932-1935).

283. The value of a country's exports varied all the way from 20 to 40 per cent of its GNP.

284. Arthur Salter quoted in The Problem of International Investment, R.I.I.A., 1937, reprinted ed., New York, 1965, p. 11.

285. Based in Washington, membership included: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, USA, Uruguay, Venezuela. (Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, Jamaica, Grenada, and Surinam were added later). The OAS was effective in settling regional conflicts between Nicaragua and Costa-Rica in the 1940s and 1950s, a boundary dispute between Nicaragua and Honduras in 1957, and the war between El Salvador and Honduras in 1969.

286. Castro, having overthrown Fulgencio Batista in 1959, expro­priated the landholdings and refineries of the United States sugar

Notes 271

companies in June 1960. In October that year he went on to nationalize many United States-owned financial, commercial, and industrial undertakings. The United States responded by reduc­ing its Cuban sugar quota by 95 per cent, by imposing a trade embargo, and by breaking off diplomatic relations in January 1961. In February 1962, at a meeting of the OAS at Punta del Este, Uruguay, the United States succeeded in excluding socialist Cuba from the OAS.

287. Carter reaffirmed the United States' commibnent to ''honor national sovereignty and the principle of non-intervention." Under the treaty ratified in 1978 the Panama Canal will pass into complete Panamanian control by the end of the century.

288. Rebel leader Augusto Sandino, having been assassinated in 1934 by the Nicaraguan National Guard, became a national hero. Led by Daniel Ortega, in 1979 the Sandinistas were successful in ending the forty-year US-backed dictatorial regime of Anastasio Somoza Debayle. See Neill Macaulay, The Sandino Affair, Durham, N.C., 1984.

289. Quoted by the Wall Street Jounu~l, p. 11. 10 August 1990. A military coup in Suriname in December 1990 offers evidence of a swing in the opposite direction.

290. Yet it is worth remembering that for all its political instability, Latin America has had only four social revolutions: Mexico (1910-1917), Argentina (1942), Cuba (1959), and Nicaragua (1979-1990). The will to change the social structure (the basis of any revolution) of Latin American countries is absent.

291. Oil prices quadrupled from $2.70 per barrel in 1972 to $9.76 in 1976. The second round of oil price increases in 1979 raised the price per barrel to $33.47 in 1982.

292. The Alliance for Progress was formally brought into existence at the Inter-American Economic and Social Conference at Punta del Este, Uruguay, in August 1961.

293. Several countries began agrarian reform; one of the larger and most successful was Chile's, launched in 1965. From 1973 on, the government of General Pinochet undermined these efforts.

294. By the mid-1960s once-dominant Britain was taking only about nine per cent of Latin America's exports and supplying a little more than five per cent of its imports. Similar figures for imports and exports of the United States were about 40 per cent. By 1970 half of United States imports came from the western hemisphere (including Canada); almost half the total exports of United States manufactures went to Central and South America.

295. In 1970 West Germany replaced the United States as the world's leading exporter of manufactured goods. The USA recovered its leadership in 1989.

296. In 1989 Japan supplanted the United States as the largest donor of foreign aid.

297. Brazil's external debt-repayment in 1989 (on a principal of $115 billion) was 4.5 per cent of its GNP which in 1989 increased 0.5 per

272 Notes

cent. To make matters worse, the world dollar price for its primary produce continued to decline.

298. LAFfA was established under the Treaty of Montevideo, Uru­guay, in June 1960. Members were Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Uruguay. Colombia and Ecuador joined in 1961, Venezuela and Bolivia in 1966 and 1967 respectively.

299. The groundwork was laid by the Treaty of Central American Economic Integration, December 1960; it included El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras (withdrew in 1969), and Nicaragua; Costa Rica joined in 1%2. It was also called the Organization of Central American States or ODECA (Organizaci6n de Estados Centro­americanos).

300. Members were Bolivia, Chile (withdrew 1976) Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru.

301. Members were Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Uruguay, and Para­guay.

302. Members were Barbados, Guyana, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago. They were joined in 1974 by Antigua, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, St Lucia, St Vincent, Monserrat, and St Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla. It was also called CARIFf A (Caribbean Free Trade Association) founded early in 1968.

303. Perhaps it is a reflection of declining United States influence in the region, as well as a loss of belief in grandiose schemes, that the Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI), a joint effort in 1982 by the United States, Canada, Mexico, and Venezuela to promote trade, investment, and aid, should have such a small budget ($350 million).

304. In protest to the austerity programs imposed by the World Bank and the IMF, in March 1989 Brazil experienced the largest general strike in its history.

305. In Chile the church initiated agrarian reform; in El Salvador it has championed human rights. It is no accident that a Theology of Liberation flourishes in this continent. Currently the "communi­clades de base" (church sponsored grass roots groups) are a most important dynamic element in Latin American life.

306. Thailand, nominally free, was divided into British and French spheres of influence.

307. Figures drawn from United Nations Conference on Trade and Develop­ment Report 1989, Part II, The Least Developed Countries. U. N., New York, 1990.

308. The World Bank in its assessment of developing-country debt for 1990 gave a total of $1.341 trillion, up six per cent from $1.261 trillion in 1989. For developing countries the Persian Gulf crisis has compounded an already difficult situation.

309. On the face of it, the peak share of United States GNP allocated to defense, 6.5 per cent in 1986-1987, is small compared with the 39 per cent allocated in 1944-1945, the 14.9 per cent allocated in 1953 during the Korean War, or the ten per cent allocated in 1968

Notes 273

during the Vietnam War. In March 1990 the United States still held a dominating position (both in manufacturing output and employment) among the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) nations.

310. "This conjunction of an immense military establishment and a large arms industry is new in the American experience. We must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought by the military-industrial complex. The po­tential for the disastrous rise of misplaced power exists and will persist."

311. See William Hartung et al, The Economic Consequences of a Nucletlr Freeze, New York: Council on Economic Priorities, 1984.

312. The Middle East is not the only part of the world where religious wars are under way. Fighting is endemic between Protestants and Catholics in Northern Ireland; between Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs in India; and between Buddhists and Hindus in Sri Lanka.

313. The easily computed numerical measures of power used by recent authors writing about the decline of nations place too great a reliance on our present cult of numbers. The rise and fall of the powers is much more problematical than tidy columns of figures suggest. No figure can explain the all-important human element. See my review of Paul Kennedy's The Rise and Fall of the Gretlt Puwers, New York, 1987, in The American Historical Review, Vol. 94. No. 3. June 1989, pp. 719-721.

314. Figures drawn from World Military and Social Expenditures, 13th edition, edited by Ruth Leger Sivard, World Priorities, Washing­ton DC 1989.

315. While the treaty undoubtedly creates a more constructive climate for arms control, it deals with fewer than four per cent of the nuclear warheads in existence. The two major obstacles to the reduction of overall strategic arsenals in 1990 were the Soviets' 308 heavy land-based missiles presently aimed at the United States, and the American "Star Wars" program.

316. Dilatory attempts to establish international control of chemical and biological weapons have been made since 1969.

317. Nineteenth-century world population was thought to have ex­panded more rapidly than in any other period of history. Twentieth­century population has grown approximately four times faster.

318. Formed in August 1967 ASEAN members are Indonesia, Malay­sia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand.

319. Inspired by Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani (1838-1897) and the Arab awakening of the nineteenth century, and in response to in­creased Jewish immigration into Palestine, the Arab League was formed in Cairo, Egypt in 1945. Original members were Egypt, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Yemen. Member­ship in 1989 also included Algeria, Bahrain, Kuwait, Libya, Mauri­tania, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Somalia, Sudan, Tunisia, the United Arab Emirates, and the Yemen Peoples Democratic Republic.

274 Notes

320. See Chapter 13. 321. See Chapter 14. 322. A need foreseen by Winston Churchill, Jean Monnet (1888-1979),

and Robert Schuman (1886-1963). The original six member states were: Belgium, France, Federal Republic of Germany, Luxem­bourg, Italy, and the Netherlands. The United Kingdom, the Irish Republic and Denmark became members in 1973; Greece, Spain, and Portugal were added in 1985. By 1990 the EC comprised 320 million people in twelve countries, speaking nine different languages.

323. The European Parliamentary Assembly dates back to the signing of the Statute of the Council of Europe in May 1949. Founding members were Belgiun, Denmark, France, the Irish Republic, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. Many other European states subsequently joined the Assembly.

324. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was signed by the United States and twenty-two other nations in 1947. While the Reagan Administration tended to reverse the trend, since 1945 America has fostered the freedom and expansion of world trade before meetings of GATT. GATT, however, could be undone if the changes going on in Europe (EC) and North America (a proposed free trade area between the US, Canada, and Mexico) were to lead to world trade being divided among protective regional trading blocs.

325. The Kellog-Briand Pact of 1928 foolishly outlawed war while taking no steps to prevent it.

326. From the Chinese point of view, three things have hitherto pre­vented the normalization of relations with Russia: the Soviet's support for Vietnam in Cambodia, Russia's intervention in Afgha­nistan, and the Sino-Soviet frontier dispute. The frontier dispute remains. Following Gorbachev's visit to Beijing in May 1989, the first of its kind in thirty years, the Chinese (in the statement of rapprochement) expressed caution at renewing the relations with their Soviet neighbor.

327. See Soviet Military Power, 1988, Department of Defence, Washing­ton DC, 1988.

328. It was Frederick II, the Great, of Prussia (1740-1786) who wrote Testament Politique (1752 and 1768) which embodied the belief that Reason of State (raison d'etat) should overrule law and inter­national obligation. The Venetians, arguing that reasons of state justified the end (and in so doing removed politics from morals) had spoken of "Ragione di Stato". See G.P. Gooch, Frederick the Great, New York, 1947.

329. In a 1986 ruling of the International Court of Justice concerning the illegal mining by the United States of Nicaragua's harbors, the United States was found in violation of international law. Before the ruling it had already withdrawn from the compulsory jurisdic-

Notes 275

tion of the court. Since then it has again accepted the court's jurisdiction.

330. Of the four kinds of lies -lies, damned lies, statistics, and govern­ment statements - the official lie in our age has become the biggest. Perhaps George Orwell said it all: "Political language is designed to make lies sound truthful and murder respectable."

331. See D.P. Moynihan, On the Law of Nations, Cambridge, Mass., 1990.

332. Eighteenth century philosopher Immanuel Kant argued that war would only cease when there was nothing left to fight about, or when new moral insights were obtained. See his Plan for Perpetual Peace, 1975.

Index

Abbas I, Shah of Persia, II Abd-ai-Rahman, governor of C6rdoba, 15 Abyssinia (see also Ethiopia), 134 Acad~mie des Sciences, 59 Acre, 254, n.76 Acton, John, 3 Adams, Henry, 3 Adowa, battle of ( 1896), 190 Afghanistan, 10, II, 158, 171, 172, 180,

233,236,274 n.326 Africa Corps, 138 Africa, 14, 17, 20, 25, 29, 36, 37, 42, 65,

71, 75, 82, 83, 90, 91, 106, 139, 160, 163, 185-200, 224; 253 n.68, 270 n 275, n.277, Africans, 84, 96, 97, 187, 189, 196, 197, 198, 199,200,201, 233; Islam, 250 n.l9; population, 188, 197, 198; railroads, 253 n.67; trade, 185, 188, 195, 196, 197

African Development Bank, 198 African National Congress, 194 Age of Enlightenment, 54, 76, 97, 114 agriculture, 38, 39, 61, 71, 77, 81, 207, 210,

252 n.46, 256 n.105 AIDS, 4, 270 n.277 Aigun, Treaty of (1858), 119 Ain Jalut, 251 n.24 airplane, 40 Akbar, Mogul emperor, 12 Alamo, battle of the (1836), 79 Alaska, 79 Albania, 138, 143,263 n.l94 Alexander VI, Pope, 2, 67 Alexandria, 20, 139 Algeria, 157, 160, 191, 197,267 n.247, 273

n.319 Alhazen, Abu-' Ali, 56 Ali, Mohammed's son-in-law, 250 n.20 Allende, Salvador, 215 Alliance for Progress, 218-219,271 n.292 Alsace-Lorraine, 89 Alvarado, Pedro de, 69 America First movement, 262 n.l82 American Civil War (1861-1865), 79, 81,

125, 188 American Independence, war of

(1775-1783), 76

American Indians, 36, 70, 73, 75, 77, 78, 84,201,256 n.102; deaths, 255 n.96; population, 255 n.95

American Revolution, 71, 76, 256 n.100 Americas (see also Latin America, United

States), 29, 31, 36, 37, 38, 41, 64, 67-84, 160, 187,209,252 n.47; Central America, 71, 83,203,205-209,215, 222; Nonh America, 31, 42, 72-73, 77, 78; South America, 23, 38, 71, 73, 77, 83

Am~re, Andre Marie, 59 Amsterdam, 26 AmurRiver, 15,48,116,119,180 Andean Group, 222, 272 n.300 Angell, Norman, 92 Anglo-French Entente (1904), 85 Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902), 52, 87,

123, 124, 127 Anglo-Russian Entente (1907), 85 Anglo-Zulu War (1879), 190 Angola, 158, 160, 192, 199,236 Annam,165 Anti-Comintem Pact (1936), 129 anti-semitism (see holocaust) Antigua, 272 n.302 Antwerp, 252 n.43 ANZUS Treaty (1951), 178 apartheid, 194 appeasement, 261 n.l79 Arab League, 236,273 n.319 Arab-Israeli wars: (1948), 169; (1956), 169,

191; (1967), 169; (1973), 156, 169 Arabia, 14, 17, 18,37 Arabism, 94, 191, 233 Arabs, 5, 9, 14, 15-18,25, 31, 56, 94, 98,

141, 154, 157, 168-170, 179, 181, 185, 229,250 n.l9, 251 n.29, 258 n.l33; WWI,97

Ararat, Yasir, 267 n.248 Aragon, 9 Arbenz Guzmlin, Jacobo, 213 Archimedes, 56 Arctic Ocean, 45 Argentina, 67, 68, 69,201,203,205,206,

207,208,211,212,216,217,218,219, Ar220, 221, 223, 270 n.280, 270 n.285,

277

278 Index (Argentina cont.)

271 n.290, 272 n.298 n.301 Aristarchus of Samos, 254 n.83 Aristotle, 20, 57 Arizona, 78 Arkwright. Richard, 63 anns control, 239 anns race, 90, 149,219 ASEAN (see Association of South East

Asian Nations) Ashanti, 188 Asia Minor, 94 Asia, 6, 7-18, 19, 21, 29, 36, 37, 38, 40,

42,52,62,64,65,67, 75,90,91,99, 113-130, 156, 157, 160, 161-183, 190, 191, 192, 194,211,225,233,237, 239, 241; Asians, 33, 96, 97, 178, 182; Cold War, 152

Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN), 236, 273 n.318

Astrakhan, 48 Atahualpa, Inca ruler, 70 Atatiirk (see Kemal, Mustapha) atheism, 106, 109,259 n.l49 Atlantic Ocean, 78 atomic bomb, 140, 150, 156 Aurangzeb, Mogul emperor, 12 Australasia, 36, 41 Australia, 31-33, 34, 36, 42, 79, 128, 138,

140, 161,177-179,256 n.I06, 266 n.228; aborigines, 33; Australians, 36; Commonwealth of, 33; exports, 269 n.263; immigration, 177; Immigration Restriction Act ( 1902), 33; Japan, 127, 178; population, 32, 33, 178; uade, 178;WWI,94,98

Austria, 9, 10, 12, 17, 48, 51, 52, 53, 85, 87,88,89,92,93,96, 134,146,254 n.74, n.75, 256 n.I09, 261 n.l78; WWII; deaths, 263 n.205

Austro-Hungarian Empire, 85, 87, 91, 99, 134; income, 256 n.108; WWI; deaths, 93

Austro-Prussian War (1866), 88 automobile, 40, 172 aviation, 40 Axis powers, 138, 139, 142, 149, 212 Azerbaijan, II, 233 Aztecs, 37, 42, 68, 69, 70, 75; population,

255 n.92 Babur, Mogul emperor, II, 12

Baghdad Pact (1955), 153 Baghdad, II, 15

Bahadur Shah II, 12 Bahrain, 229,273 n.319 Baker, James, 170 balance of power, 64, 124, 143, 146, 160 balance of terror, 147, 149-160, 179 Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, 67 Baldwin, Stanley, 262 n.l84 Balfour Declaration ( 1917), 98, 258 n.I34,

267 n.243 Balfour, Anhur J., 168,258 n.l34 Bali, 166 Balkans,9,85,87,88 Baltic Sea, 46, 48, 76, 134, 147 Baltic states, 95, 135, 143, 157, 233; Baits,

177 Baluchis, 233 Banana Republics, 207 Bandung Conference (1955), 163,267 n.241 Bangladesh, 170 Barbados, 270 n.285, 272 n.302 "Barbarossa", 137 Basques, 97 Basra, 269 n.265 Batavia, 31 Batista, Fulgencio, 270 n.286 Battle of Britain (1940), 137 Battle of the Bulge (1944 ), 140 battles (see name of specific baule) bauxite, 41, 221 Bay of Pigs invasion (1961), 214 Begin, Menachem, 267 n.249 Beijing (see also Peking), 158, 239 Beirut. 167 Belgian Congo (see also Zaire), 197 Belgium, 84, 99, 132, 134, 192,233,239,

266 n.225, 274 n.322, n.323, ; WWI, 89; wwn. 136, 262 n.181; deaths, 263 n.205

Belgrade, 137 Belize, 272 n.302 BeUoc, Hillaire, 65 Bengal (see also Bangladesh), 163,233 Benin, 188 Bentinck, William, 12 Bering Straits, 49 Berlin West Africa Conference (1884-1885),

188-189, 269 n.269 Berlin, 140, 151, 152, 154, 157, 158, 160,

236; airlift, 152; Wall, 154, 235

Index 279 Berlin, Treaty of ( 1878), 254 n. 75 Bernstein, Eduard, 259 n.l47 Bessarabia, 135 Bessemer steel process, 64 Bethmann-Hollweg, Theobald von, 257

n.l25 Behaine, Pierre Pigneau de, 164 Biafra, 233 Bible, 256 n.IOI, 260 n.l51 biological weapons, 156, 234, 239, 273

n.316, Bismarck Archipelago, 34 Bismarck, Otto von, 88 Black Sea, 45, 48, 51 Blitzkrieg, 136 Blok, Alexander, 254 n.73 Boers, 189, 194 (see also South African

War) Bogota, 71 Bohr, Niels, 60 Bolivia, 41, 68,201,209,214,216,217,

219,270 n.280 n.282 n.285, 272 n.298 n.300n.301

Bologna, 20, 251 n.30 Bolshevik Revolution (1917), 100 Bolsheviks, 94, 101, 102, 103, Ill, 131,

258 n.l37 n.l40 Bon, Gustave le, 106 Bonnet, Georges, 262 n.l84 Bordeaux, 15 Bomeo,l66 Bosnia, 52, 85,254 n.75 Bosnian Crisis ( 1908), 52 Bosporus, 45 Boston, 76 Botswana, 196 Boulogne, 136 Boxer Rebellion ( 1900), 121 Boyle, Robert, 59 Brahe, Tycho,55,56,57,59 Brandeis, Louis, 258 n.l34 Brazil, 67, 70, 71, 187,201,203,205,206,

207,208,210,211,212,216,217,218, 219, 220,221,222,223,249 n.9, 252 n.47, 256 n.I06, 270 n.280 n.285, 272 n.298 n.301 n.304; debt, 271 n.297

Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of ( 1918), 95, I 03, 258 n.l41

Brezhnev Doctrine, 235 Brezhnev, Leonid, Ill, 155, 239 Brindley, James, 63 Britain, 6, 22, 24, 25, 50, 52, 89, 97, 98,

108, 123, 124, 129, 134, 142, 143, 145, ISO, 151,170,173,191,203,205,208, 221, 229, 266 n.225 n.228 n.229, 274 n.322 n.323; Africa, 189, 191; atomic bomb, 156; Australasia, 31, 32, 33, 177, 178; British Commonwealth, 194, 264 n.205; British Dominions, 37, 128, 135; Burma, 164; China, 51, 83, 115, 118, 119, 121, 158,260 n.l58; EEC, 178; Egypt, 191; emigration, 177; GNP, 266 n.235; gold standard, 256 n.I06; Great Depression, 177; income, 256 n.I08; India, 12, 29, 31, 44, 163,, 250 n.22, 253 n.63; Industrial Revolution, 39, 62, 63; investment, 174,205,207;lran, 181;Japan,52, 116, 123, 124, 127, 128; Latin America, 201,203,205,216,271 n.294; Malaya, 164; manufacturing, 257 n.ll4; Middle East, 168, 169; naval defenses, 137; naval technology, 257 n.lll; Navy, 91, 94; New Zealand, 32; North America, 32, 73; opium in China, 118, 119,260 n.l57; Ottoman Empire, 100; Pacific, 34; Persia, II, 52; Poland, 138; population, 254 n. 71; rearmament, 52, 91, 136; Russia, 50, 51, 103; sea power, 88; Soviet Union, 134; Spanish Armada (1588), 24; trade, 31, 33, 41, 91, 177,257 n.ll4; United States, 75, 76, 79; War of American Independence, 76; world power, 88, 89;WWI,85,89,95,98,99, 100,253 n.64; WWII, 131, 135, 136, 137, 161, 262 n.l81 n.l88, 263 n.l98 n.201; deaths, 264 n.205

British Empire, 33, 34; WWI; deaths, 93 British Guiana, 203 Bronstein, Lev Davidovich (see Trotsky) Brooke, Rupert, 96, 257 n.l22, 258 n.l27 Brunei, 41 Brunelleschi, Filippo, 56 Buddhism, 27, 45, 177,250 n.l5, 259 n.l49 Buenos Aires, 71 Bulgaria, 87, 143, 146, 151; WWI, 94;

deaths, 93; WWII; deaths, 264 n.205 Burckhardt, Jacob C., 4, 251 n.29 Burma, 15, 116, 161, 164, 166,267 n.240 Burton, Richard F., 188 Bury, J. B., 251 n.31 Bush, George, 157 bushido, 142

280 Index Buxar, battle of (1764), 253 n.63 Byron, John, 6 Byzantine Empire, 7, 9, 26, 45 Byzantium, 251 n.29 Cabot, John, 6 cacao (see also cocoa), 38 CACM (see Central American Common

Market) Cairo Conference ( 1943 ), 265 n.212 Calais, 7, 136 California, 67, 78, 79, 82, 182 Cambodia, 160, 165, 166 Cameroon, 191,269 n.269 Camp David Accords ( 1979), 170, 267

n.249 Canada, 73, 77, 79,80,83, 156,219,220,

266 n.225, 272 n.303; Canadians, 36, 233,

Cano, Juan Sebastilin del, 6 Canton, 116, 260 n.l58 capitalism, 5, 44, 90, 105, 106, 107, 109,

110,158,201,226,227,234 Caracas, 213 ~bbean,68, 187,203,205,206,207,

208,209,212,215 Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI), 272 n.303 ~bbean Common Market, 222 Caribbean Community (CARICOM), 222,

272 n.302 ~bbean Free Trade Association

(CARIFTA), 272 n.302 CARICOM (see Caribbean Community) CARIFTA (see Caribbean Free Trade

Association) Carolinas, 67, 72 Caroline Islands, 98 Carter, Jimmy, 215, 267 n.249, 271 n.287 Cartier, Jacques, 72 Cartwright, Edmund, 63 Castile, 6, 9, 23, 252 n.45 Castillo Armas, Carlos, 214 Castro Ruz, Fidel, 214, 270 n.286 Catalonia, 97; Catalonians, 233 Cathay, 68, 72 Catherine II, Empress of Russia, 48, 53, 54 Catholicism (see Roman Catholic Church) Caucasus, 53 caudillism, 216 CBI (see Caribbean Basin Initiative) Celebes, 166 cement, 172 CENTO (see Central Treaty Organization)

Central American Common Market (CACM), 222, 272 n.299

Central Powers (World War I), 94, 205 Central Treaty Organization (CENTO),

153,266 n.229 Ceuta, 9 Ceylon (see also Sri Lanka), 163 Ch'ing dynasty (see Manchu dynasty) Chad, 199 Chaldiran, battle of ( 1514 ), 10 Chamberlain, Neville, 134, 135, 136, 151,

262 n.l84 Chamorro, Emiliano, 208 Champlain, Samuel de, 72 Charlemagne, 250 n.l7 Charles Martel, 9 Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, 23,24 Charter of Paris ( 1990), 235 Cheka. 53 chemical weapons, 156,234,239,273

n.316 chemicals, 64 Chemulpo, 124 Cheyenne, 78 Chiang Kai-shek, 126, 127, 146, 260 n.l64 Chile, 68, 160, 201,205,206, 207,208,

209,211,212,215,217,218,220,222, 223,270 n.280 n.285, 271 n.293, 272 n.298 n.300 n.305

China, 13-15,21,25,26, 37, 42, 51, 82, 87, 109,113-116, 117,118-121, 123, 124, 125-127, 129, 143, 146, 155, 160, 166, 170,176,177,180,199,225,226,233, 236, 238, 251 n.25, 253 n.52, 260 n.151; astronomy, 113; atomic bomb, 156; Burma, 164; Canada, 156; civil war, 120, 146, 167; communism, 125,

126, 127, 146, 152, 167; Cultural Revolution, 146, 158, 176; dynastic calendar, 113; extraterritoriality, 260 n.l58; famine, 260 n.159; GNP, 268 n.260; Great Leap Forward, 176; India, 164, 171, 241; industrialization, 98, 126; Japan, 260 n.161, 269 n.262; Japanese invasion, 167; law, 28; Mongolia, 260 n.162; Mongols, 251 n.24; nationalists, 125, 126, 127; naval technology, 14; opium, 119, 120,260 n.156 n.l57; People's Republic of, 146, 241,260 n.162, 266 n.227, 268 n.261; population, 118, 180, 251 n.23;

Index 281 railroads, 253 n.67; Republic of, 121, 125; Republic of South China, 260 n.l63; Revolution of 1911, 121; Russia, 48; Sino-Japanese War, 123; Soviet Union, Ill, 154, 158, 180, 239, 274 n.326; technology, 15; Tibet. 163, 260 n.l62; trade, 13, 14, 115, 116, 118, 119, 120, 123; United Nations, 146; United States, 83, 241; western intrusion, 118; WWI, 121, 125; WWII, 265 n.212; deaths, 264 n.205

Chinese Communist Party, 266 n.227 Chinese Exclusion Act (1882), 261 n.l66 Christendom, 6 Christianity, 6, 19, 21, 22, 24, 28, 36, 44,

50,51,57,58,97, 104,106,107,109, 114,225,231,249 n.l2 n.l3, 250 n.l5 n.l9, 251 n.33 n.34, 259 n.l49; Africa, 185, 187; Byzantium, 7; China, 113, 115, 120,260 n.l53; Christ, 2, 107, 117; Indochina, 165; Japan, 116, 117; Palestine, 169; Russia, 45, 103; Spain, 70 (see also Roman Catholic Curch, Protestantism)

Church of England, 7 Churchill, Winston Spencer, 88, 135, 136,

137, 139, 142, 147, 150, 151, 158,262 n.l83 n.l90, 263 n.l91, 265 n.212 n.214, 274 n.322

cinchona, 38 cinnamon, 253 n.51 Clark, William, 77 Clive, Robert, 31 cloves,253 n.51 coal, 40, 61, 62, 88, 98, 178, 195 cocaine, 38, 217 Cochin China, 164, 165 cocoa,41,221 coffee,38,41,208,210,217,221 Cold War, 147, 149-156, 158,213,234,

235,238 collectivism, 27,44 Collingwood, Robin G., 249 n.l Colombia, 41, 83,204,205,207,217,255

n.93, 270 n.278 n.282 n.285, 272 n.298 n.300

colonialism, 36, 91, 100, 120, 161, 190, 191, 192, 194, 195, 196, 198, 199,201, 206,229

Columbus, Christopher, 6, 14, 19, 29, 42, 67,252 n.47

COMECON (see Council for Mutual

Economic Assistance) Common Market (see European Economic

Community) communism, 4, 19, 97, 101-111, 126, 131,

133, 145, 149, 150, 151, 153, 154, 155, 156,226,227,231,234,238,257 n.l20, 263 n.l95, 265 n.214 n.215 n.221, 266 n.227; Burma, 164; China, 125, 126, 127, 152; Cuba, 214; Indochina, 165; Latin America, 211, 213; Malaya, 164; Vietnam, 165

computer, 40, 64 Concord, battle of ( 1775), 76 Confucianism, 13, 22, 27, 114, 115, 126,

177, 260 n.l53; Confucius, 27, 251 n.25, 260 n.l51

Congo(seealsoZaire),157,192 Congo River, 187, 188 Congress of Mantua (1459-1460), 7 Connecticut, 73 conquistadores, 71 Constantine I, Roman emperor, 7 Constantinople, 7, 9, 10, 26, 46,94 Containment policy, 151, 153, 158 Convention of the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948), 143

Cook Island, 34 Cook, James, 32 Coolidge, Calvin, 204 coolie labor, 120 Copenhagen Declaration of Neutrality

(1938), 136 Copernicus, Nicolaus, 19, 20, 55, 56, 57,

59, 60, 251 n.30, 254 n.83, 255 n.85, 260n.l51

coppe~40. 116,185,207,215,217,221 Copts, 187 Coral Sea, battle of the (1942), 140 Cordoba, 15 Co~s. Hem4n, 37, 68,69 Costa Rica, 201, 270 n.285, 272 n.299 cotton, 38, 41, 116, 187,217 Council for Mutual Economic Assistance

(COMECON), 152 Counter-Reformation, 54, 252 n.36 Coviliho, Pedro de, 187 Crazy Horse, Sioux chief, 78

Crete, 138 Crimean War (1854-1856), 51 Croatia, 97,233

282 Index Croce, Benedetto, 249 n.l Crompton, Samuel, 63 Cuba, 72, 82, 83, 152, 156, 160, 192,201,

205,207,214,215,220,271 n.286 n.290; coolies, 120; missile crisis, 154, 155, 214; United States, 203,205,207, 208,209

Custer, George, 78 Cuzco, 70 Cyprus, 233 Czechoslovakia, 97, 134, 145, 151, 158,

235,261 n.l78, 263 n.l94;WWII; deaths, 264 n.205

D-Day, 139,263 n.201 Dahomey, 188 Daladier, Edouard, 262 n.l84 Dalai Lama, 260 n.l62 Daman,29 Damascus, 167,267 n.242 Dampier, William, 32 Danish-Prussian War ( 1864), 88 Daoism, 22, 27, 253 n.57 Darby, Abraham, 63 Dardanelles, 51, 94, (see also Gallipoli) Darwin, Charles, I, 60, 105,255 n.86 Dawes and Young Plans, 98,258 n.l35 De Gaulle, Charles, 137, 165, 191 De Valera, Eamon, 258 n.l32 De Vries, Jan, 252 n.46 debt, 23, 81, 176,210,221,227,266 n.234,

272 n.308 (see also Latin America, United States, Third World)

Declaration of [American] Independence (1776), 76

Decolonization: of Africa, 185-200; of China, 127; of India, 163; of Indochina, 164, 165; of Latin America, 71; of North America, 76; of the Dutch East Indies, 166; of the Middle East, 167; of the Philippines, 167

defense spending, 228, 229 Delaware, 72, 73 democracy, 84, 97, 103, 110, 126, 152,

217,219,222,238,241 Democratic Turnhalle Alliance Party

(DTA),192 Denmark, 87,266 n.225, 274 n.322 n.323;

WWII, 136; deaths, 264 n.205 Descartes, Re~. 57, 58, 59, 60,253 n.59 Deshima Island, 117 diamonds, 71, 195 Dien Bien Phu, battle of(l954), 165, 191

diesel engine, 64 disarmament, 127, 134, (see also naval

disarmament) discoveries, 6, 15, 24, 27, 29, 42, 65, 66,

67,68, 75, 167 disease, 33, 36, 70, 73, 81, 185, 188 Diu,29 Djakarta, 166 Djibouti, 191, 192 Dmitri Donskoi, Grand Prince of Moscow,

50 Dnieper River, 48 Dodecanese Islands, 94 dollar diplomacy, 204 Dollfuss, Engelben, 134 Dominica, 272 n.302 Dominican Republic, 83, 204, 205, 208,

209,215,219, 270n.285 Don River, 48, 53 Dresden, 137 drought, 235 DTA (see Democratic Turnhalle Alliance

Pany) Duma, 103,258 n.136 Dunkerque, 136 Dutch East Indies, 129 Dzhugashvili, los if Vissarionovich (see

Stalin) East India companies, 12,29 East Prussia, 233 EC (see European Community) ecology, 235,237 economic aid, 266 n.223 economic development, 65, 224 economic power, 2, 7, 62, 89, 91, 98, 146,

225,237,328 economic sanctions, 129,214,237,269

n.273 economics, I, 2, 37, 41, 105, 107, 108,225,

231,235,237,242 Ecuador,68,201,203,217,219,221,255

n.93, 267 n.247, 270 n.285, 272 n.298 n.300

EEC (see European Economic Community) egalitarianism, 44 Egypt, 41, 90, 139, 157, 169, 179, 181,

191,229,236,250 n.IS, 251 n.24, 258 n.133, 267 n.249, 269 n.264, 273 n.319

Einstein, Alben, 60 Eire (see Ireland, Republic ot) Eisenhower, Dwight D., 169,228,273

n.310

Index 283 El Alamein, battle of(l942), 139,263

n.l98 El Salvador, 160,216,222,223,270 n.285,

272 n.299 electricity, 39, 40, 59, 62, 64, 207 electronics, 172 Eliot, T.S., 65 Elizabeth I, Queen of England, 53 Engels, Friedrich, 104 England (see also Britain) , 12, 61, 62, 63,

67, 68, 72, 104, 106, 187, 252 n.37 n.46, 253 n.62; population, 117, 250 n.l4

Erasmus, Desiderius, 19, 44 Eritrea, 190 Erivan, 11 Esperanto, 92 Estonia, 46,261 n.l78, 262 n.l80;

Estonians, 97;WWII; deaths, 264 n.205 ethics, l, 3, 57, 61, 107, 183,242,275

n.329 n.332 &~¢a,~·~·~·-·~·~·~

225 Euclid, 56, 260 n.l51 Euler, Leonhard, 22 Europe, 2, 19-28,75, 156, 157,211,212,

220,225,228,235, 238,239,249 n.l2 n.l3, 250 n.l7 n.l9; Africa, 185, 187, 190; balance of power, 64, 90, 134, 149, 225; China, 115, 120; Chinese inventions, 13, 14; contrast with Orient, 7, 26, 27; discoveries, 6, 29, 37, 38, 188; eastern Europe, 4, 109, llO, 141, 143, 144, 145, 149, 150, 152, 158, 176, 224, 234, 235; Great Depression, 98; ideas and beliefs, 22,35-37,42, 44; industry, 257 n.l23; investment, 37; Islam, 9, 15, 17; Japan, ll6; Latin America, 201, 206; law, 26; Marshall Plan, 169; migration, 36, 82; national­ism, 6, 24; population, 81, 251 n.23; rearmament, 91; rise of modem Europe, 5, 6, 19, 21, 25, 26; science and technology, 37-40, 55, 56, 59, 61, 62; spice trade, 253 n.51 ; unification, 237; world colonization, 6, 32, 34-44, 68, 82, 90, 91, 120, 188, 189; world economy, 71, 75; world trade, 21, 26, 29, 41, 81, 98, 182, 206; WWI, 53, 85-100; WWII, 131-147; (see also Europeans)

European Community (EC), 236, 274 n.322

European Economic Community (EEC), 173, 196,220,236,249 n.5, 274 n.322

European Parliamentary Assembly, 274 n.323

Europeans,9, 19,20,25,27,35,39,40,41, 42,44,54,56,72-76,84,96, 161,225, 226; in Africa, 187, 188, 189, 192; in Australasia, 33, 177, 178; in China, 13, ll6; in India, 12; in Japan, ll7, 121; in Latin America, 70, 201; in Nonh America, 72, 73; migration, 36, 38; WWII; deaths, 264 n.205

Ewe tribe, 199 Falkland Islands (see Malvinas) Faraday, Michael, 39, 59 fascism, 97, 99, 132, 226 Fashoda, 189 Faulkner, William, 4 female infanticide, 250 n.22 Ferdinand of Aragon, 9 Ferrara, 20, 251 n.30 feudalism, 6, 20, 24, 103, 122,201,203 Field of the Cloth of Gold, 7 Fiji, 34 Finland,46,95,97, 135,137,143,146,261

n.l78, 262 n.l80;WWII; deaths, 264 n.205

Aemings, 233 Aorence, 20 Aorida, 72, 77 flying shuttle, 63 Formosa, 82, 117, 121, 123 Four Power Agreement ( 1971 ), 158 Fra Angelico, 21 France,6,22,23,24,25,32,50,51, 76,84,

88, 106, 115, 125, 132, 134, 143, 145, 150, 151, 192, 199,221,229,252 n.46, 257 n.ll6, 266 n.225 n.228, 274 n.322 n.323; atomic bomb, 156; banks, 268 n.252; China, 119, 120, 121, 158; colonization, 29; Egypt, 191; GNP,257 n.ll5, 266 n.235; income, 256 n.l08; India, 29,31: Indochina, 129, 161, 164, 165; Japan, 122; Latin America, 201, 207, 211; Middle East, 98, 167, 168; New France, 72, 75; Nonh Africa, 191; Nonh America, 72, 73, 76; Ottoman Empire, 100; Pacific, 34; Poland, 138; population, 117,254 n.71; rearmament, 52; Russia, 50, 51, 52, 103; Spain, 67, 68;trade, 165;WWI,85,89,90,92, 93, 98, 99, 100,257 n.ll9; deaths, 93;

284 Index (France Cont.)

WWII, 131, 135, 136, 137,262 n.181 n.190; deaths, 264 n.205

Francis Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria, 52,85,96

Francis I, King of France, 6 Franco, Francisco, 134 Franco-Prussian War (1870), 89 Franco-Russian Alliance ( 1894), 85 Franks, 9 Frederick II, King of Prussia, 274 n.328 free trade, 64 freedom of religion, Ill French Equatorial Africa, 191 French Revolution (1789), 35, 42, 54, 71,

76, 93, 131,238 French West Africa, 191 Freud, Sigmund, 255 n.86 Friendly and Savage Islands, 34 Gabon, 267 n.247 Gadsden Purchase, 78 Galen, 56 Galileo Galilei, 19, 20, 55, 56, 57, 59, 251

n.30 Gallipoli, battle of (1915), 33, 94 Gama, Vasco da, 6, 14, 19, 27, 37, 38,253

n.SI n.61 Gambia, 196 Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand, 2, 163,

249 n.4, 266 n.237 GAlT (see General Agreement on Tariffs

and Trade) Gaza, 169, 170 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

(GATT), 274 n.324 Geneva Conference on Trade (1927), 210 Geneva Conventions (1949), 143 Genoa, 252 n.43 genocide, 141, 143 Gentz, Friedrich von, 75, 255 n.99 George III, King of Great Britain, 115, 255

n.89 Georgia, 72 German East Africa, 269 n.270, (see also

Tanganyika) German South West Africa, 269 n.269, (see

also Namibia) German-Soviet Pact (1939), 134, 261

n.l78, 262 n.l80 Germany,4,53,64,84,97, 106,108,123,

129, 131-135, 140, 146, 149, 150, 155,

157, 205,208,233, 239,251 n.29, 252 n.38 n.46, 257 n.ll3 n.ll6, 265 n.214; America, 72; banks, 268 n.252; China, 83, 121; Democratic Republic of, 143, 152; division of, 143; Federal Republic of, 152, 158,266 n.225, 274 n.322; Germans, 19,34,46,52,97, 131,133, 136, 137, 138, 140, 141, 173, 177,211, 212; GNP, 266 n.235; Great Depres­sion, 261 n.l71 n.l74; income, 256 n.I08; investment. 207; Japan, 122; Latin America, 207,211, 219; manufactures, 271 n.295; Pacific, 34, 124; Persia, 52; Poland, 134, 145,265 n.213; population, 137; rise of, 88, 89; Russia, 50, 52, 258 n.141; savings rate, 268 n.258; science and technology, 64; submarine warfare, 95, 139; trade, 91, 268 n.254; war preparation, 262 n.l85; war trials, 142; world power, 88, 89; WWI,85,87,89,92,93,95,257 n.ll9, 270 n.281; deaths, 93; WWII, 131-140, 151, 161,262 n.I81 n.188, 263 n.l98; battle losses, 263 n.l97; deaths, 264 n.205, (see also Holy Roman Empire)

Ghana,41,191,197,199,269n.267 Ghengis Khan, 6 Gibraltar, 9 Gilchrist-Thomas steel process, 64 glasnost, 54, Ill globalism, I, 3, 4, 24, 29, 42,212,237 Goa, 29, 252 n.48 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 27, 253

n.54 Gold Coast. 190, 191 gold standard, 82, 122,210,256 n.I06 gold, 32, 33, 34, 39, 40, 71, 75, 82, 113,

116, 185, 189, 195,255 n.98, 265 n.216

Good Neighbor Policy, 209 Gorbachev, Mikhail S., 54, 111, 180, 233,

235,239,259 n.I50, 274 n.326 Gorky, 26 Goulart. Joao, 217, 219 Granada, 9, 17 Great Britain (see Britain) Great Depression, 98, 130,261 n.l74 Great Northern War (1700-1721 ), 46 Greece, 17, 56, 87, 137, 138, 143, 151, 158,

233, 239, 266 n.225, 274 n.322; Greeks, 177; WWI, 94; deaths, 93;

Index 285 WWII263 n.l94, 265 n.215; deaths, 264n.205

Gregorian calendar, 69 Grenada, 83, 160, 179,215,216,270

n.285, 272 n.302 Grey, Edward, 85,89 Guadalcanal, 140 Guadalcanal, battle of (1942), 139 Guadalupe Hidalgo, Treaty of (1848), 78 Guam, 82 Guantmwno, 203 Guatemala, 68, 69,207,213,214,270

n.285, 272 n.299 Guevara, C~. 214 Guinea, 157, 190, 191 Gulnabad, II gunboat diplomacy, 165, 173 gunpowder, 13, 46, 70 Gutenberg, Johannes, 254 n.82 Guthrie, Oklahoma, 80 Guyana, 272 n.302 Habsburg Empire, 9; population, 254 n.71 Hague Court (see International Court of

Justice) Hague Peace Conferences ( 1899 and 1907),

92 Haiti, 83, 204, 205, 208, 209, 270 n.285 hajira, 250 n.15 Halifax, Edward, 262 n.l84 Hamburg, 137 Hanoi, 165 Harding, Warren G., 204 Hargreaves, James, 63 Hawaii, 82, 161 Hay, John, 83 Hegel, Georg W.F., 104, 254 n.69 Heligoland, 269 n.270 Helsinki Accords (1975), 241 Henry the Navigator, 22 Henry VIII, King of England, 7, 53 Heraclitus, I Herodotus, I Herzegovina, 52, 254 n.75 Herzl, Theodor, 267 n.244 Hinduism, 12, 17, 22, 27, 42, 130, 163,250

n.15 n.22, 259 n.149; Hindus, 163,233, 273 n.312

Hindustan, 12 Hippocrates, 56 Hiroshima, 130, 140, 149, 160 Hispanic America (see Latin America) Hispaniola, 68

history, I, 2, 3-5, 10, 22, 44, 53, 65, 66, 75, 79,81,84,94,96,99, 104,105,107, 108, 109, 124, 131, 141, 143, 147, 149, 157, 158,234,235,241,249 n.l n.6

Hider, Adolf, 95, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 140, 143, 145, 150, 151,226 261 n.l68 n.l76 n.177, 263 n.194

Ho Chi Minh, 165 Hoare, Samuel, 262 n.l84, Hobbes, Thomas, 251 n.32 Hobson, John A., 90 Hohenzollern dynasty, 99 Holland (see Netherlands) holocaust, 141, 169, 263f n.205, 264 n.206 Holy Alliance (1815), 2, 265 n.219 Holy League (1495), 2, 10 Holy Roman Empire, 24, 88, 250 n.17 Honduras, 207, 219, 222, 270 n.285, 272

n.299 HongKong,l61,170,176,177,260n.l58 Hoover, Herbert C., 209 Hudson, Henry, 73 Huizinga, J., 249 n.7 human rights, 241 Hume, David, 257 n.110 Hungary,9, 10,134,143,146,150,154,

158,233,239,261 n.178; WWII; deaths, 264 n.205

Hussein ibn Ali, Sharif of Mecca, 97, 258 n.l33

Hussein, grandson of Mohammed, I 0, 250 n.20

Hussein. King of Jordan, 267 n.248 Hussein, Saddam, 182,233 hypocrisy,2,241 Iberians, 201 IbnHazm,15 Ibn Rushd, 15 lbo tribe, 199, 233 Iceland, 266 n.225 IMF (see International Monetary Fund) Immigration Quota Acts (1921-1924), 128 imperialism, 84, 90, 110, 117, 161, 163,

189,192,227 Imphal, 161 inanimate energy, 62 Incas, 42, 68, 69, 70, 75; population, 255

n.92 Inchon (see Chemulpo) India, 2, 6, 11, 26, 29, 31, 37, 42, 51, 91,

116, 118, 121, 124, 126, 140, 154, 160, 161, 163,170-172, 191,226,233,249 n.4,

286 Index (India Cont.)

250 n.22, 266 n.233, 273 n.312; atomic bomb, 156; Britain, 12; China. 171, 241; English language, 250 n.22; independence, 161; Indians, 97; industrialization, 98; Mutiny, 12, 125; population, 170; Soviet Union, 171; United States, 171

Indian National Congress Party, 163,266 n.236n.239

Indian Ocean, 171,252 n.48 Indians of North America (see American

Indians) individualism, 27-28,44,54, 108,225 Indochina (see also Vietnam), 120, 129,

161, 164, 165 Indonesia (see also Dutch East Indies), 29,

31, 113, 129, 161, 163, 166, 180,226, 259 n.l49, 267 n.247, 273 n.318

industrial materials, 173 Industrial Revolution, 20, 22, 26, 39, 55,

61~. 105, 106, 108, 123, 176, 187, 226, 255 n.89

INFTreaty (1988), 234,239,273 n.315 Inquisition, 24 Inter-American Development Bank, 220 Inter-American Economic and Social

Conference (1961 ), 271 n.292 intermediate-range nuclear forces (see INF

Treaty) internal combustion engine, 64 International Conferences of American

states (see Pan-American Conferences) International Court of Justice (Hague

Court), 3, 274 n.329 International Monetary Fund (IMF) 197,

220, 237, 272 n.304 International Socialist Movements (see

Internationals) International Union of American Republics,

205 international corporation, 4, 237 international investment, 37, 90, 91, 98,

174,175,177.178,198,206,207,210, 218,220,222,270 n.284

international law (see also rule of law), I, 2, 143, 179, 180,234,235,242,275 n.331

international relations, 2, 3, 4, 234, 235, 237,241

international trade, 37, 41, 59, 62, 64, 71, 81, 88, 89, 90, 91, 128, 129, 156, 172,

177,178,182,183,210,223,229,237 Internationals: First, Second, and Third,

92, I 04, II 0, 257 n.J20, 265 n.221 intifada, 170 investment, 35 Iran (see also Persia), 160, 171, 179, 181,

229, 233; population, 179,266 n.229, 267 n.247

Iraq, 2, 98, 156, 157, 160, 169, 179, 181, 182,229,231,233,234,235,237, 239,250 n.20, 266 n.229, 267 n.247, 269 n.265, 273 n.319

Ireland, Republic of, 136,262 n.l87, 274 n.322 n.323; Republic of Ireland Act (1949), 258 n.132

Iron Curtain, 147 iron, 61, 88, 98, 129; iron ore, 63, 221 Isabella of Castile, 9 Islam, 7-12. 15, 17, 19, 22, 27, 42, 45, 163,

180-181,229,231,233,250 n.l5 n.l7 n.l9 n.20, 251 n.28 n.34, 259 n.l49; Africa, 185; Muslims, 9, 10, II, 17, 27, 48, 163, 168, 169, 180, 181, 187, 231,267 n.245, 273 n.312, 252 n.48, 253 n.51, 254 n.76; Soviet Union, 180

Ismail I, Shah of Persia, 10 Israel, 141, 154, 156, 168, 169, 170, 179,

191,229,233,236,267 n.248 n.249; Egypt, 191; United States, 141, 169, 170, 231, 235 (see also Arab-Israeli wars)

Italy, 7, 17, 23, 25, 85, 87, 97, 129, 131, 132, 134, 138, 139, 146, 151, 152, 190,239,251 n.29, 266 n.225, 274 n.322 n.323; GNP, 266 n.235; income, 256 n.108; WWI, 94, 99; deaths, 93; WWII, 136, 138, 151,263 n.198 n.l99, 264 n.207; deaths, 264 n.205

Ivan Ill, Grand Prince of Moscow, 45, 46 Ivan IV, Czar of Muscovy, 46, 48, 53 lwo Jima, 140 Jackson, Robert H., 142, 264 n.208 Jahan Shah, Mogul emperor, 12 Jahangir, Mogul emperor, 12 Jamaica, 270 n.285, 272 n.302 Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani, 273 n.319 Jamestown, 72 Japan, 14, 33, 42, 51, 82, 87, 113,

116-118, 121-125, 127-130, 141, 146, 153, 155, 156, 157, 161, 170, 172-176, 177,179,182,183,195,208,219, 225,228,236,237,256 n.J06, 260

Index 287

n.l54, 266 n.231, 268 n.251 n.255 n.257; Australia, 178; banks, 268 n.252; Britain, 127, 129; China, 121, 127, 129, 167,260 n.l61, 269 n.262; Christianity, 116; economic growth, 172; expansion, 123, 129; foreign aid, 271 n.296; GNP, 182,266 n.235; guns, 260 n.l60; income, 256 n.108; Indonesia, 129; industrialization, 98; investment, 174, 175, 220; isolation, 117, 118; Japanese, 49,211,260 n.l54; Korea, 120; Latin America, 220; Manchuria, 51, 52, 83, 126; moderniza­tion, 122, 123, 124, 125; Mongols, 251 n.24; naval armaments, 127; Nether­lands, 129; oil, 182; Pacific, 98, 128, 129; population, 117, 128, 182; Russia, 101, 103, 123, 124; savings rate, 268 n.258; trade, 117, 128, 172, 173, 174, 183, 268 n.254; "Unequal Treaties", 121; United States, 121, 127, 130, !53, 175; war trials, 142; Western intrusion, 116, 117, 122; westernization, 122, 123; WWI, 98, 99, 123, 124, 125; WWII, 127, 129, 130, 135, 138, 140, 141, 142, 151, 161, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167,263 n.202 n.204; deaths, 130,264 n.205 (see also Russian-Japanese War)

Japanese Peace Treaty (1951), !53 Jaspers, Karl, 249 n.6, 254 n.69 Java, 31, 166 Jefferson, Thomas, 77 Jerusalem, 169,267 n.249 Jesuits (see Society of Jesus) Jews (see Judaism) Jinnah, Muhammed Ali, 163,266 n.238 John Paul II, Pope, 231 Johnson, Lyndon B., 157,214,215 Jordan (see also Trans-Jordan), 168, 169,

179,229,267 n.242, 269 n.264, 273 n.319

Joseph, Chief of the Nez Perc~. 78 Judaism, 45,229,231,250 n.l5, 251 n.34,

259 n.l46 n.l49; Jews, 15, 17, 24, 98, 133, 141, 153, 168, 169, 170, 179,229, 267 n.245, 273 n.319 (see also holocaust)

Julian calendar,258 n.l39 Jutland, battle of(l916), 94 K'ang Hsi, Chinese emperor, 115 Kamchatka Peninsula, 49 Kampuchea (see Cambodia)

Kant, Immanuel, 275 n.332 Karbala, 250 n.20 Karlowitz, Treaty of (1699), 10 Kashmir, 233 Katyn Forest massacre, 142 Kay, John, 63 Kazakhstan, 233 Kazan,48 Kellog-Briand Pact (1928), 142,274 n.325 Kemal, Mustapha (AtatOrk), 100 Kennedy, John F., 214,215,218,219 Kennedy, Joseph P., 262 n.l82 Kenya, 160, 190, 191, 199 Kenyatta, Jomo, 190, 192 Kepler, Johannes, 55, 57,59 Kerensky, Alexander, 102, 132 Ketteler, Bishop Wilhelm von, 106 Keynes, John Maynard, 107, 261 n.l69 Khomeini, Ayatollah, 10, 181,229 Khrushchev, Nikita, Ill, 153, 154, 155 Kiakhta, Treaty of (1727), 116 Kiev,45 King-Crane Commission (1919), 267 n.246 Kirghizia, 233 Klerk, F. W. de, 194 Koran, 250 n.l5 Korea, 14, 51, 119, 120, 123, 124, 152,

154, 158, 160, 167, 176, 177, 236; North Korea, 152; South Korea, 152, 259n.l49

Korean War (1950-1953), 152, 153, 178, 272 n.309

Komilov, Lavr Georgievich, 102 Kulikovo, battle of (1380), 50 Kurdistan, II Kurds, 233, 234 Kurile Islands, 123, 141 Kursk-Ore! offensive (1944), 139 Kuwait,41,157,179,181,229,231,237,

239,267 n.247, 269 n.264 n.265, 273 n.319

La Plata Basin Group, 222, 272 n.301 labor movement, 257 n.l20 Lafayette, Marquis de, 256 n.l 00 LAFT A (see Latin American Free Trade

Association) Lao-tzu, 253 n.55 Laos, 165, 166 Laplace, Pierre S., 249 n.8 Latin America, 36, 37, 65, 71, 72, 201-224;

agrarian reform, 271 n.293, 272 n.305; communism, 211; debt, 210,217,220-

288 Index (Latin America Cont.)

221,223, 224; defense, 211,213, 214; exports, 271 n.294; industrialization, 206, 218; inflation, 223; integration, 219,221, 222; investment, 210; Monroe Doctrine, 270 n.279; railroads, 253 n.67; trade, 205,206,209,210, 217, 220, 221; WWII, 211, 212

Latin American Free Trade Association (LAFTA), 221,222

Latvia, 46,261 n.l78, 262 n.l80; Latvians, 97; WWII; deaths, 264 n.205

Lausanne Conference (1932), 258 n.l35 Lausanne, Treaty of (1923), I 00 Laval, Pierre, 262 n.l84 Lavoisier, Antoine, 59 League of Nations, 2, 98, 125, 127, 128,

129, 134,208,211, 212,261 n.l77, 262 n.l80, 265 n.219, 267 n.243, 270 n.282

Lebanon, 98, 167, 169,229,273 n.319 Leibnitz, Gottfried Wilhelm von, 58, 114 Leipzig, battle of ( 1813), 50 Lenin (pseud. of Vladimir llyich Ulyanov),

52, 53, 90, 101, 102, 103, 104, 109, 110, Ill, 131, 153, 154, 226; Leninism, II 0

Leningrad (see also St Petersburg), 46 Leonardo da Vinci, 19 Lepanto, battle of ( 1571 ), 251 n.28 Lewis, Meriwether, 77 Lexington, battle of ( 1775), 76 Leyte Gulf, battle of (1944), 140 Liaotung Peninsula, 123, 124 Liberia, 41, 42, 189,225,269 n.268 Libya, 138, 156, 160, 179, 190, 199,267

n.247, 273 n.319 Lima, 71 Lincoln, Abraham, 81 Lindbergh, Charles, 262 n.l82 Linne, Karl von, 59 Lisbon, 253 n.51 Lithuania, 46; Lithuanians, 46, 49, 50, 97;

WWII; deaths, 264 n.205, 261 n.l78, 262 n.l80

Little Bighorn, battle of the (1876), 78, 79 Livingstone, David, 188 Livonian War (1557-1582), 46 Locarno Agreements (1925), 134 Lome Convention (1975), 196 London Naval Treaty (1930), 127, 128

l..ondon,94, 137 Long Beach, 182 Los Angeles, 68, 182 Louis XIV, King of France, 72 Louisiana Purchase (1803), 77 Louisiana Territory, 76 Loyola, St Ignatius of, 252 n.36, 259 n.l51 Lusitania, 95, 258 n.l26 Luther, Martin, 2, 20, 22, 56, Ill, 251 n.32 Luxembourg, 266 n.225, 274 n.322 n.323 Ui-shun (see Port Arthur) Macao,29, 113,170 MacArthur, Douglas, 14, 140, 142, 152 Macartney, George, 115 MacDonald, James R., 262 n.l84 Machiavelli, Niccolo, 3, 19,241 machine gun, 94, 257 n.ll8 Macmillan, Harold, 192 Magellan, Ferdinand, 6, 167,253 n.61 Magna Carta, 26, 53 Maimonides, Moses., 15 maize, 15, 38, 253 n.68 Malacca, 164, 166 Malan, Daniel F., 194 Malaya, 31, 161, 164 Malaysia, 164,273 n.318 Malvinas, 216 Manchu dynasty, 14, 15, 48, 120, 121, 122 Manchukuo, 127, 128 Manchuria, 51, 83, 119, 121, 123, 124, 126,

128, 141, 260 n.l61 Mandela, Nelson, 194,270 n.274 Manhattan Island, 73 Manifest Destiny, 77, 79, 82, 84 Mann, Thomas, 96 manufactures, 39, 118, 188,206,218,255

n.91, 265 n.216 Mao Zedong, 28, 127, 146, 152, 164, 227,

266 n.227 Maoris, 34 Marathas, 12 Marco Polo, 251 n.24 Mariana Islands, 98, 140 Marinids, 9 Maritime Provinces, 119, 180 maritime compass, 13, 14 nuuketeconomy,21, Ill Marlborough, John Churchill, Duke of, 94 Marquesa Islands, 34 Marshall Islands, 34, 98 Marshall Plan, 151, 158, 169,266 n.223 Marshall, George, 265 n.223

Index 289 Marx, Karl, 1, 2, 104-108, 109, 110, 111,

255 n.86, 255 n.87, 257 n.120, 259 n.146

Marxism, 102,103-111, 192,215,219,259 n.147; Marxism-Leninism, 53, 110, 226

Maryland, 72 mathematics. 20, 58, 61,69 Maudslay, Henry, 63 Mauritania, 197,273 n.319 Mauritius, 41, 196 May Fourth Movement, 125 Mayan calendar, 69 Mayas,42,68,69, 70, 75;population,255

n.92 McKinley, William, 82 McMahon, Henry, 97,258 n.l33 meat, 33, 81, 178 Mecca, 9, 250 n.15, 250 n.l9 Medina, 9, 250 n.15 Mediterranean Sea, 251 n.28 Meiji, Japanese emperor, 122 Memel,134 Mendel, Gregor J., 59 Menem, Carlos S., 223 Mensheviks, 258 n.l37 mercantilism, 25 Mercator, Gerardus, 255 n.84 mercury, 221 Mesopotamia, 98 Mettemich, Klemens von, 265 n.219 Mexican War (1846-1848), 77,79 Mexico, 67, 68, 69, 75, 77, 79, 80, 81, 83,

84,170,201,203,204,205,206,207, 211,212,213,214,217,218,220,221, 222,256 n.l03, 270 n.281 n.285, 271 n.290, 272 n.298 n.303; trade, 222,

Mexico City, 71 Michelangelo Buonarroti, 19, 28,56 Middle Ages, 5, 6, 57 Middle East, 138, 141, 156, 158,167-170,

171,179-182,224,229,233,236,237, 238,239,267 n.249, 269 n.268

Midway Island, 82 Midway, battle of (1942), 140 migration, 36, 37, 82 military power, 1, 3, 7, 17, 25, 62, 67, 89,

92,119,122,137,146,215,236,237, 241,273 n.310

Ming dynasty, 13, 14,251 n.27 mirung,39,40, 77,124,189,195,207,220 Mir Mahmud, II

mission civilisatrice, 84 Mississippi River, 72, 73, 77,79 Missouri, 77 Moctezuma, Aztec ruler, 70 Mogul Empire, 11-12, 42; Moguls, 253

n.56 Mohammed, the Prophet, 2, I 0, I 07, 250

n.l5 n.20 Mohacs, battles of: (1526), II; (1687), 9 Mollke, Helmuth von, 256 n.IIO Moluccas, 166 monetization, 35 Mongolia, 15, 116, 152; Inner Mongolia,

260 n.l61; Mongolian People's Republic, 260 n.l62; Outer Mongolia, 125, 180, 260 n.l62

Mongols (see also Yuan dynasty), 13, 25, 26,45,46,49,50, 141,161,239,251 n.24

Monnet, Jean, 274 n.322 monotheism, 250 n.l5, 251 n.34 Monroe Doctrine (1823), 83, 154,214,270

n.279; Roosevelt Corollary (1904), 204,209

Monroe, James, 270 n.279 Monserrat, 272 n.302 Montejo, Francisco de, 69 Montenegro, 233 Monterey, 68 Montevideo, Treaty of ( 1960), 272 n.298 More, St Thomas, I 05 Morgenthau, Henry, 265 n.214 Morocco, 9, 11, 189, 191,273 n.319 Moscow, 26, 46, 48, 50, 102, 104, 138,

139,254 n.70 Mossadegh, Mohammed, 181 Mountbatten, Louis, 163 Mozambique, 160, 192, 199 Mugabe, Robert, 192 Mukden, battle of (1905), 101, 124 Muruch agreements (1938), 134 Muscovy, State of, 46,50 Muslim League, 163 Muslims (see Islam) Mussolini, Benito, 131, 132, 135, 137, 138,

139,140,226,261 n.l70,261 n.l77, 263 n.l94

Nadir Shah, II Nagasaki, 116,117,130,140 Namibia, 160, 192,269 n.269 Nanking, Treaty of (1842), 119 Napoleon I, Emperor of France, 40, 50, 94,

290 Index (Napoleon I Cont.)

137 Napoleon lll, Emperor of France, 81 Napoleonic Wars (1802-1815), 31, 191 narcotics, 215, 224 Narva,46 Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 191 National Socialism, 95, 97, 99, 133, 134,

141, 153,226 National Socialist German Workers Party,

132, 133,261 n.l71 nationalism, 6-7,22, 24, 35, 44, 87, 100,

102, 106, 108, 118, 121, 124, 158, 161, 190,231,233, 236; Soviet Union, 158, 249 n.l2

NATO (see Nonh Atlantic Treaty Organization)

naval disarmament, 128 (see also Washing­ton Naval Disarmament Conferences)

naval technology, 14, 33, 40, 64, 88, 91, 172, 225

navigation, 14, 20, 25, 59,61 Nazis (see National Socialist German

Workers Party) nazism (see national socialism) Ne Win, 267 n.240 Nehru, Jawaharlal, 163,266 n.239 Nepal, 15, 116 Nerchinsk, Treaty of ( 1689), 48, 260 n.l51 Netherlands, 22. 23, 24, 25, 32, 67, 68, 87,

128, 129,252 n.38 n.46, 266 n.225, 274 n.322 n.323; the Dutch, 177; East Indies, 29, 166; Japan, I 16, 117; Latin America, 71, 211; Nonh America, 73, 76; WWII, 136; deaths, 264 n.205

neutrality, 87 New Caledonia, 34 New England, 72 New Granada, 68, 71 New Guinea, 34, 140, 161 New Hebrides, 34 New Jersey, 72,73 New Mexico, 78 New Orleans, 73 New Spain, 71 New World, 15, 19, 27, 38, 65, 66, 67, 68,

69, 71, 73, 75, 82, 187, 194 New York, 182 New Zealand, 32, 33·34, I 28, I 38,

177-179,266 n.228; New Zealanders, 36; population, 34, 178; trade, I 77,

178; WWI,94 Newcomen, Thomas, 63, 255 n.90 Newton, Isaac, 58, 59, 60, 62 Nicaragua, 83, 160, 179,204, 205,207,

208, 209,216,217,222,270 n.285, 271 n.288 n.290, 272 n.299

Nicholas II, Czar of Russia, 101, 258 n.l36 Nietzsche, Friedrich, W., 249 n.IO Nigeria, 191, 197, 199,267 n.247 Nixon, Richard, 214,215 Nkrumah, Kwarne, 190 Noriega, Manuel, 215 Nonh America (see Americas) Nonh Atlantic Treaty Organization

(NATO), 152,216,238 Nonh Korea (see Korea) Nonh Sea, 124 Nonh Vietnam (see Vietnam) Nonhem Ireland, 233, 273 n.312 Nonhem Rhodesia, 192 (see also Zambia) Norway, 87, 142, 170,274 n.323; WWII,

136; deaths, 264 n.205 Novgorod, 46 nuclear science, 40 nuclear weapons, 130, 149, 151, 152, 153,

154, 155, 156, 160, 171, 195,214,234, 239

Nuremberg war trials, 142, 143, 264 n.208, 265 n.210 n.211

Nyasaland, 192 Nyerere, Julius, 190 Nystad, Peace of ( 1721 ), 46 OAS (see Organization of American States) OAU (see Organization of African Unity) Oda Nobunaga, 116 Odessa, 48 Oersted, Hans C., 59 Ogaden, 199 Ohm, Georg S., 59 oil embargo (1973), 157, 169, 179,229 oil, 40, 41, 62, 91, 129, 169, 171, 179, 181,

191, 195,207,210,217,218, 220,221, 222, 271 n.291

Okhotsk, Sea of, 48 Okinawa, 123, 140, 141, 153 Oklahoma, 80 Oklahoma City, 80 Olney, Richard, 203 Olympic Games, 92 Oman, 179,269 n.264, 273 n.319 Omdurman, battle of (I 898), 190 OPEC (see Organization of Petroleum

Index 291 Exporting Countries)

Open Door Policy (1899), 83 opium, 260 n.157 Opium War (1839-1842), 116, 118 Oregon, 67, 78 Organization for Economic Cooperation

and Development (OECD), 273 n.309 Organization of African Unity (OAU), 196,

199, 236, 270 n.276 Organization of American States (OAS),

213,214,215,216,236,270 n.285, 271 n.286

Organization of Central American States (see Central American Common Market)

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), 157, 169, 179,229, 267 n.247

Ormuz, II Ortega, Daniel, 271 n.288 Orwell, George, 275 n.330 Osaka, 125 Otsuka Hisao, 252 n.41 Ottoman Empire (see also Turkey), 7-10,

II, 15, 17-18,51, 53, 68, 87, 89, 99, 168, 249 n.l3, 250 n.l8, 253 n.67, 267 n.242 n.245; Ottoman Turks, 7, 9, 10, II, 15, 23, 26, 45, 46, 48, 49, 51, 87, 94, 161,251 n.24, 258 n.133; population, 250 n.l4; WWI, 94; deaths, 93

Outer Mongolia (see Mongolia) Owen, Wilfred, 96, 258 n.l28 Pacific Islands, 32, 34, 87, 98, 124, 140,

141, 161 Pacific Ocean, 32, 34, 67, 72, 77, 78, 87,

98, 103, 124, 129, 139, 140, 141, 161, 165,204,212

Pacific rim, 178, 182, 183, 219, 241 Pact of Mutual Assistance ( 1940), 129 Pact of Steel ( 1939), 134 Padua, 20, 251 n.30 Pahlavi, Shah Riza, 181 Pakistan, 156, 163, 170, 171,266 n.228

n.229, 268 n.250 Palestine, 51, 98, 168, 169,250 n.l8, 251

n.24, 267 n.242 n.245 n.246, 273 n.319; Palestinians, 170, 233, 267 n.248 n.249; population, 169

Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), 170, 229, 267 n.248

Palestine National Charter (1968), 267

n.243 Pan American Union, 205,209,213 Pan-American Conferences: Bogota ( 1948),

213; Buenos Aires (1936), 211, 213; Chapultepec (1945), 212; Havana ( 1928), 208; Lima (1938), 211; Montevideo (1933), 209; Panama (1939), 211; Rio de Janeiro (1947), 213; Washington D.C. (1889), 205

Panama Canal, 83, 204, 215, 271 n.287 Panama,68, 72,83, 160,179,204,205,

207,214,215,216,217,219,270 n.278 n.285

Panipat, battle of ( 1526), II papacy, 7, 106, 115,250 n.l7, 260 n.153 papal encyclicals, I 06 Papua New Guinea, 34, 259 n.I49 Paraguay, 20 I, 203, 217, 270 n.280 n.282

n.285, 272 n.298 n.301 Paris Peace Conference ( 1919), 125, 205,

208, 267 n.246 (see also Versailles, Treaty of)

Paris Peace Treaties (1814-1815), 50 Paris, 59, 136 Paris, Treaty of (1763), 73 Park, Mungo, 188 Parsons' steam turbine, 64 Passchendaele, battle of ( 1917), 226 Pathans, 233 Pavlov, Ivan, 255 n.86 Peace of the Pyrenees ( 1659), 68 Pearl Harbor, 82, 128, 129, 130, 138,262

n.182 Peking (see also Beijing), 14, 113, 114,

120, 126,260 n.I53 Peloponnesian Wars, I Pennsylvania, 72, 73 pepper, 253 n.51 perestroika, 54, Ill Perry, Matthew C., 121 Persia (see also Iran), 10-11, 12, 17, 52,

116, 124, 126, 161, 253 n.56 Persian Gulf, 52, 176, 179, 195 Persian Gulf crisis, 272 n.308 Peru,38,68,69, 70, 71, 75,120,201,207,

217,219,220,221,223,270 n.280 n.282 n.285, 272 n.298 n.300

Pescadores Islands, 123 Peter I, Czar of Russia, 46, 48, 53, 54, Ill,

119 Peter III, Czar of Russia, 53 petro-dollars, 218, 220

292 Index Petrograd (see St Petersburg) Philip II, King of Spain, 23 Philippines, 6, 15, 82, 117, 121, 130, 140,

161, 166,259 n.l49, 266 n.228, 273 n.318; Republic, 167

phosphates, 221 Pinochet, Augusto, 215,271 n.293 Pitcairn Island, 32 Pizarro, Francisco, 27, 68, 69 plant diffusion, 38 plantation economy, 33, 38, 71, 188, 203 platinum, 195 Plato, 105 Platt Amendment (1901), 203,209 PLO (see Palestine Liberation Organiza­

tion) Poland, 10, 17,25,26,46, 134,143,150,

154,233,239;Poles,46,49,50,97, 177,258 n.I30, 261 n.l78, 262 n.I81, 265 n.2 13; WWI, 95; WWII, 131, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 142, 143, 145,262 n.I81; deaths, 264 n.205

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, 48 pollution,235 Poltava, battle of ( 1709), 46 Pommerania, 233 Pondicherry, battle of ( 1761 ), 253 n.63 population, 9, 32, 34, 36, 45, 52, 69, 72, 75,

80, 109, 117, 118, 120, 128, 137, 141, 149, 163, 169, 170, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 188, 191, 197, 198,222,223,224, 226, 227, 235, 239, 250 n.14, 251 n.23, 252 n.38, 254 n.71, 255 n.92 n.95, 259 n.149, 273 n.317

Port Arthur (Lii-shun), 51, 124 Portugal, 5, 6, II, 15, 20, 22, 24, 25, 29,

67, 136, 152, 166,249 n.9, 252 n.46 n.48, 256 n.l 06, 262 n.l87, 266 n.225, 274 n.322; Africa, 187, 192; Brazil, 67, 70, 71; China, 113; Japan, 116; trade, 113

potato, 15, 38 Potsdam Conference (1945), 143, 151 power politics, 1-3, 5, Ill, 241 pre-Columbian civilizations, 69-71 Prestes, Lufs Carlos, 211 primary produce, 38, 41, 205, 217, 255

n.91, 272 n.297 Princip, Gavrilo, 85 printing, 13,55 production,35 Protestantism, 23, 24, 27, 62, 72

Prussia, 29, 48, 88, 89, 92, 122, 125,254 n.74; population, 254 n.71

Ptolemy, 20, 57 public utilities, 37 Puerto Rico, 82 Punjab, 163 Puritanism, 27, 72 Qatar, 267 n.247, 273 n.319 Quebec, 31, 73,75 Quesnay, Fran~ois', 114 Rabelais, Fran~ois, 19 radar, 136 radio, 40 railways,64, 77,85,90, 124,188,189,

197,207,253 n.67, 256 n.110 Ranke, Leopold von, 1, 5 Rapallo, Treaty of (1922), 132,259 n.l41 rationalism, 27, 28, 44, 225 Reagan, Ronald, 215 reason,20,42,58,61,97,234,236,237,

238 Reciprocal Trade Agreement Act (1934),

210 Reconquista, 5, 22 Reformation, 5, 7, 19, 21, 22, 54,225 (see

also Protestantism) refrigeration, 33 regionalism, 236 Reichstag, 133 religion, 255 n.87 religious fundamentalism, 42, 107, 181,

229,233 Remarque, Erich Maria, 96 Renaissance,5, 17,19-22,24,26,28,42,

54, 55, 97,225,251 n.29 reparations following WWI, 132 Res publica Christiana, 7 revolutionary socialism, 44 Rhineland, 134 Ricci. Matteo, 13, 113 Richard the Lionhearted, 254 n.76 ring-spinning frame, 64 Rio de Ia Plata, 69, 71 Rio Grande, 78 Roman Catholic Church, 22, 57, 72, 106,

132, 165, 167,223,233,259 n.l49, 272 n.305

Romania, 87, 143, 146, 151, 157, 233; WWI, 94; deaths, 93; WWII; deaths, 264n.205

Romanov dynasty, 99, 103, 109, 134 Rome,6, 7, 17,46, 132,139

Index 293 Rome, Treaty of ( 1957), 236 Rommel, Erwin, 138 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 129, 135, 136, 139,

142, ISO, 151,209,211,261 n.l66, 262 n.l89, 263 n.l96, 265 n.212 n.219

Roosevelt, Theodore, 83, 84,204,251 n.26 Rosebud, battle of the ( 1876), 78 Rothschild, Lionel W., 258 n.l34 Royal Greenwich Observatory, 59 Royal Society of London, 59 rubbe~38,41, 164,165 Ruhr occupation (1923), 132 rule of law, 26, 28, 53, 62, 158, 242 Russia (see also Soviet Union), 2, 10, II,

17, 25, 26,45-54,76,80, 83, 119, 131, 132, 153, 254 n.74, 256 n.I09, 259 n.l44; Alaska, 49, 79; Allied interven­tion, 259 n.l43; China, 48, 51, 116, 119, 121, 127; Christianity, 45; communism, 101-104, 108; Crimean War, 51; debt, 103; democracy, 103; eastern Asia, 123, 124, 126, 161, 180; expansion, 46, 48, 51, 79; Great Civil War, 103; income, 256 n.I08; Manchuria, 83; North America, 49; Ottoman Empire, 48, 100; Persia, II, 52; Poland, 48; population, 254 n.71; Provisional Government, 101, 102, 132; rearmament, 52; Revolution of 1905, 124, 126,258 n.l36; Revolution of 1917,35,97, 100, 101-104, 109, 190; Russians, 36; sea power, 124; serfdom, 54, 254 n.80; Sweden, 48; WWI, 53, 85, 87, 90, 94, 95, 99, 101, 103; deaths, 93

Russian Orthodox Church, 51, 53, 54, 103 Russian Socialist Democratic Party, 258

n.l37 Russian-British Agreement on division of

Persia (1908), 52 Russian-Japanese War (1904-1905), 33, 52,

130, 161,257 n.ll8 Rutherford, Ernest, 60 Ryukyu Islands, 123, 141 Saar territory, 134 Sadat, Mohammed Anwar el, 229, 267

n.249 Safavid dynasty, 10, II, 12 Safi I, Shah of Persia, II Saigon, 165 Saigon, Treaty of ( 1862), 165 Sakhalin, 123, 124

Salado, battle of ( 1340), 9 Salazar, Ant6nio de Oliveira, 266 n.226 Salisbury, Lord Robert, 89 Samoan Islands, 34, 82 Samsah Bay, 82 Samurai, 121, 122, 142 San Diego, 68 San Francisco, 49, 68,212 San Remo Conference ( 1920), 267 n.243 Sandino, Augusto, 271 n.288 Sarajevo,52,85,87 Saudi Arabia, 41, 169, 179, 229, 267 n.247,

269 n.264, 273 n.319 saving, 35 science and technology, 7, 19, 20, 25, 37,

38,40,41,64,65,66, 120,225 science, 14, 15, 20, 21, 37, 38, 40, 55, 56,

57, 59, 60, 64, 66; scientific progress, 7,65

Scientific Revolution, 20, 22, 26, 55-61, 65, 123

Scotland, 253 n.62 sea power, 29, 31, 52, 91, 140, 153, 155,

166, 253 n.50, 257 n.ll7 SEATO (see South East Asia Treaty

Organization) self-determination of peoples, 35, 44, 97,

205,233 Selim II, Ottoman sultan, 17 Seneca, Lucius Annaeus, 23 Senegal, 190, 196 Senghor, Uopold ~dar. 190 Serbia,52,53,85,87,90,97,99,233,254

n.75; WWI; deaths, 93 serfdom, 54, 105 Seven Years' War (1756-1763), 73 ~vres, Treaty of ( 1920), I 00 shahada, 250 n.l5 Shakespeare, William, 19,265 n.210 Shamir, Yitzhak, 170 Shanghai, 126 Shantung Province, 87, 124, 125, 127,260

n.l61 shari' a, 250 n.l5 Shi'a sect of Islam, 10; Shi'ites, 10, 229,

250n.20 Shimabara, 117 Shimonoseki, Treaty of ( 1895), 123 Shinto, 177 shipbuilding, 98, 172 Siam (see also Thailand), 116 Siberia, 36, 45

294 Index Sierra Leone, 191 Sikhs, 12, 163, 233 Silesia, 233 silk, 116, 119,260 n.l57 silver, 68, 71, 75, 82, 113, 116, 119,255

n.98 Simon, John, 262 n.l84 Singapore, 128, 164, 176, 177,273 n.318 Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), 123 Sioux, 78 Siraj-ud-Daulah, 31 Sitting Bull, Plains Sioux chief, 78 slavery, 23, 71, 80, 82, 106, 185, 187-188,

239,254 n.68; slave trade, 187,269 n.268; deaths, 255 n.96

Slavs, 45, 52, 137 Slovenia, 97 Smith, Adam, 62, 237 Smollett, Tobias G., 252 n.37 Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act (1930), 128,210 socialism, 92, 103, 108, 109, 110, Ill, 201,

211 Society of Jesus, 115, 252 n.36; in China,

113, 114, 115,259 n.l51, 260 n.l53; in Japan, 116, 117

Solomon Islands, 34 Somalia, 157, 191, 199, 273 n.319 Sombart, Werner, 23, 252 n.39 Somme, battles of the (1916, 1918), 93,

226 Somoza, Anastasio Debayle, 271 n.288 Songhai, 269 n.267 soul force, 249 n.4 South Africa, 2, 14, 31, 156, 171, 189, 192,

194-195, 197,203,256 n.I06, 269 n.272; sanctions, 269 n.273; South Africans, 36

South African War ( 1899-1902), 90 South America (see Americas, Latin

America) South East Asia Treaty Organization

(SEATO), 153,266 n.228 South Korea (see Korea) South Vietnam (see Vietnam) South West Africa People's Organization

(SWAPO), 192 Southern Rhodesia (see Zimbabwe) Soviet Union (see also Russia), 45, Ill,

132, 147, 151, 153-155, 156, 158, 160, 161, 166, 170, 171, 191, 199,216,226, 231, 233,236,241,256 n.I06, 259 n.l41, 261 n.l78, 265 n.214, 266

n.231; Afghanistan, 158, 171, 172, 180; arms race, 149; China, 154, 158, 180, 239; 274 n.326; Cold War, 151, 152, 213; communism, Ill, 131; Cuba, 214; defense, 273 n.315; defense spending, 228; eastern Europe, 149; foreign aid, 171; foreign relations, 269 n.264; GNP, 266 n.235; India, 171; Iran, 181; Latin America, 220; missile crisis, 154, 155; Mongolia, 260 n.l62; Poland, 145,265 n.213; population, 45, 137, 180; postwar expansion, 150; prisoners of war, 150; Red Army, 263 n.l97; world power, 143, 157; WWII, 134, 136, 137, 138, 141, 145, 150, 262 n.l80; deaths, 264 n.205

space exploration, 40, 64 Spain, 6, 17,22-25,29,75, 87, 167,233,

252 n.35 n.45 n.46, 266 n.225, 274 n.322; Africa, 192; Americas, 31, 67-72,73, 76, 77, 255 n.92 n.98; China, 15; deaths, 255 n.96; Inquisi­tion, 252 n.40; Islam, 9, 15, 17, 56; Japan, 116, 117; North Africa, 191; Philippines, 167; population, 117,250 n.l4, 252 n.38, 254 n.71; Reconquista, 5, 22; world empire, 23

Spanish American War (1898), 79, 80, 203 Spanish Armada ( 1588), 24 Spanish Civil War (1936-1939), 129, 134,

252 n.35 Spanish Sahara, 192 Speke, John H., 188 Spengler, Oswald, 97,258 n.l29 spice trade, 23, 166, 253 n.51 spinning jenny, 63 Spinoza, Baruch, 58 spiritual power, 7, 231,249 n.4 SPLA (see Sudan People's Liberation

Army) Sputnik, 156 Sri Lanka (see also Ceylon), 41, 233, 273

n.312 St Augustine, 251 n.32 St Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla, 272 n.302 St Lawrence, 72, 73 St Lucia, 272 n.302 St Luke, 105 St Paul, 22, 109 St Petersburg, 46, 101, 102, 104 St Vincent, 272 n.302 Stalin (pseud. of Iosif Vissarionovich

Index 295

Dzhugashvili), 49, 53, 54, 102, 103, 110, Ill, 131, 134, 139, 143, 145, 150, 151, 153, 154, 155,254 n.79; Stalinism, II 0, Ill

Stalingrad, battle of(l942-1943), 139 Stamp Act (1765), 76 Stanley, Henry M., 188 steam locomotive, 40 steam power, 63,64 steamship, 40, 64 steel,39,64,88,91,98,129,172,197,220 Stettin, 14 7 Strait of Hormuz. 252 n.48 Straits Convention ( 1841 ), 51 Strong, Josiah, 83 submarine, 40, 91, 95, 171,234 Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA),

199 Sudan, 160, 185, 190, 199,229,273 n.319 Suez Canal, 40, 191 Suez Crisis (1956), 191 sugar,23,33,38,41,68, 187,207,271

n.286 Sukamo, Achmed, 166,267 n.241 Suleiman I, Ottoman sultan, 9, 17 Sumatra, 166 Sun Yat-sen, 121, 125, 126,260 n.l63 Sung dynasty, 13, 14 Sunni sect of Islam, 10, 17, 229 Suriname, 41, 270 n.285, 271 n.289 suttee, 250 n.22 SWAPO (see South West Africa People's

Organization) Sweden, 46, 87, 136,262 n.l87, 274 n.323;

Swedes, 46, 49, 50 Switzerland, 72, 87, 136,262 n.l87 Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916), 94 synthetic dyes, 64 syphilis, 7 5 Syria, 97, 98, 167, 169, 181,229,233,236,

250 n.l8, 273 n.319 Tabriz, 11 Tacitus, 3, 261 n.l73 Tadzhikistan, 233 Taft, Robert A., 83 Taft, William H., 84, 204 Tahiti,34 Taiping Rebellion (1851-1864), 120 Taiwan, 146, 167, 176, 177,259 n.l49, 268

n.261 Tamils,233 Tanganyika, 191,269 n.270

Tarik ibn Ziyad, 9 Tasmania, 32 Tatars,46,48,49,50,239 Tawney, R.H, 24, 252 n.42 taxes, 35 tea, 38, 41, 116, 119,260 n.l57 technology, 13, 21, 39, 61, 63, 64, 65, 121,

122,123,173,174,175,177, I98,218, 255 n.88 (see also science and technology)

Teheran Conference (1943-1944), 139 telegraph, 40 telephone, 40, 64 television, 40, 64 Telford, Thomas, 63 Tennyson, Alfred, 65 Tenochtithin (Mexico City), 38, 69 terrorism, 2, 234 Texas,67,77, 78,79 textiles, 63, 70, 88, 98 Thailand, 266 n.228, 272 n.306, 273 n.318 theism, 231 Theology of Liberation, 272 n.305 Third World, 155, 163,226,266 n.233;

debt, 228; population, 227 Thirty Years War (1618-1648), 22,252

n.38 Thomson, Joseph J., 60 Thucydides, I Tiananmen Square massacre, 158,241 Tibet, 15, 116, 125, 163, 167, 233, 260

n.l62 Tientsin, Treaties of(l858), 119, 165 Timor, 29, 166 Timur (Tamerlane), 254 n.76 tin,41, 164,217,221 Tito (pseud. of Josip Broz), 263 n.l95 tobacco, 15, 38,68 Togoland, 191, 199,269 n.269 Tokugawa Shogunate, 117, 121, 122,260

n.l60 Tokyo war trials, 142, 143,265 n.210 n.211 Tokyo, 183 Toledo, 56 Tongking, 165 Tordesillas, Treaty of (1494), 6, 71, 249 n.9 Toure, S~kou, 190 Tours, 9 Toynbee, Arnold, 255 n.89 Toyotomi Hideyoshi, 116, 117 trade, 25, 77, 173,252 n.43, 255 n.91, 260

n.l58

296 Trafalgar, battle of ( 1805), 31, 88 Trans-Jordan (see also Jordan), 168 Trans-Siberian Railway, 51 Transcaucasia, 95

Index

transport and communications, 33, 37, 40, 62,66,69,82,102,225

Transylvania, 233 Treaty of 1783, 76 Treaty of Central American Economic

Integration ( 1960), 272 n.299 Treaty of Commerce and Navigation

(1911), 129 Treaty of Peace ( 1905), 124 Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Coopera­

tion (1971), 171 Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (1947),

213 Trevithick, Richard, 63 Trieste, 147 Trinidad and Tobago, 270 n.285, 272 n.302 Triple Alliance (1882), 85, 87 Triple Entente (1907), 90 Troeltsch, Ernst. 249 n.l Trotsky , Leon (pseud. of Lev Davidovich

Bronstein), 102, 103, 110, Ill, 258 n.l38

Truman Doctrine, 155, 158 Truman, Harry S., 83, 141, 147, 151,212,

263 n.203 Tsushima Straits, battle of (1905), 101, 124 Tunisia, 191, 273 n.319 Turkey (see also Ottoman Empire), 17,

124, 126, 136, 143, 151, 170, 181,233, 262 n.l87, 266 n.225 n.229; 7; Crimean War, 51; Republic of, 100;

Turkistan, 51 Tutuila, 34 Tver, 46 typewriter, 64 Uganda, 160, 191 Ukraine, 45, 53, 95, 254 n. 70 Ulyanov, Vladimir Ilyich (see Lenin) Unarnuno, Miguel de, 5 "Unequal Treaties" (1858), 121 United Arab Emirates, 267 n.247, 269

n.264, 273 n.319 United Arab Republic, 191 United Kingdom (see Britain) United Nations Organization, 2, 3, 143,

146, 147, 149, 150, 152, 156, 163, 167, 168, 179, 180, 192, 194,212, 227,235, 238, 266 n.231, 267 n.248

United States, 37,76-84,98, 106, 132, 158,

160,161,168,170,183,226,236,238, 239,256 n.I07, 266 n.225 n.228 n.229, 270 n.285; Africa, 188, 199; Ameri­cans,33,40, 77, 79,80,83,84, 121, 124, 127, 128, 129, 140, 146, 150, 151, 152, 155, 173, 178, 203; arms race, 149; Army, 95; Australasia, 178; Australia, 177; banks, 268 n.252; Brazil, 217; Caribbean, 272 n.303; China, 83, 119, 121, 146, 147, 158, 241; Cold War, 149, 151, 152; Containment policy, 151, 153, 158; Cuba, 203, 214, 271 n.286; debt, 81, 157, 175,206,228,268 n.259; defense, 273 n.315; defense spending, 65,228, 272 n.309; Europe, 157; expansion, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82; foreign aid, 153, 154, 169, 171, 216; GNP, 265 n.216, 266 n.235; gold standard, 256 n.l 06; Great Depression, 98,261 n.l74; Greece, 265 n.215; immigration, 128, 182,224,261 n.l66, 269 n.266; income, 256 n.I08; India, 171, 172; investment. 174, 175, 268 n.256; Iran, 181; Iraq, 179; Israel, 169; Japan, 122, 124, 125, 127, 128, 129, 172, 173, 174, 182,261 n.l66; Japanese Americans, 261 n.l66; Korea, 152; Latin America, 72, 201,203,271 n.294; communism, 211; intervention, 83, 204, 205, 208, 213,215, 216; investment. 206,207, 210,218,220, 221; manufactures, 271 n.294, 271 n.295; Mexican War (1846-1848), 77, 79; Mexico, 207, 222; Middle East, 156, 169, 170, 179, 229; missile crisis, 154; Navy, 140; Nicaragua, 274 n.329; OAS, 213, 216; opium in China, 119; Pacific, 34; Pacific Aeet, 129; Panama, 204,216, 270 n.278; Persian Gulf, 269 n.264; Philippines, 166, 167; protective tarrifs, 128; Russia, 49, 103; savings rate, 268 n.258; slavery, 187; South Africa, 195; technology, 64; trade, 81, 91, 119, 173, 174,274 n.324; trade deficit, 157, 173; United States Congress, 208; Vietnam, 155, 166, 180; wars, 79, 81; world power, 143, 146; WWI, 95, 99, 100, 123, 258 n.l26, 270 n.281; deaths, 93; WWII, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 150,262 n.l88, 263 n.l%; deaths, 264 n.205, 265 n.222; (see also Spanish-American War),

Index 297

uranium, 195 Uruguay,201,206,207,211,212,217,

218,270 n.280 n.285, 272 n.298 n.301 USA (see United States) USSR (see Soviet Union, also Russia) Vargas, Getulio, 216 Vasili III, Grand Prince of Moscow, 46 Vehisquez, Diego, 28 Venezuela, 201,203,207,208,210, 214,

217,218,220,221,222,223,255 n.93, 267 n.247, 270 n.285, 272 n.298 n.303

Venice, 10, 17,251 n.28, 252 n.43, 253 n.51, 274 n.328

Vera Cruz, 204 Verdun, battles of (1916, 1917), 93, 226 Verrazzano, Giovanni de, 72 Versailles, Treaty of(l919), 48, 95, 97, 99,

123, 125, 131, 134, 146,261 n.l69 Vespucci, Amerigo, 67 Vienna, 9, 27 Vienna, Congress of (1815), 48 Vietnam (see also Indochina), 15, 116, 152,

154, 155, 158, 160, 161, 165, 166, 180, 236, 259 n.l49; North Vietnam, 155, 165; South Vietnam, 166

Vietnam War(l945-1975), 155,156,157, 178,219,273 n.309

Vikings,45 Virginia, 72 Vladimir, 26 Vladimir I, prince of Kiev, 45 Vladivostok, 49, 51, 119 Volga River, 48, 53, 103 Volgograd (Stalingrad), 139 Voltaire, 114 Wake Island, 82 Walloons, 233 Wandewash, battle of (1760), 253 n.63 war, 1,5,6,23,49,54,65,69, 71,91,92,

239 War of 1812,79 Warsaw Pact(l955), 152,154,235,238 Washington Naval Disarmament Confer-

ences (1921-1922, 1927, 1930), 127 Washington, George, 76, 94 water frame, 63 Waterloo, battle of(l815), 31,253 n.64 Watt, James, 39, 63, 255 n.90 weapons, 25, 40, 90, 116, 119, 140, 149,

225,252 n.48, n.260 160 Weber, Max, 24, 107,252 n.41 Weihaiwei, 52 Weimar Republic, 132

Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, Duke of, 94 West Bank of the Jordan, 169, 170 Western civilization, 27, 41, 62, 65, 84, 91,

93 wheat, 33, 38,81 Wilhelm II, Emperor of Germany, 88 Wilkinson, John, 63 Wilson, Woodrow, 84, 95, 135, 169,204,

205,258 n.l30 n.l34, 265 n.219 Wolfe, James, 31 wool, 33, 217 wort ethic, 82, 121, 176 World Bank, 197, 198,220,237,272 n.308 world economy, 35,41-42,71,75, 82, 157,

170, 172, 182, 183, 195,217,218,226, 228,237

world poverty, 227 World War I, 18, 33, 44, 53, 64,85-100,

101, 108, 123, 124, 125, 131, 136, 139, 225, 249 n.l2, 256 n.ll 0, 257 n.l21, 261 n.l78, 262 n.l81; Europe, 44, 87; Japan, 124; Latin America, 201, 208; Mexico, 212

World War II, 87, 99, 127, 131-147, 149, 226; Africa, 190; deaths,l41, 264 n.205; Europe, 131; Germany, 263 n.200; Iran, 181; Japan, 161; Latin America, 210; Malaya, 164; Soviet Union, 263 n.200; war trials, 142

Xavier, St Francis, 116 Xingiang Province, 233 Yalta Conference (1945), 143, 150,233,

265 n.213 Yalu River, 14, 152 Yellow River, 253 n.52 Yemen, 273 n.319; Peoples Democratic

Republic of, 274 n.319 Yevtushenko, Yevgeny, 49,254 n.80 Y orlctown, battle of ( 1781 ), 76, 79 Ypres, battles of (1914, 1915, 1917, 1918),

226 Yuan dynasty (see also Mongols), 13, 14 Yucatan Peninsula, 68 Yugoslavia, 137, 138, 143, 157,233,258

n.l31, 261 n.l78, 263 n.l95; WWII; deaths, 264 n.205

Zaire, 192, 197 Zambia, 199 Zand dynasty, II Zeppelin raids, 94 Zimbabwe, 192 Zimmermann, Alfred, 270 n.281 Zionism, 98, 168, 169,258 n.l34, 267

n.246