selected papers from the 24th international conference on college teaching and learning

SELECTED PAPERS from the

24th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON COLLEGE TEACHING AND LEARNING

Edited by

Jack A. Chambers

ISBN 978-1-938418-41-9

Center for the Advancement of Teaching and Learning

Florida State College at Jacksonville 501 W. State Street

Jacksonville, Florida 32202

The Center for the Advancement of Teaching and Learning

SELECTED PAPERS from the

24th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE on

COLLEGE TEACHING AND LEARNING

Edited by Jack A. Chambers

Florida State College at Jacksonville

Copyright 2013, Florida State College at Jacksonville. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form by any means without prior written permission from the publisher, with the following exceptions: 1) authors of papers published in this volume may reproduce copies of their own articles as indicated in the Publishing Agreement; and 2) reviewers may quote brief passages in review.

ISBN 978-1-938418-41-9 Center for the Advancement of Teaching and Learning Florida State College at Jacksonville 501 W. State Street Jacksonville, FL 32202

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Contents Foreword vi Moving from Promising to Exemplary: Developing and Refining the Online Course Linda Allen Bill Kiser Mary Montgomery Jacksonville State University 1

Using Simulations for Learning and Assessment Gerald D. Baumgardner

Penn College 33 Igniting Women’s Interest in Science Related Post-Graduate Work

Christine Bezotte Susan Fontaine Elmira College 45

Teacher as Researcher: One Teacher’s Journey of Change Through Classroom Inquiry

Yakup Bilgili Florida State College at Jacksonville 57

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The Opportunity Cost of Withdrawing from an Academic Course

Augustine A. Boakye Essex County College 75

21ST Century Learning--Supporting Students Fifty and Over in Higher Education

Martha Anita Connelly E-Learning Professional, Dallas Ellin Iselin Florida State College at Jacksonville 93

From Brick and Mortar to Online Learning

Melissa Farrish Lisa A. Heaton Marshall University 113

Reality Learning: Two Techniques and a Grand Experiment

Barclay Hudson Fielding Graduate University 127

The Use of Technology in the Calculus-Based Physics Sequence

Victor J. Montemayor Middle Tennessee State University 155

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Examining the Impact of Video in Online and Blended Courses*

Madine Renée Rawe Florida State College at Jacksonville 165

Teaching the Way We Learn: Civic Engagement and Innovative Learning in the Millennial Classroom

A. Danielle Way Woodbury University 195

Contributors 211

*Received Best Paper Award from the Conference

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Foreword

The Center for the Advancement of Teaching and Learning was developed in 1987 when the College accepted K. Patricia Cross' challenge to use the classroom as a modern laboratory for conducting experiments to gauge the impact of teaching on student learning.

The philosophy of the Center for the Advancement of Teaching and Learning is that faculty are a vital key to improving student learning; the Center is therefore composed of faculty members from each of the major campuses of the College under the guidance of a steering committee. Part of the Center's success can be attributed to the numerous opportunities given to faculty to test their ideas on how to improve learning and to put research results into practice.

Center Steering Committee members serve as Campus Mentors and as sponsors of faculty development programs, both college-wide and on each campus. The Center also supports faculty mini-grants for classroom research and professional development and sponsors a number of awards honoring teaching faculty. The Center itself has been the recipient of an award—the Theodore M. Hesburgh Certificate of Excellence—for its faculty development programs.

In an effort to stimulate creative discussion and promote experimentation to improve the teaching/learning process, as well as to honor those who have already significantly improved learning in higher education, the Center annually sponsors an international conference. The conference features recognized educational leaders in diverse areas of teaching, learning and technology. Since its

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inception, the conference has grown steadily and now attracts about 800 scholars annually from around the world. This publication, Selected Papers, was created as a result of Center interest in honoring faculty who develop some of the most outstanding contributions to the conference. It also preserves and makes available the contributions made to the teaching profession as a whole. Selected Papers is covered online by the American Psychological Association’s PsycINFO.

Many people are responsible for the success of the annual conference. We would like to thank all participants—featured speakers and workshop leaders, presenters from universities, liberal arts, and state and community colleges throughout the world, faithful attendees, and Florida State College faculty and staff who give so generously of their time and efforts each year to help the conference continue its success.

Both the international conference and the Selected Papers journal have increased in growth and focus over the years. This year's publication contains articles selected as the eleven best papers of those submitted to the 24th International Conference on College Teaching and Learning; they represent a cross-section of several hundred faculty presentations. All papers submitted for consideration in this year's journal were reviewed by the Florida State College faculty members listed below. Papers were judged on the following criteria:

• Quality of content

• Quality of writing and presentation

• Focus of the paper (i.e., teaching, learning,

technology)

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• Discipline

• Appeal to an audience of professional, postsecondary educators

• Theoretical or practical applications We hope you will find the ideas presented here

applicable and inspirational to your own teaching, learning and research. Please plan to join us at the 25th International Conference on College Teaching and Learning. Jametoria Burton Robert A. Greene Librarian Professor of Communications Michelle Sink John W. Fields Professor of Nursing Professor of French Marilyn Metzcher-Smith Asst. Professor of Developmental English/Writing

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Moving from Promising to Exemplary:

Developing and Refining

the Online Course

Linda Allen Bill Kiser

Mary Montgomery Jacksonville State University

Introduction With increased portability, wireless access for our digital devices, and high demands on graduate students’ time for work and families, many learners are searching for programs of study from traditional universities in an online format. As university instructors work to meet the demands for more online programs they are faced with new and exciting challenges. Their efforts are tested by the need to design quality online courses that support student learning and ensure student engagement and collaboration. Many are searching for ideas and activities to support their content and build a sense of community within the online environment. Even though this is a challenge for many instructors, the use of a well-designed rubric can support and enhance their efforts. Teachers must focus their work not only on the content of the course but also on ensuring a “high degree of interactivity and participation” for the students (Conrad & Donaldson, 2011, p. 5). Through a learner-centered, virtual

Selected Conference Papers 2

learning environment, the students’ “actions contribute not only to individual knowledge but to overall community knowledge development as well” (Conrad & Donaldson, 2011, p. 3). In the online environment, teachers become designers and facilitators of the knowledge while the learners take on the role of knowledge-generators who “assume responsibility for constructing and managing their own learning experience” (Conrad & Donaldson, 2011, p. 5). With the move to an online format, instructors must also remember that “Students will not be energized, thrilled, and empowered by learning until educators are energized, thrilled, and empowered by learning” (Knight, 2011, p. 6). As teachers venture out of their comfort zones and begin this new work, it is important to be reminded that “When teachers stop learning, so do students” (Knight, 2011, p. 4). Knight (2011) emphasizes the importance of teachers focusing their efforts on four central practices that have the ability to significantly impact student learning. He recommends that teachers center their labors on content planning, assessment development, instructional strategies, and building community. As university instructors work to meet the ever-changing demands of their students to increase digital learning offerings, moving courses and programs to an online format is a logical progression. Teachers must continue to work toward the development of quality online courses rooted in research and best practices while supporting their content with the development of research-based activities. In an effort to ensure the development of quality online courses, consideration must be given to online course design, the growing differences in learners, student interaction and collaboration, assessment, and the continued support for learners with special needs.


21st Century Learners Many of today’s graduate students are quite different from those of the past. With the arrival of the 21st Century, it is clear that these digital natives approach the world very differently than those of past decades. All around us, technology provides instant access to all kinds of digital media. These digital consumers scan texts without reading the entire document and quickly move on to the next hyper-link, Blog, or website. The ever-changing face of technology and the students who use it have increasingly different expectations and demands for their learning experiences. In many graduate schools, “…students are older, are working, and need a more flexible schedule” (Palloff & Pratt, 2001, p. 109). Graduate programs are filled with students who are married and have families, they work fulltime jobs, and the pressure on their time is high. They have daily schedules that demand programs of study that can accommodate their hectic lives. Many learners today, both digital natives and learners with families and work obligations, want opportunities to enroll in online graduate programs at trusted universities where they feel at home and supported. The challenge for instructors to develop and refine their online courses must be met with a sincere desire to provide students with an online format that is rooted in research and best practices for learning.

21st Century Skills Due to students’ constant access to texting, social networking, and technology, teachers indicate that the overall impact is inhibiting students’ ability to finish assignments and is contributing to classroom boredom with conventional teaching methods (Taylor & Fratto, 2012).


These authors also report that there are high levels of student apathy to “learning and education in general” (Taylor & Fratto, p. 4). Regardless of the educational level, the impact of technology is changing our students. Teachers must be compelled to find ways to make connections with their students through a variety of formats and technology tools. As the educational world continues to be redefined, teachers must be willing to make the changes that will continue to support student engagement and learning. Classrooms, regardless of the structure and/or format, must shift to a global learning environment. The learning must be relevant to the world in which our students live and work. Students today “need an atmosphere that captures their attention” (Taylor & Fratto, 2012, p. 14). “They want to learn, but they tune out lectures primarily because of the many media options available in other parts of their lives” (Taylor & Fratto, 2012, p. 14). It is important that teachers look for ways to provide hands-on, collaborative environments that include opportunities for students to question and explore their world. Teachers want to help their students learn, grow, and thrive in the world. Taylor and Fratto (2012) recommend a “shift in schools to teaching and modeling 21st century skills” (p. 19). They go on to stress that the process takes “intention, time, tools, and strategies” (p. 19). These skills include collaboration, communication, critical thinking, and creativity. These are often referred to as the 4Cs. Throughout this paper, the 4Cs are infused in discussions about learning outcomes, course structure and appearance, learning activities, and strategies to support student engagement. “Learning and innovation skills are those being increasingly recognized as skills that prepare students for complex life and work environments in the 21st century” (Taylor & Fratto, 2012, p. 23).


As teachers design learning environments and implement new activities and strategies, it is essential that the work is meaningful to both the student and the teacher. “When teachers create relevance, students are engaged in the learning process” (Taylor & Fratto, 2012, p. 134). When students are engaged, they are learning!

Online Course Quality It is essential that an online course be driven by the same goals, objectives, and learning outcomes as a traditional course. The final results of course design must provide the same content and rigor as a similar onsite course. Vai and Sosulski (2011) provide a best-practices model for designing online courses. They propose the inclusion of several key features:

• A practical approach informed by theory

• Clean interior design that offers straightforward guidance from page one

• Clear and jargon-free language

• Examples, screenshots, and illustrations to clarify and support the text

• A companion website with examples, adaptable templates, interactive learning features, and online resources

• A checklist of online course design standards that readers can use to self-evaluate

Vai and Sosulski (2011) maintain that course design must focus on pedagogy, organization, and the visual


aspects of the online environment. They recommend that the learning activities within the course be involving, interesting, interactive, and social. Their work supports the inclusion of research-based learning activities designed to provide success for students within the online environment. Vai and Sosulski would agree that course development must focus on increasing student engagement and overall enjoyment.

Thormann and Zimmerman (2012) recommend that within the course structure, teachers provide well-organized materials that enhance the probability of capturing students’ interest, keep them engaged, support the achievement of learning objectives, and help students construct their own meaning. They also suggest clear directions with all materials ready at the beginning of the online course and the use of scaffolded assignments.

Online Course Design

Many online course design models are used to

provide structure and consistency for teachers as they work to develop courses that address the learning needs of their students. Selecting and using a model is essential to the construction of quality online courses. An online course model supports and strengthens the development of quality courses by providing guidelines rooted in research and best practices.

The Blackboard Course Program Rubric (Blackboard Community Program, 2012) provides a strong framework for course development with recommendations for learner engagement. The model focuses on four broad areas: course design, interaction and collaboration, assessment, and learner support. Sustained by a review of related research, this work will expand some areas of the model and provide insight for the use of strategies and activities. To truly be effective, online course design must


include a discussion of goals and objectives, content presentation, learner engagement, and technology use. Goals and Objectives

Thormann and Zimmerman (2012) recommend that teachers begin the development of an online course by first defining their educational philosophy of teaching. They emphasize the importance of writing a well-defined philosophy as it will direct the way material is presented within the course and how students interact with it. Thormann and Zimmerman insist that the philosophical framework becomes even more important because an online format does not result in immediate and continuous visual and auditory feedback. Like Thormann and Zimmerman, a constructivist philosophy provides the foundation for recommendations made throughout this paper.

Once an educational philosophy has been defined, the development of goals and objectives become a priority. It is from the goals and objectives that the teacher establishes learner outcomes that are specific and measurable for each learning unit. The establishment of goals, objectives, and learner outcomes is a part of providing clear directions, and allows the teacher to communicate expectations for the course. There must be a defined relationship between the goals, learner outcomes, course content, resources, activities, and assessments. “The goals, objectives, and outcomes are course guides, serving as checkpoints to ensure that coursework is focused and assessment is valid” (Thormann and Zimmerman, 2012, p. 12).

Goals, and objectives are the means by which knowledge and skills are articulated. They communicate intentions and provide information to direct learning efforts while allowing students to monitor their own progress


(Ambrose, Bridges, DiPietro, Lovett, & Norman, 2010). Objectives provide a framework for selecting and organizing course content and guide decisions about assessments. They also support the selection of teaching and learning activities (Miller, 1987). Within an online course, goals and objectives must be easy to find and clearly written. Learner outcomes should be measurable and available in several areas including the syllabus and within each learning unit (Blackboard Community Program, 2012).

Course Presentation

Researchers at the University of British Columbia evaluated 127 online courses. Their data revealed that the appearance of an online course can be just as important to the student as the content (as cited in Madden, 1999). By creating a visually appealing online environment, learners will enjoy their visit to the course and choose to explore and learn. Vai and Sosulski (2011) also recommend that the course be graphically appealing. They suggest that course designers pay attention to margins (white space) and text placement to avoid overcrowding. They emphasize the importance of the instructor taking time to review content and graphic placement with a critical eye.

The Blackboard Course Program Rubric (Blackboard Community Program, 2012) supports the distribution of content into manageable segments through the development of learning units or modules within the course. Vai and Sosulski (2011) also recommend that online content be broken up into chunks. They define chunking as breaking down the presentation of material into a series of mini-presentations. They further ask that consideration be given to the development of short videos and voice segments to support the content. Using learning units or modules allows the learner to move through the


course easily utilizing buttons or tabs. Most learning management systems (LMSs) have the potential to provide teachers with many tools and design elements to support the development of the online course. The teacher must be willing to explore the available tools and options and then use them to enhance the course.

Thormann & Zimmerman (2012) suggest the use of project-based and authentic learning for the online environment. Both of these strategies support a constructivist approach to learning and provide students with real-life, hands-on opportunities designed for deep and effective learning experiences.

Vai and Sosulski (2011) also recommend the use of a variety of content-related experiences throughout the course by mixing different “text-based segments, including activities, short readings, text-based supplementary materials from the internet, and reflective self-assessments” (p. 169). Through content variety, the teacher can insure a media-rich environment for students. The use of modalities can also add dimension to a course while enhancing and expanding learning experiences. Mayer (2001) states, “Learners can better understand an explanation when it is presented in words and pictures than when it is presented in words only” (p. 1).

Vai and Sosulski (2011) also recommend a “variety of modes (audio, text, video, and digital images) for presentations and activities” (p. 70). As the teacher begins to seek out and select content-related resources and research-based strategies, the ability to capture students’ interest and imaginations is greatly enhanced. Bloom (1956) stated that the majority of learning outcomes will fall into the application, analysis, synthesis, or evaluation levels if the student is engaged. Careful selection of activities and resources can provide a powerful online environment that motivates and liberates student inquiry.


Learner Engagement In a study by Brand, Galsson, and Green (2006), they concluded that high-quality teacher-student interactions are vital to student engagement. They go on to emphasize the important role of teacher validation of student capabilities and efforts which can be accomplished by increasing teacher accessibility and approachability. Through these actions, the teacher as well as the students benefit and grow through a variety of interactions such as discussions, interviews, and debates. Student interaction must be encouraged throughout the online course. Kearsley (2000) emphasizes the importance of ensuring a high degree of student participation. He recommends that the instructors design and conduct a variety of learning activities that increase opportunities for students to interact. Both Kearsley (2000) and Conrad and Donaldson (2011) push instructors to develop learner-centered courses that focus on increased student interaction. Conrad and Donaldson also state that “Success in an online learning environment depends on the use of instructional strategies that support the shift in roles (learner-centered) and the development of self-direction” (p. 5). As instructors move to a learner-centered focus within their courses, both interaction and self-direction must be given careful consideration. Lehman and Conceicão (2010) underscore the importance of designing courses that ensure “learner presence” (p. 4). They state that awareness, understanding, and involvement, when accompanied by intentional planning and design, will ensure that activities provide a sense of presence and increase learner engagement within the virtual community. As the online course provides students with opportunities to communicate in stimulating, expressive and caring ways, the learner openly shares his


thoughts and provides feedback to others inside the community. Opportunities for discussion of ideas, debate, and presentation must be woven into the fabric of the course. Within the virtual classroom, lines between the traditional and virtual blur as engagement increases. It is then that the student becomes at ease in this workspace and is “present” (Lehman & Conceicão, 2010, p. 4). When students feel at ease within the learning environment, they are more engaged in the content and activities. The goal of the instructor must be to “create activities that will engage and challenge learners while expanding their personal connections to their existing knowledge” (Conrad & Donaldson, 2011, p. 26). The Blackboard Course Program Rubric maintains the provision of multiple levels of guidance for learners as they work with content in a variety of meaningful ways (Blackboard Community Program, 2012). A quality online course provides many opportunities for students to think critically and to be supported with examples that serve as guides for their own work. Technology Use

Lehman and Conceicão (2010) emphasize the importance of technology being transparent. “This means it should not be the course focus or a learning distraction; rather, it should be user-friendly” (p. 29). They recommend that online courses provide a blended approach that includes both asynchronous and synchronous activities throughout.

Learning management systems are growing and changing daily. Within the Blackboard and Blackboard Collaborate learning management system, teachers can easily provide students with face-to-face sessions that allow easy access for PowerPoints, Word documents, and


numerous websites to support content. Teachers can create and embed content-based video and audio clips for PowerPoints, assignments, and documents. As teachers and students continue to voice their demands for greater opportunities in an online learning format, programmers are constantly making changes and updating tools to address their needs.

Most learning management systems provide a variety of tools and options to support and extend learning within the online course. Thormann and Zimmerman (2012) discuss the importance of the teacher defining his or her approach to learning and in so doing, to access the wide-range of digital tools available within the learning management system to increase student engagement. They go on to say, “Facilitating the exchange of ideas and concepts by building community is accomplished by creating a personal connection, fostering peer relationships, interacting with each student, and experimenting with new technologies” (p. 110). Technology is the tool that allows teachers to connect with their students in new and amazing ways within the online environment. By designing and infusing a variety of activities that are supported by technology, the instructor has a much greater probability of engaging students.

Interaction and Collaboration

“Learners in the twenty-first century have been web consumers for much of their lives, and are now demanding online instruction that supports participation and interaction. They want learning experiences that are social and will connect them with their peers” (West & West, 2009, p. 2). In their research on social presence, Tu and McIsaac (2002) found that online communication, social context, and interactivity are all contributing factors for students as they work and share together. Their work also


concluded that online communication must be stimulating, expressive, and carry sincere emotions. With the wide range of communication tools embedded in most learning management systems and also available in other formats on the web, teachers have an opportunity to design online learning environments that support interaction and encourage collaboration. In planning for interaction and collaboration, the teacher must consider communication strategies, learning communities, and student interaction. Communication Strategies

Students come to the online learning environment from a variety of different experiences and outlooks. It is essential that the course provide a detailed orientation. The orientation is the beginning of this new learning experience and it establishes the atmosphere of the course for the learner. Lehman and Conceicão (2010) suggest “Online course orientation activities not only set the tone for the entire course but also create an opportunity for learners to get ready for a safe and comfortable environment” (p. 40). This initial introduction to the course can put the learner at ease and build relationships between the course members. “A well-designed pre-course orientation can help learners feel they are part of the learning community and are ‘there’ and ‘together’ from the beginning of the course” (p. 41).

It would be ideal if every learner was at ease and motivated as they work in an online environment. Mayer (2005) stated, “When developing presentations ensure that your tone is conversational. People learn better when the words of a multimedia presentation are in conversational style rather than formal” (p. 6). Using an informal or conversational tone throughout the course gives the learner a sense of safety (Vai & Sosulski, 2011).

Setting up an appropriate learning climate is crucial to establishing a successful learning experience (Knowles,


1980). Knowles’ work focuses on the importance of feeling accepted, respected, and supported within an environment. This truth must be carried into the virtual learning environment. Course designers need to initially focus their efforts on creating activities that insure open lines of communication within the course and provide opportunities for students to share and get to know each other. Conrad and Donaldson (2011) recommend the use of ice breakers to set the tone and support the development of the learning community. They go on to say, “An icebreaker should humanize the technology-mediated learning experience so that trust can begin to be built among the learners. This trust is vital in order for community interaction to occur in the future” ( p. 52).

When you think about communication strategies, consideration must be given to how and when students will communicate (email, phone, chat, conference, or virtual classroom, discussion boards, etc.) within the online course. Because online communication takes more time, time considerations must be given to activities that require online interaction. With the additional time comes increased opportunities where “depth of thought is likely to be greater” (Conrad & Donaldson, 2011, p. 21). Students and teachers have time to critically think about a topic before they respond on discussion boards and everyone within the group is held accountable. No one is passively sitting quietly in the backseat of a classroom. All participants are actively engaged in the communication within their own time and schedule. Development of a Learning Community

Conrad and Donaldson (2011) maintain that online educators must take on the role of content facilitator and support students as they become more self-directed and collaborative. Within the role of a facilitator, the teacher


supports students throughout the learning process by providing both individual and group learning experiences. The teacher becomes a catalyst that challenges the learner’s thinking through questions and discussions (Lehman & Conceicão, 2010). Within the learning community, knowledge becomes a shared effort of the teacher and learners; this shared effort is enhanced by all members of the community.

Palloff and Pratt (2007) state “The learning community is the vehicle through which learning occurs online. Members depend on each other to achieve the learning outcomes for the course” (p. 40). Recognizing the importance of building a learning community, the designer must ensure that there are several opportunities for students to get to know each other through activities that have been carefully planned to support this effort. Throughout the course, partner and small group collaboration activities are needed to guarantee the continued growth of the community. Through discussions, case studies, role-plays, small group projects, scavenger hunts, debates, interviews, etc., student interaction will grow and support the learning of everyone within the learning community. Student Interaction

Lehman and Conceicão (2010) remind teachers that students view the online environment based on concrete observations and perceptions. Given this understanding, it is necessary that the teacher create an environment that provides clear guidelines for all levels of participation. By defining the type and quality of communication that is expected from students, the teacher eliminates many questions and concerns. Clarity provides the learner with a sense of safety that is necessary to the student’s success. Teacher feedback is also important to the ongoing growth of the learning community. It is through feedback


from both the teacher and peers that learners are challenged and shepherded through the course. Vai and Sosulski (2011) define the role of feedback as expanding on the learner’s knowledge, helping the learner improve and progress, and providing clarity for misconceptions. They also emphasize the importance of ongoing assessment and timely, supportive feedback as a means of engaging the learner. Within the virtual environment, teachers can utilize a variety of digital tools to support assessment and provide feedback quickly. By using “discussion analysis tools, rubrics, team assessments, and reflective self-assessments,” teachers “can help to effectively measure individual performance in an engaged learning environment” (Conrad & Donaldson, 2011, p. 28). As learners work and learn within the online environment, the supports that the teacher builds into the course will sustain student growth.

Assessment A discussion of assessment must include goal setting, feedback, and the tools developed to evaluate the process. Research continues to show that learning goals have a tendency to enhance and support student learning (Walberg, 1999; Wise & Okey, 1983). “Clear goals establish an initial target. Feedback provides students with information regarding their progress toward that target. Goal setting and feedback used in tandem are probably more powerful than either one in isolation” (Marzano, 2007, p. 12). It is through the goals, learner outcomes, and supportive feedback that students realize course expectations.

Within the online environment, just like face-to-face courses, assessments must match goals and learner outcomes for the course. Learner outcomes must be stated within each learning unit and the assessments should be


directly related to the outcomes. Aligning goals, curriculum, and assessments are critical to the development of a quality course.

Both formative and summative assessments have their role within the online course. Because of the ongoing nature of formative assessment, it has the greatest potential to impact and improve student progress during the course. Research has conclusively shown that formative assessment improves learning (Black & Wiliam, 1998). Marzano (2007) states that formative assessment “might be one of the more powerful weapons in a teacher’s arsenal” (p. 13). It is through formative assessment that the teacher has an opportunity to provide feedback to students throughout the course.

There are also strong findings that indicate that the frequency of assessments can be directly related to student academic achievement (Bangert-Drowns, Kulik, Kulik, & Morgan, 1991). Fuchs and Fuchs (1986) reported that the provision of two assessments per week can result in a gain of 30 points with an effect size of .85. Recognizing the role of formative assessment, teachers are encouraged to consistently provide a variety of assessments within each learning unit in the online course.

In an authentic and project-based online course, students demonstrate content understanding through their posts, journals, article reviews, quizzes, projects, debates, case studies, simulations, presentations, and plans. Within each assessment, instructions must be clearly stated and detailed to support understanding. Assessment should also include many opportunities for the learner to think critically about content and related issues. Assessment should include a variety of formats designed to provide critical evaluation of student attainment of learning outcomes.


Learner Support Students require many levels of teacher support within the online environment. The course syllabus and orientation process should provide students with the answers to many of the questions they initially have. As the course is developed, areas such as accessibility, accommodations, and feedback should also be addressed. The online course must begin with an orientation that provides the learners with tutorials and introductions to the learning management system and learning units. Within the orientation, the teacher must explain course expectations and provide an overview of all major projects.

The course structure should include easy-to-locate, one-click links and buttons for all multi-media materials. Content delivery must also include the use of different modalities as a support for specific learner needs. Students must also be given information concerning software plug-ins or web-based products that are required for the course. It is through the orientation and initial ice-breaker activities that learners have an opportunity to review the course and begin to feel comfortable within the virtual environment. Within the course, the teacher should also provide students with contact information and office hours. This would include expected response time for questions and evaluation guidelines and procedures. The teacher should also define his or her role in the class so that students will know what to expect when they require additional support. Through the orientation process, the teacher defines what students should do when they are faced with issues, concerns, and questions related to the course. During course development, the teacher provides links to school policies such as plagiarism, behavior, and netiquette. Links and buttons are also provided for support agencies such as the library, special needs, and financial aid. It is through the provision of support links that the


teacher provides a level of care for the learner within the online course. Technical accessibility requires the teacher to be mindful of content formats, video capabilities, and display options for all students. Now, most learning management systems include a virtual classroom which requires students to have audio and video capabilities. Technology expectations should be clearly defined for the learner in the syllabus and in the course orientation. Technology has the ability to provide a variety of student supports which improve the quality of the online course. Teachers must accept the challenge to use technology in new and creative ways that enhance, engage, and expand learning opportunities for students in the virtual environment.

Activities and Strategies to Enhance Online Learning

As you begin to think about how you will challenge and engage students within the online environment, consideration must be given to collaboration, communication, critical thinking, and creativity. Through these activities, students begin building community, engage in discussions, question current school practices, and utilize technology in new and creative ways. The activities provided in this section are not meant to be comprehensive but to provide a beginning place for the reader’s creativity. Icebreakers Effective online courses will include two icebreakers at the beginning of the course and then others within the first two or three learning units. The main purpose of an icebreaker is to provide a forum that allows the learners to share information about themselves with the group. The initial activities should allow the students to


share contact information and provide some personal information. These initial activities set the tone for future partner and group work. Conrad and Donaldson (2011) recommend the following checklist for effective icebreakers: fun and nonthreatening, person-focused, requires everyone to read other entries, allows the learner to find something in common with some of the members, allows the student to express emotions and be imaginative, and learners must respond to one another.

Consider these ideas as a starting place:

1. Discussion Board: Have learners introduce themselves in one sentence and then find one other person who has something in common with them. Also have them reply to the comment by sharing one more detail about themselves (Communication).

2. Discussion Board: Have students share something about themselves that not many people know. Then, based on the comments of other learners, have them find one other person with whom they have something in common. Finally, have them post something funny about themselves to the comment of that individual (Communication).

3. Have students develop a five-slide biography PowerPoint and then record a 5-7 minute video introduction in the virtual classroom (Collaboration) using their PowerPoint. Have students view all of the videos and take the Classmate Biography Quiz for bonus points. (Ask one question about each student that can only be answered by viewing the videos. This


activity also provides learners with contact information for partner and small group assignments later in the course.) a. Slide 1: Students should be encouraged to

include a recent picture of themselves. The first slide should include name, current school, county, state, position, and contact information. Learners may also present any additional information they would like to share with the group.

b. Slide 2: Have students share why they selected education as a career. Ask them to discuss their area of certification and what moved them to this area of work.

c. Slide 3: Students should discuss their current program focus and why this step is important to their career.

d. Slide 4: Students should also discuss the focus of their research proposal problem and how it will address a concern in their school or district. The students should also discuss how their research will impact student performance and achievement within the school?

e. Slide 5: Have learners discuss what they hope to be doing in the next five years and why? (Communication and Creativity).

4. Using one PowerPoint slide, have the students create a poster as an introduction to the course.


a. Students must include a short video clip (YouTube) as a personal introduction.

b. The poster should include ….based on the guidelines.

c. Have each student select and evaluate five posters using a rubric that is provided by the teacher (Communication and Creativity).

Individual Activities

1. Discussion Board: Have each student complete three posts for this assignment.

a. Have them watch a course-related video clip

(1-3 minutes). Ask them to summarize the content of the video in a post.

b. Then ask them to post a question to someone’s summary. In this post, the student must ask a question that is related to the video content. The question must be carefully worded to require the reader to reflect, evaluate, and/or provide options to the video content. They can NOT use a similar question that has already been posted.

c. All students must answer one question from another member of the class who has not had a comment added to his or her summary. They cannot answer a question that has already been addressed (Critical Thinking).

2. Discussion Board: After students have responded

to a post assignment, ask them to reply to another


student by summarizing his or her post and then confirming/validating the student’s ideas (Critical Thinking).

3. Discussion Board: Ask the students to read a case study.

a. Have them respond to the case study by writing

one question and then providing the answer. The question should invite introspection or encourage additional solutions.

b. Students may not use a question that has already been posted. (Critical Thinking).

Partner Activities

As you begin to think about partner activities, it is essential to build-in opportunities for learner critiques (Conrad & Donaldson, 2011). A discussion board or blog can provide a forum for critiques. As students evaluate each other, encourage them to provide their partner with two or three strengths and then one area for improvement.

1. Conference: Partners can proof-read article reviews, proposal sections, or other documents for each other using the Review tab in Microsoft Word. Then each partner can use the feedback to make changes before they post their final paper for grading (Collaboration and Communication).

a. Conference: Each member should locate two

journal articles on the topic.

b. Each member reads and writes a review of their articles. Each review is posted for grading.


c. Then, all members of the group will contribute content to a literature review in their assigned wiki space. The review will follow all APA guidelines. All members are expected to contribute and revise the review.

d. Each member uses the assignment rubric to

review and then revise the assignment before the due date.

2. Finally, each member is asked to critique the other

members in the group. On one document, each member is asked to write two strengths and one area for improvement for each group member and email it to the instructor (Collaboration and Communication). Partners can read, discuss, and write a collaborative response to an article. The partners use a rubric to evaluate their work, make additional changes, and then post for grading (Collaboration and Communication).

3. Conference and Virtual Classroom: Partners work

together to acquire new information on a specific content topic. Students are expected to include video clips, web links, and other media to support their work.

a. Partners present the information (PowerPoint,

Prezi) to the group within the virtual classroom or present and record the session in the virtual classroom for others to view later.

b. Each pair is required to complete a participation rubric on the other.


c. The pair must also work together to evaluate two other presentations using an assignment rubric (Collaboration, Communication, and Creativity).

4. Conference and Virtual Classroom: Partners debate two opposing viewpoints on a given topic using a PowerPoint that is jointly developed.

a. The debate requires a point to be stated by one

student and then a response given by the other. This process continues until all points have been presented.

b. The debate is recorded in the virtual classroom.

c. Extension: Partners view two other debates and respond to the work using a debate rubric (Collaboration, Communication, and Critical Thinking).

5. Conference: Each partner reads the assigned content (article, chapter, etc.) and then responds in writing to the following questions.

a. What is insightful about the selection? b. What is surprising? c. What did you already know?

The partners share their responses and then complete a

written summary and reflection of the content. Also consider having each partner use a rubric to evaluate his or her partner’s efforts on the project (Collaboration and Communication).


Small Group

1. Wiki: Students are divided into small groups (3-4 members). The instructor sets up a wiki for each group. Each group is given a topic to research and follows the directions provided below.

a. Each member should locate two journal articles on the topic.

b. Each member reads and writes a review of their articles. Each review is posted for grading.

c. Then, all members of the group will contribute content to a literature review in their assigned wiki space. The review will follow all APA guidelines. All members are expected to contribute and revise the review.

d. Each member uses the assignment rubric to review and then revise the assignment before the due date.

e. Finally, each member is asked to critique the other members in the group. On one document, each member is asked to write two strengths and one area for improvement for each group member and email it to the instructor (Collaboration and Communication).

2. Wiki and Virtual Classroom: Have each team develop a generic grant proposal to fund a classroom need that all members agree upon. Then, have members present the proposal in one of the following formats:


a. TV commercial video (Evirx. (2011). [Web-based Video Publishing Account]. http://evirx.com

b. Digital two-fold color brochure

c. Record a PowerPoint or Prezi presentation by the group in the virtual classroom (Collaboration, Communication, and Creativity).

3. Blog: Team members gather a variety of

resources to support the learning of all classmates. (Do this activity in the first or second learning unit of the online course. This will give everyone access to the resources throughout the course.)

a. Divide the class into teams (3-4 people).

b. Each team is assigned a chapter, selection,

etc. of the course content to carefully read.

c. Team members are then responsible for collecting four resources per team member. Resources include research articles, video clips, websites, PowerPoints, webquests, podcast, etc.

d. Have the teams use a blog named “Resources” to house the new materials and media. Have the teams categorize the materials as they add them to the blog (Communication and Collaboration).


Whole Group

1. Discussion Board: Setup a debate and provide the class with a controversial topic to research.

a. Assign each student to the pro or con side of

the debate.

b. Each student must locate two journal articles based on their group placement and write a review of the articles. This assignment is posted for grading in the learning management system.

c. Groups meet in the virtual classroom or conference and discuss the points that their research has revealed. They decide who will present certain points in discussion board posts.

d. Each student must post a paragraph that defends their group’s view. Each post must discuss a different aspect of the topic from the learner’s research as decided on by the group.

e. All students complete a participation rubric based on the effectiveness of the group as a whole. Include an area for personal comments.

f. Extension: Pair up opposing members and have them record their debate in the virtual classroom using only their research. Everyone views the debates and completes a poll (polleverywhere.com) or survey (within


the learning management system) on the best presentation. The winning pair receives bonus points (Collaboration and Communication).

Conclusions

The U. S. Department of Education (2009) has stated that students who take part of their coursework online performed better, on average, than students taking the same coursework in a traditional classroom. The demand for online learning is growing daily. Clearly, online courses have their place in higher education, but attention must be given to careful planning and commitment to quality.

References

Ambrose, S., Bridges, M., DiPietro, M., Lovett, M., &

Norman, M. (2010). How learning works: 7 research-based principles for smart teaching. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Bangert-Drowns, R. L., Kulik, C. C., Kulik, J. A., & Morgan, M. (1991). The instructional effects of feedback in test-like events. Review of Educational Research, 61(2), 213-238.

Black, P. & Wiliam, D. (1998). Assessment and classroom learning. Assessment in Education, 5(1), 7-75.

Blackboard Community Program. (2012). Blackboard exemplary course rubric. Retrieved from www.blackboard.com/getdoc/7deaf501-4674-41b9-b2f2-554441ba099b/2012-Blackboard-Exemplary-Course-Rubric.aspx

Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. New York, NY: Longman.


Brand, B. R., Glasson, G. E., & Green, A. M. (2006). Sociocultural factors influencing students’ learning in science and mathematics: An analysis of the perspectives of African American students. School Science and Mathematics, 106(5), 228-236.

Conrad, R., & Donaldson, J. (2011). Engaging the online learner: Activities and resources for creative instruction. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Fuchs, L. S., & Fuchs, D. (1986). Effects of systematic formative evaluation: A meta-analysis. Exceptional Children, 53(3), 199-208.

Kearsley, G. (2000). Online education: Learning and teaching in cyberspace. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Knight, J. (2011). Unmistakable impact: A partnership approach to dramatically improving instruction. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.

Knowles, M. (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Association Press.

Lehmean, R., & Conceicão, S. (2010). Creating a sense of presence in online teaching: How to “be there” for distance learners. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Madden, D. (1999). Seventeen elements of good online courses. Retrieved from www2.honolulu.hawaii.edu/ facdev/guidebk/online/web-elem.htm

Marzano, R. J. (2007). The art and science of teaching. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Mayer, R. E. (2005). The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Miller, A. H. (1987). Course design for university lectures. New York, NY: Nichols.


Palloff, R. M., & Pratt, K. (2001). Lessons from the cyberspace classroom: The realities of online teaching. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

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Thormann, J., & Zimmerman, I. K. (2012). The complete step-by-step guide to designing and teaching online courses. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

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Vai, M., & Sosulski, K. (2011). Essentials of online course design: A standards-based guide. New York, NY: Routledge.

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33

Using Simulations

for Learning and Assessment

Gerald D. Baumgardner Penn College

Introduction Educators have been thrust into the assessment mode as stakeholders increase demands for responsible and proven methods of learning. Gone are the days in which higher education was left on an island with little more than self-reporting responsibility. Those days have been replaced with expectations on what takes place in the classroom along with plans to measure such progress. As educators adjust to the changing market forces, it is imperative to consider various learning tools that share a duality in both learning and assessment. In many cases, it is a matter of revisiting some of the tools that were trends in previous years. Cooperative learning, with the combination of individual and group output, has made a great resurgence as have other proven tools. One tool up for reconsideration is the computer simulation. Designed decades ago to be used in conjunction with mainframe computers, simulations have seen a rise in popularity as institutions spend large sums on instructional technology and educators migrate to mobile devices and other wireless applications. It is safe to say that technology has played a key role in allowing simulations to become a legitimate tool for learning with simultaneous benefits for assessment.


Additionally, students and educators see many benefits from the new simulations available in many programs of study taught in higher education. A detailed analysis will point to students, educators, and outcomes assessment serving as benefactors of technology-based simulations.

Most analysts would see the main reasons for the heightened use of simulations in education as their usefulness as assessment tools and as alternatives to lecture. Students, educators, and institutions gain as, with the large investment in instructional technology, simulations piggyback onto the computer structure without incurring large fixed or variable expenses.

Background Information Simulations are an act of imitating the behavior of a physical or abstract system, such as an event, situation, or process that does or could exist (Damassa & Sitko, 2010). Maran and Glavin (2003) see simulations as an educational technique that creates learning by reproducing all or part of an event or situation.

Theoretically, simulations could be created for any number of topics, courses, or programs in education. Some of the more popular simulations are offered in diverse academic programs including business, health care, and transportation. Options are limitless as advances in technology allow individuals to design self-paced simulations for the classroom. This has led to a full-fledged market for simulations in a multitude of areas like stock markets, roller coasters, and trucking.

Cohen and Rhenman (1961) claim the American Management Association (AMA) created the first business game in 1956. It was designed as a decision making activity for executives that received vast training materials from the AMA. Books on the uses of simulations and


games in the classroom followed. As interest increased and technology changed, this led to the introduction of simulations into many areas of study in higher education.

Most educators agree that the market for simulations grew as computerization infiltrated the classroom. Simulations have now become synonymous with education and training in various occupations and industries. For example, pilot training utilizes simulation and many see the landing of a US Airways plane on the Hudson River as a result of effective simulation training.

The field of education is ripe for simulation usage as it offers technology that is available to the masses while creating opportunities for evaluating results. Damassa and Sitko (2010) note two contributing factors to the proliferation of simulations in the classroom. First is an increased availability of quality simulation resources offered at a quality price. Educators and students gain a sense of value from the low-cost effectiveness of simulations. Additionally, there is a growing focus on outcomes assessment and the need to find alternative means to evaluate learning. As educators adapted simulations into the class environment, advances in technology made it possible to transfer classroom learning into real world situations with the added focus of outcomes assessment.

Changes in Technology Lecture is still seen as the primary delivery mode of higher education, but it is often supplemented due to a number of factors. These include the tightening of fiscal budgets, the need for alternative forms of outcomes assessment, and the propagation of inexpensive technology in the classroom. Before computerization, simulations were created in a game format, meaning that such tools were developed in ways similar to the traditional board games. This has changed as computerization allows for the instant


processing of data with an ability to alter significant variables. Advancements in the new economy are drive by advances in communications technologies, information, and computing (Moore, 2007). These advances lead to complex and more effective simulations. A great benefit from technology is an educator’s ability to make impromptu changes to the variables impacting simulations. For example, a business professor can change interest rates or currency values in order to modify the makeup of the simulation. Additionally, students have the ability to input data and make changes to their decisions. These and other abilities were quite limited in the early days of simulations and technology. Now, for example, it is quite common to utilize wireless technology so that participants can have anywhere, anytime access to maintaining simulations. As technology evolves, simulations are expected to continue to thrive. With institutions spending billions of dollars on instructional technology budgets, simulations become part of the system with little additional expense, as indicated earlier. Cauthen and Halpin (2012) suggest that colleges spend 21% of instructional technology budgets on hardware, thus, can offer much in terms of simulation support. Additionally, Cauthen and Halpin note that cloud computing and virtualization are emerging trends in higher education technology plans. With that in mind, simulations can benefit from both trends as cloud computing allows for the storage of simulation programs and data while virtualization is a new direction for many of the upcoming simulations.

Technology is a support system for a number of tools of education. Technological support for authentic learning includes high-speed Internet connectivity, asynchronous and synchronous communication, intelligent tutoring and feedback, and mobile devices for accessing data (Lombardi, 2007). Technology enhances the use of


simulations as it provides remote and instant access, self-generates data, and creates instant computation of outcomes assessment. Ultimately, the combination of technology and outcomes assessment are vital to touting simulations as a great tool for learning. Technology eases a public call for increased accountability in higher education with outcomes assessment and technology as major contributors to such easement (Moore, 2007).

Benefits to Students and Educators

Marc Prensky (2001) created a powerful summary when he said games offer fun, play, rules, goals, interactivity, outcomes, feedback, conflict, opposition, problem solving, structure, flow, motivation, and pleasure. With such a list of benefits, it is hard to dismiss the use of simulations and games in the classroom. Lombardi (2007) states that learning-by-doing is generally considered the most effective way to learn. Included in this methodology are simulations which benefits students and educators in many ways, such as:

• Helping with the desire and ability to complete effective group work

• Offering a method of learning that entails competing groups

• Receiving rapid and real-time response in both grading and assessment

• Obtaining comparative data that allows students to utilize self-assessment


• Gaining returns from the large technology fees paid by students

• Sensing accomplishment as simulations offer conclusions

• Gaining hands-on experience and a sense of real-life drama

• Completing peer- and self-evaluation tools that simplify grading

Educators find the ability to modify or create their own simulations as a true benefit of the changes in technology. In 2004, Pivec, Koubek, and Dondi offered Guidelines for Game-Based Learning. This helped tap the potential of simulations in the classroom. Reeves, Herrington, and Oliver (2002) noted that simulations provide real-world relevance, allow for complex tasks over a period of time, examine tasks from different perspectives, promote cooperation, cross different subject areas, and allow for competing and diverse solutions.

Many other sources provide information on both developing new simulations and modifying existing formats. In addressing simulations in the classroom, educators gain in many ways, such as:

• Utilizing cooperative learning as many simulations provide both individual and group input

• Receiving peer- and self-evaluation tools that simplify grading


• Legitimizing outcomes assessment for individuals, groups, classes, programs, and institutions

• Archiving comparative data ranging from the individual to the institution

• Offering an ability to implement and change variables for the sake of education

• Implementing hands-on experience but in a controlled environment

• Assessing outcomes data compiled by the simulation

• Gaining an objective method for grading

Having stated the advantages, some educators, however, are concerned that simulations rely too heavily on the results of the process and not on the students who create the decisions. Additionally, various educators are leery of a system that requests little faculty input in grading or outcomes assessment. Dekkers and Donatti (1981) suggest that prolonged use of simulations tends to wear off and have a detrimental effect on cognitive learning and retention. Additionally, simulations, purely as an instructional strategy, may not be more effective than some other teaching techniques in maximization of cognitive learning and retention.

Outcomes Assessment As institutional focus shifts to outcomes

assessment, simulations are seen as an effective tool in


combining a number of factors desired in assessment models. Such factors include instant results, access to information, and a simple way to compile data.

Institutions appreciate the opportunity to utilize external data (that which is created by sources outside of the organization). With most simulations, such data are generated throughout the duration of the game. Additionally, some systems analyze individual, group, course, and institutional results. Such data are compared to other students and institutions throughout the world, thus creating an elaborate assessment process. If the possibility of including longitudinal studies is thrown in, outcomes assessment experts become quite happy with the results.

With simulations, educators appreciate having learning take place while results are compiled and delivered quickly into the hands of the instructors. This permits educators to focus on learning while still providing for outcomes assessment to take place. Why not allow the technology to process both simulation results and outcomes assessment data?

As noted earlier, many simulations offer cloud computing where the data can be stored and compiled over a period of time. This pleases proponents of outcomes assessment who stress large amounts of data via longitudinal studies. As noted by Lombardi (2007), authentic learning (including simulation) allows for the generation of real data sets while contributing to the common knowledge base. Reeves, Herrington, and Oliver (2002) noted that authentic learning activities (including simulation) are seamlessly integrated with assessment. The integration allows for a system in which faculty members don’t compile results and can’t manipulate the data.


A Sample Simulation

A sample simulation that offers extensive outcomes assessment is the Business Strategy Game (2012). The simulation allows teams of 1-5 students compete in the athletic footwear industry by allowing students to make functional decisions pertaining to the company. As one of the most popular business simulations, Business Strategy Game touts itself as having class members run a company in head-to-head competition against companies managed by other class members while providing a truly powerful learning experience that thrusts class members squarely into an active, hands-on managerial role (Business Strategy Game, 2012). Hence, Business Strategy Game notes three important teaching/learning benefits—active, hands-on management, positive energy from the competition, and automation efficiencies for the faculty. According to Business Strategy Game (2012), the simulation generates a Learning Assurance Report that provides solid empirical data regarding the business skills and decision-making capabilities of students relative to other students who have completed the Business Strategy Game. The Learning Assurance Report offers credible evidence about the business proficiencies of students on the following measures: leadership skills, collaboration and teamwork, financial analysis, operations management, financial management, marketing management, human resources management, strategic planning and analysis, as well as corporate social responsibility

Business Strategy Game allows for generated reports analyzing individual results to others at the institution as well as the total population of all students who’ve participated in the game. In running the Learning Assurance Report for students at an institution which participated in the fall 2012 simulation, percentile rankings versus all simulation participants in the past 12 months


indicated 40,115 students operating 14,402 companies at 398 institutions in 31 countries throughout the world (Business Strategy Game, 2012).

Additionally, Business Strategy Game (2012) offers a Performance Benchmark Report by comparing teams at one institution to other teams that have completed in the past 12 months. Like the Learning Assurance Report, the Performance Benchmark Report offers school-specific, country-specific, and total population analysis (Business Strategy Game, 2012).

The Performance Benchmark Report offers comparative data on team performance in 6 measures including overall score, earnings per share, return on equity, stock price, credit rating, and image rating. Finally, Business Strategy Game offers individual and group assessment throughout the simulation via the team results offered during each decision period. Upon conclusion of the simulation, peer- and self-assessment allow for part of the grading rubric while offering closure for the simulation. Students tend to like the fairness of simulation grading that encompasses little faculty input!

Conclusions and Suggestions for Future Research

Given the tight budgets, improvements in technology, requirements for new methods of learning and demand for assessment, one could argue that now is the time to consider simulation as a tool for learning. Damassa and Sitko (2011) note the potential for simulation technologies cannot be overstated. Direct stakeholders (students, faculty, and institutions) stand to gain from the many benefits of using simulations in the classroom.

As noted by Cauthen and Halpin (2012), colleges will constantly implement innovative solutions to improve learning due to a number of factors such as tight budgets,


enhanced technology, and the need for better assessment. This implies that the many environmental factors have made it a perfect storm for using simulations. To move ahead, it is simply a matter of connecting simulations with various programs of study, touting the many benefits to stakeholders, taking advantage of the instructional technology spending, and empowering faculty to make simulations part of the classroom. Although many benefits have been noted for both students and educators, further research should look at alternatives to simulations. Additionally, specific cost factors (both direct and indirect) should be analyzed. Another area of consideration is the approach to outcomes assessment and some specific strategies for using simulations to satisfy the outcomes assessment process.

References

Business Strategy Game. (2012). Retrieved from www.bsg-

online.com. Cauthen, L., & Halpin, J. (2012). Technology innovations

in education. In J. Halpin and L. Cauthen (Eds.), Converge 2012 Yearbook (pp. 4-13). Folsom, CA: Converge.

Cohen, K. J., & Rhenman, E. (1961). The role of management games in education and research. Management Science, 7(2), 131-166

Damassa, D. A., & Sitko, T. D. (2010). Simulation technologies in higher education: Uses, trends, and implications. ECAR Research Bulletin 3. Boulder, CO: Educause Center for Applied Research.

Dekkers, J., & Donatti, S. (1981). The integration of research studies on the use of simulation as an instructional strategy. Journal of Educational Research, 74(6), 424-427


Lombardi, M. M. (2007, May). Authentic learning for the 21st century: An overview. Retrieved from www.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/ELI3009.pdf

Maran, N. J., & Glavin, R. J. (2003). Low- to high-fidelity simulation—a continuum of medical education? Medical Education, 37(1), 22-28.

Moore, A. H. (2007, July). The new economy: Technology and learning outcomes assessment. Educause review Online. Retrieved from www.educause.edu/ero/article/new-economy-technology-and-learning-outcomes-assessment

Pivec, M., Koebek, A. & Dondi, C. (2004). Guidelines for game-based learning. Lengerich, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany: Pabst Science Publishers.

Prensky, M. (2001). Digital game-based learning. Chicago, IL: McGraw-Hill.

Reeves, T. C., Herrington, J., & , Oliver, R. (2002, July). Authentic activities and online learning. Proceedings from HERDSA Conference, Perth, Australia.

Igniting Women’s Interest

in Science Related Post-Graduate Work

Christine Bezotte Susan Fontaine Elmira College

Introduction Young women undergraduates often do not see

graduate programs and careers as viable choices. This is especially significant in the sciences and STEM related fields where women who obtain graduate degrees are often in the minority. One issue is that they typically do not find the advanced classes and concepts relevant. The authors found that when young women are permitted to choose and experience science topics that they believe are significant in their lives they are more likely to see science as a viable career choice.

Combining popular media and primary literature better exposes young women to topics that lead to opportunities for graduate study and careers in science. Using classwork that demonstrates a connection between relevant women’s issues and current research has been found to pique interest in higher level education and careers. The authors have applied this methodology to a variety of major and non-major classes across disciplines through a variety of instructional techniques. The approach encourages student integration of concepts learned in ways that have scientific significance and continues to strengthen their interest in a graduate education. An outline of the exercise and the observed results will be presented and discussed.


Background Information

Many young people express an interest in science,

technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), but too few chose it as a major in college or postgraduate profession (Mangan, 2012; Tobias, 1990). The educational pipeline of student interest in the sciences shows a dramatic decline beginning as early as the middle school years with an even more precipitous drop in the later years of high school and the early years of college (Jones, Howe, & Rua, 2000; Mangan, 2012).

Women have been particularly “turned off” by the perceived extensive technical context and the lack of practical matter (Adler, 1993; Beardsley, 1992; Rosser, 2012). Most “science” curricula consist of sequences of seemingly unrelated biology, mathematics and chemistry courses. This arrangement not only deprives students of integrated learning, it also reduces the possibility of relating studies to real life situations (Alexander, 2006; National Research Council, 2006; Project Kaleidoscope, 2006; Rude, 2002; Vasquez, 2006; Zuk & O’Rourke, 2012).

Students showing the potential to become successful scientists often lose interest because they have not had the opportunity to experience the true nature of the professions or to explore career possibilities. Many almost never experience the diverse intellectual challenges associated with researching, understanding and developing the scientific process. This is even more evident and critical with women, where there is often little opportunity for exposure to practicing academic or industrial research scientists who can serve as professional role models and a perceived absence of encouragement (Chronicle of Higher Education, 2012b; Seymour & Hewitt, 1997).


Too often, faculty mistake lack of confidence and/or poor preparation for lack of intelligence and discount the student's potential for growth (Chronicle of Higher Education, 2012a). Confidence, assertiveness, and a support system of other women in STEM studies are some of the more important coping skills and strategies cited by women undergraduates who chose to “stick with” a STEM program (Chronicle of Higher Education, 2012a; Seymour & Hewitt, 1997). Early intervention projects establishing strong awareness and hands-on involvement does have a positive effect in promoting and sustaining interest in STEM disciplines (Curto & Bayer, 2005; Dyer, 2004). Engaging women students in interesting and relevant scientific concepts is an effective way to assist in their understanding of the benefits of selecting STEM related courses/majors as they advance through their college academic years.

Often for young women the decision to pursue a STEM major is based on three significant factors: 1) Are they prepared in math and the basic sciences?; 2) Do they possesses the analytical skills to critically evaluate issues?; and 3) Do they have the desire to pursue that discipline? (Chronicle of Higher Education, 2012b). In academia, young people are encouraged to follow their passions. Yet many perceive the current textbook concept of academia as uninteresting and irrelevant to their lives. Many of the young women see science and mathematics as book memorization and complex strings of numbers. Why would this interest anyone?—especially intelligent creative young women who want to make a difference in their world. In addition, undergraduate females have, in general, not had the exposure and encouragement in their high schools in STEM fields that their male counterparts do.

The question then becomes, How can faculty re-design classes to stimulate more interest in courses and research subjects relevant to STEM professions? This


paper will describe how the authors developed a means to excite young women’s interests in STEM subject matter and strengthen their desire to continue to pursue STEM disciplines in graduate school.

The objectives of the course design were to have young women students:

a. Demonstrate increased interest in scientific

issues related to women’s lives

b. Strengthen students’ ability to evaluate current scientific literature and discuss scientific principles

c. Design and carry out relevant experiments

d. Demonstrate understanding of materials through oral and written presentation

By addressing each of these objectives it was hoped

to achieve a positive influence in the academic choices that the young women in the classes might make.

Increasing Interest

Through Better Subject Choices In each class the authors reviewed the issues that

the young women typically chose as paper topics. The classes were populated by sophomore to senior level Biology, Chemistry and Nursing students. The courses were Microbiology, Genetics, Cell & Molecular Biology and Epidemiology. Each course had a laboratory or case study component [with formal report], review paper and presentation requirement. Many times it was noticed that the young women excelled in their subject matter if it related to issues that were relevant to them. When given the


choice of subject, their work and enthusiasm surpassed expectations. The women often chose subjects related to their bodies, children, relationships and social issues. How could this observation be capitalized on, while still engaging the students in rigorous science courses?

The authors posed the question, What if one aspect of the typical subject matter in the course was focused on issues that the students found relevant to their lives? To augment what the students were already doing, the authors chose to try this as a pilot study in each of the four classes. In microbiology the topic chosen was E. coli contamination in day care settings; in cell & molecular biology, breast cancer [development, progression and metastasis]; in epidemiology, breast cancer incidence and prevention; and in genetics, genetic links to autistic spectrum disorders.

Each instructor chosen topic was used as the major theme to delve into the particular subject matter to be covered. As an example, in microbiology, the study of E. coli contamination was examined while looking at “microbial control” and “host microbe interactions” [both topics typically covered in introductory microbiology courses].

Since the purpose was to stimulate continued interest in relevant topics, current media was reviewed to help provide subject matter. There is typically little to no shortage of excellent material available on the web or in print media. Among the rich sources were National Public Radio [NPR.org], Science News, Popular Science, Discover, Scientific American and national newspapers. Often both written and related video clips [courtesy of YouTube] were identified for viewing and stimulating class discussions. The goal was to use this first exposure to pique student interest.


Strengthen Analytical Skills Through Critical Evaluation of the Literature

Next, students were assigned readings of review

articles from science journals. Each review was specifically chosen to demonstrate the significant points being covered in class. The students now worked through very specific “guided” questions asking How? Why? When/Where? And what was or could be done?

In presenting the fundamental concepts of “how science is done,” it was found necessary to develop a specific series of exercises designed to walk students through each of the processes that scientists use in research. The quest was to develop a series of reading exercises designed to teach students what is really behind “the process of science.” The review papers provided a short, readable and relevant means to structure class lessons. For readily available sources, the site ELs Citable Reviews in the Life Sciences [http://els.net/WileyCDA] turned out to be one of the best as it has a good selection of peer reviewed review papers organized by subject matter.

The written and oral responses of the students were very good to excellent! Class participation was almost 80% as everyone wanted to get their opinions and ideas heard. Classes became more like research meetings. The culminating assignment was a “whole class” review of 1-2 primary literature articles. This assignment had a dual role of exposing students to current research and assisting them in writing their short literature review papers.

Many of the young women [and men] sought to expand aspects of the class work, choosing to explore more specific related primary research in later laboratory experiments. The exercises also showed the students how to efficiently utilize primary literature search engines and available scholarly resources at the home institution and professional society web sites. In this case, often the web


site Biomed Central [http://biomedcentral.org] proved the best as it is mostly open and free access for many full text research articles; alternatively Google Scholar was found to be both a help and a challenge.

Design and Conduct Relevant Experiments

The literature highlights the importance of

interaction and hands-on activities in the teaching of the sciences (Curto & Bayer, 2002). In particular, several studies underline the need to introduce collaborative research components in biology courses (Alexander, 2006; Saunders & Sievert, 2002).

In classes with a lab component a major assignment was to utilize teams to develop and conduct a 3-4 week research project that investigated a particular claim in the research. Having seriously examined the papers, students better understood the process of experimentation and its significance to the findings. They could then relate their new skills of how to read and understand a primary literature paper to the science behind the research.

The students met for research meetings to discuss proposed methodology, problems, results, and possible further directions. They had to show the extra effort to understand the principles behind the experimentation. In the end the students asked the question, then designed, executed and analyzed their results.

This exercise demonstrated the excitement, dedication and perseverance required for research. The exercise in reading, understanding and executing information and concepts found in the primary literature encouraged student integration of learned concepts in the sciences in ways that have relevant scientific significance. Since the young women chose the subjects and executed the experimental designs, they had ownership of their ideas and successes.


Demonstrate Understanding of Materials through Oral and Written Presentation

For all laboratory classes there was a rubric graded

written and oral presentation requirement of a formal laboratory report. In the classes without a laboratory component [Epidemiology] the professor adopted a critical review format assignment that effectively addressed student concept skills in evaluating a review paper (Elwood, 2007). The assignment addressed student understanding of the studies background information, methodology used, findings reported and [both] the authors’ and students’ interpretation of the findings.

Each approach challenged students to write and think technically and to present and defend orally their experimental findings, designs and results to their peers. Requiring students to identify and solve their own problems helps them to gain an appreciation of the process of science. The young women gain confidence in their experimental decisions, choices and results.

Results and Future Directions

From interactions in the classes and through

informal questionnaires, the authors found that young women appeared to find the subject matter more in tune to their thinking of what science should be. Three of these students expressed a strong interest in continuing to graduate school to pursue PhD’s. Some of the young women have sought out other professors to supervise research projects that are extensions of those they designed in the classes. All appear to have come away with a better understanding of the process people go through to answer questions through scientific methodology.

Though the authors had to give up time teaching text information, they found the approach outlined in this


paper to be well worth the effort. Student success in the courses indicated that the objectives were met.

In particular, the young women that were followed chose to continue their academic careers by applying to Graduate schools in STEM fields. They were able to demonstrate proficiency in the use of the scientific literature to develop and conduct experiments or conduct a critical analysis, and they demonstrated upper level skills in oral and written presentations.

It’s hoped these students will continue to use their newly developed skills, confidence and enthusiasm in future STEM classes, and that they will continue to be as successful in graduate and professional schools as they were in these undergraduate science classes.

The aim of this exercise was to strengthen young women’s interest in continuing their academic careers in the sciences; the authors believe that the exercise proved to be an effective way to accomplish this. The ability to engage young women’s interests to comprehend the primary literature, conduct a thorough investigation and accurately and professionally present the findings is an invaluable tool all students can acquire. However, it requires faculty to choose to take the time to act as professional mentors and teach them. Women choosing to continue their education in graduate schools become the well-educated and thoughtful scientists and leaders of tomorrow—certainly a major goal of science faculty.

References

Adler, J. (1993) The pipeline is leaking women all the way

along. Science, 16, 409. Alexander, B. (2006). Web 2.0: A new wave of innovation

for teaching and learning. EDUCAUSE Review, 41(2), 33-44.


Beardsley, T. (1992). Teaching real science. Scientific American, 267(4), 98.

Chronicle of Higher Education (2012a, October 26). Scholarly publishing’s gender gap. Retrieved from http//Chronicle.com

Chronicle of Higher Education (2012b, November 29). Why stem fields still don’t draw more women. Retrieved from http//Chronicle.com

Curto, K.. & Bayer, T. (2005). Writing and speaking to learn biology: An intesection of critical thinking and communication skills. Bioscene, 31(4), 11-19.

Dyer, S. K. (Ed.). (2004). Under the Microscope: A decade of gender equity projects in the sciences. Retrieved from www.aauw.org

Elwood, M. (2007) Critical appraisal of epidemiological studies and clinical trials (3rd ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Jones, G. M., Howe, A., & Rua, A. J. (1999) Gender differences in students experiences, interests, and attitudes toward science and scientists. Science Education, 84,180-192.

Mangan, K. (2012). Despite efforts to close the gender gaps, some disciplines remain lopsided. Retrieved from http//Chronicle.com/specialreports

National Research Council. (2006). America’s lab report: Investigations in high school science. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Retrieved from http://orsted.nap.edu/books/0309096715/html

Project Kaleidoscope. (2006). Report on reports II: Recommendations for urgent action: Transforming America’s scientific and techonological infrastructure. Retrieved from www.pkal.org/ documents/ReportOnReportsII.cfm

Rosser, S. V. (2002). More gender diversity will mean better science. Retrieved from http//Chronicle.com/ specialreports


Rude, R. (2002) The road to interest and curiosity; it begins with a deliberate choice. American Educator, 26(1), 39-40.

Saunders, D. K, & Sievert, L. M. (2002). Providing students the opportunity to think critically and creatively through student designed laboratory exercises. Bioscene, 28(3), 9-15.

Seymour, E., &. Hewitt, N. (1997). Talking about leaving: Why undergraduates leave the sciences. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Tobias. S. (1990). They're not dumb. they're different: Stalking the second tier. Tucson, AZ: Research Corporation.

Vazsquez, J. (2006). High school biology today: What the committee of ten did not anticipate. Cell Biology Education–Life Sciences Education, 5, 29-33.

Zuk, M., & O’Rourke, S. (2012, October 29). Is biology just another pink collar profession? Retrieved from http//Chronicle.com/specialreports

Teacher as Researcher:

One Teacher’s Journey of Change

Through Classroom Inquiry

Yakup Bilgili Florida State College at Jacksonville

Introduction

Many educational researchers (Fueyo & Koorland, 1997; Kelsay, 1991; Knight, Wiseman, & Cooner, 2000; Lovitt & Higgins, 1996; Lytle & Cochran-Smith, 1992) have identified an important gap between what is taught to teachers and what teachers teach when they enter the classroom. The solution to this gap is not clear-cut. Some empirical evidence, however, shows quite clearly that the answer to this gap lies in the term “teacher research,” which is defined by researchers (Clift, Veal, Johnson, & Holland, 1990; Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1990) as a systematic and intentional inquiry carried out by teachers to improve their own teaching practices.

One of the main reasons for this gap seems to come from a noticeable lack of putting practice and research together. Although teachers might be interested and motivated to implement strategies and close the gap between theory and practice in their own classes, various barriers make this difficult. Lovitt and Higgins (1996) indicated that the following prevent teachers from conducting classroom-based inquiry: 1) teachers do not read research journals; 2) they do not communicate with


researchers to improve their own practice; 3) they are not willing to be involved in the process of doing research beyond being told to “do it;” and 4) they are not commonly reinforced for involving new practices in their classroom settings.

In addition to the above there are other factors that prevent teachers from conducting classroom-based research. For instance, many teachers believe there is little or no relationship between teaching and research (Tawney & Gast, 1984) and some teachers think that research is beyond the understanding of classroom teachers (Gable & Rogers, 1987). Some also believe that most educational research is done by university professors who do not know much about real-life classrooms (Duckett, 1986). Teachers, therefore, are missing the classroom-based research opportunities to practice what they have learned with support and encouragement.

Teacher research or practical inquiry can be an effective way to overcome these barriers and help teachers to better understand their own learning contexts, practices and students, and thus enable them to improve their own practices (Richardson, 1994). Although teachers face mystiques and misconceptions in their approach to becoming involved in conducting classroom-based research, it is believed that such research is a valuable tool for teachers in finding better ways to teach and become a teacher as learner, rather than a teacher as transmitter.

The purpose of this study was to explore the effects of teacher research and how it could help to increase students’ time on task by targeting and rewarding positive behavior. This study focused on how one teacher practiced teacher research in her classroom to increase student time on-task and how this provided insight on how change in practice can improve student behavior.


Theoretical Framework Over the past two decades, “teacher research” has

come to the attention of many teacher-educators. Many researchers indicate that there is a serious gap in the field of education between what is taught to prospective teachers regarding most effective practices of teaching and how teachers actually teach when they actively engage in the classroom. Fueyo and Neves (1995) proposed that this gap can be eliminated if an inquiry-oriented teaching approach is adapted in pre-service teacher education programs, and if prospective teachers are introduced to the notion of conducting field-related teacher research as early as possible.

What actually is teacher research? Teacher research is a systematic process of inquiry, usually conducted by teachers in a school environment, which is done for the purpose of improving student learning (Bilgili, 2004; Fueyo & Koorland, 1997; Hopkins, 1993; Kelsay, 1991; Knight, Wiseman, & Cooner, 2000). Teacher research can be also defined as a “systematic and intentional inquiry carried out by teachers” (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1992).

Even though teacher research has roots in Dewey’s philosophy of education, it is a relatively recent educational genre, and the concept of teacher research can be considered as a reform in teacher education. It provides a new role to the teacher as an active researcher rather than the traditional notion of the teacher as only the dispenser of knowledge (Hopkins, 1993).

Fueyo and Koorland (1997) asserted that when teacher research methodology was used with pre-service teachers, they were able to make more informed decisions about their teaching, viewed themselves as problem solvers and more importantly worked to change the environment in which they taught. Their findings indicated that the teacher


as researcher approach provided a new role to the teacher, who could then approach problems that emerge in the classroom with more professional understanding and research skills.

By giving teachers a new role as teacher-researcher, teachers can put theory into practice, enabling them to grow professionally. In this light, teacher research can be considered as a path to empowerment for classroom teachers.

Furthermore, teacher research has the potential to allow teachers to self-evaluate themselves and move beyond the traditional notions of teaching by taking risks and responsibilities in their own teaching, and to give them a chance to find out for themselves what practices will work best for their students. Cochron-Smith and Lytle (1990) indicated that if teachers adapt to being teacher-researchers they are more likely to view themselves as generators of knowledge, improve their curriculum and collaborate with other colleagues to create collective knowledge that would be useful to their particular environment.

Over the years, several terms for teacher research have been used, including practitioner research, practical inquiry, classroom inquiry, teacher-centered inquiry and interactive research. Although these terms may have somewhat different implications, they all indicate that the teacher-researcher is an active generator of theory and research findings rather than just a consumer of it.

Teacher research offers many opportunities for growth and empowerment for teachers to the development of self-assurance in their own teaching. Teacher research is therefore growing in popularity as an effective means of including teachers’ voices in the community that produces knowledge about effective classroom practices.

Being a teacher as researcher endows many responsibilities for teachers because the concept of teacher


as researcher can interrupt traditional understanding attributed to teachers. It is necessary that teachers as researchers need to both observe and analyze their actions and course of direction because of their subsequent impact on students.

Teacher-researchers must make informed decisions about the choices they make and the choices they present to themselves and their students. They need to solve their own classroom-based problems through evidence-based decisions. This undoubtedly requires the teacher-researcher to be a risk taker and to be able to accept failure as a part of the learning experience. As each teacher researcher learns to understand and accept failure, s/he must then ask questions as to why the failure occurred, and systematically try to find answers to these questions (Fueyo & Coorland, 1997).

The teacher-researcher also needs to know what is going on in the classroom. S/he must observe classroom events and ask systematic questions to collect data about the specific situation so that s/he can find the solution.

By observing the classroom, identifying a problem, reviewing the literature, dealing with the problem, developing one or more research hypotheses or questions related to the problem, collecting data, analyzing the data and interpreting the results of the research, teachers as researchers learn more and improve their professional knowledge and skills on their own. In reviewing the literature, it is clear that the core idea for teachers in conducting classroom-based research is to gain practical knowledge and change their own practices (Calhoun, 2002; Cardelle-Elawar, 1993; Cochran-Smith, & Lytle, 1990; Corey, 1954; Dana, 1995; Feldman, 1998; Johnson, 1995; Kelsay, 1992; Oja, & Pine, 1987; Rudduck, 1985; Watts, 1985). However, in addition, these teachers ultimately also work collaboratively with other professionals such as


university professors and co-workers to share their knowledge, skills and experience.

The Study

Purpose

The purpose of the study was to explore the effects

of teacher research on increasing first grade students’ time-on-task by targeting and rewarding positive behavior. Since the teacher is the core component of any educational institution, this study sought to explore one component of educational reform that many researchers think will bridge the gap between research and practice—improve the teacher’s knowledge and understanding of her/his own practice, and thereby improve the nature of teaching. This study specifically focused on examining whether teacher research can help develop the implementation of a program that targets and rewards positive behavior, increasing individual students’ time-on-task and thereby increasing class percentage of time-on-task. Rationale Historically, any change in the educational arena that is imposed by outsiders (e.g., policy makers, university professors) rather than insiders (classroom teachers) brings change in the classroom that has not been fully successful (Richardson, 1990). Although researchers recently have studied change initiated from within the classroom environment (Miller, 1990), these studies are few in number. Therefore, this study adds to the growing body of literature on the teacher as researcher and teacher change. Teacher research has the potential to play a significant role in the enhanced professionalization of teaching because when teachers are engaged in inquiry and


in the process of being a teacher researcher, they experience new dimensions of awareness in the development of their own professional knowledge. Teacher research is a vessel for educational reform and professional development because as Kelsay (1992) stated “entering into the role of teacher researcher implies changing one’s metaphor from ‘teacher as giver of knowledge’ to ‘teacher as learner’” (p.18). Once the inquiry begins in classroom settings, the teacher observes and analyzes her/his plans and actions and their subsequent impact on the students s/he teaches.

In order for teachers as researchers to understand their own practices and their own students’ classroom behaviors, they need to make informed decisions about what to change and what not to change. Teachers as researchers ask important questions and systematically try to find answers. They observe and monitor themselves and their students while participating in the teaching and learning process. They question instructional practices and student outcomes. They make data-based decisions, thus validating their practice. They implement change (Fueyo & Neves, 1995). Limitations

This teacher research study was limited to one first grade teacher in an elementary school. Characteristics such as teacher efficacy, enthusiasm, knowledge of research, years of experience in teaching, and previous knowledge of classroom-based research and attitudes towards research could have influenced how effectively the study was conducted. Although the author acted as a guide to the classroom teacher by discussing the phases of the research, the teacher was the main decision maker throughout the process. A significant limitation might be the involvement of the author as a guide in this process of teacher research.


Methods and Procedures This case study was conducted in a first grade

elementary school in the Northwest rural area of Florida. The school is predominantly multicultural and has been identified as a “D” school. Twenty students in a first grade classroom participated in this study (13 girls and 7 boys). One-fourth of the class was African American, approximately one-fourth was Caucasian and the remaining half was Hispanic/Mexican. This six-week case study was implemented during the first semester of the school year. The study was a teacher research project in which the author provided help to the teacher in her first experience in conducting teacher research.

Guidelines were followed for conducting teacher research that were proposed by Knight, Wiseman, and Cooner (2000) and Fueyo and Koorland, (1997). The author initially observed the classroom and discussed the observations with the teacher in order to identify a common problem that the teacher wished to address.

After the teacher expressed her concerns about classroom management issues, the author decided to help by observing the class to see the students’ on-task and off-task behavior in the classroom. This provided the author an opportunity to collect preliminary data on such behavior and also helped him determine whether or not off-task behavior was a perceived problem or a real problem in the classroom. To collect data about these behaviors, the author used a seating chart and observed each student for ten 10-minute intervals, and marked each student as being on-task (+) or off-task (-).

In this study, on-task behavior was defined as a global measure of the extent to which students met classroom expectations. On-task behavior for students was marked if for the entire 10-minute interval the student was looking at the teacher, materials, or partner, using correct


materials, engaging in learning with material presented, participating in any activity pertaining to the task such as writing, reading, getting materials, preparing materials, following instructions and completion of assignments and following directions given by the teacher.

Examples of on-task behavior included appropriately using tools such as pencil or pen to complete tasks, getting textbooks or paper when assigned work, responding verbally to questions or raising hands to get attention or participate in class, actively participating in group problem-solving activities, or engaging in any other behavior that appeared to be in line with what had been assigned by the classroom teacher.

Off-task behavior was defined as any behavior that displayed disengagement with the material presented. For example, off-task behavior was marked when students were physically bothering other pupils, working at other tasks, tapping pencils on the desk, wandering around, talking to neighbors, or calling out for any part of the interval. The data were collected by the author by using an observational sheet. Each box in the observation sheet was made up of ten smaller units which represented a single student. The author initially determined if the students were on or off-task.

After one week of observation the author concluded that 50% of the students were consistently off-task at a given time. After discussing this preliminary data finding with the teacher, the teacher indicated that this percentage was excessive and could be interfering with students’ learning. With this preliminary data, the teacher and author together developed an implementation program to increase student time on-task by targeting and rewarding positive behavior.

The implementation of this program was a multiple-baseline design (Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968) in which the program was implemented in phases according to observed


behavior. The implementation program was made up of three phases. The first phase was the preliminary data collected with no treatment. The second phase consisted of the implementation of the behavior management program according to observed behavior to establish standards. In the third phase, students were observed for time on-task with an increase in student percentage on time on-task that correlated with the behavior management program.

Since the preliminary data showed that students in the classroom had an overall percentage of time on-task around 50%, in the second phase of the study students were given a star for each 10-minute interval in which they were on-task 50% of the time. Being on-task this percentage of the time was taken as a baseline for the implementation phase to reinforce positive behavior and set a standard for the students.

Before the implementation, the teacher explained to the students how the behavior management program worked. If the student earned 4 stars for the 40-minute interval, they would receive 5 minutes of reward time immediately after the 40-minute interval. In order for students to observe their progress, earned stars were placed on a laminated student packet chart in the classroom. Reward time included such things as arts and crafts, coloring, drawing and playing games on the computer.

Later, class on-task percentages for 40-minute observation were graphed. Once the students’ behavior increased above fifty- percent for a sustained period of time for 5- 6 observations, another phase was implemented.

The third phase, a continuation of the second phase, was implemented after the author and the teacher observed the sustained increase in on-task behavior. In this phase students were still expected to earn 4 stars. The stars in this phase, however, were not as easy to earn because the required percentage of time on-task during the 10-minute interval increased as a function of observed student


behavior. Thus, the students only earned a star if s/he showed an increase above 65% of on-task time. Once the students’ time on-task was increased above 65%, students’ successes were rewarded immediately.

Results The data collected indicated that the overall

percentage of students’ time-on-task increased due to the implementation of behavior management program. To illustrate, during the first phase of implementation, students’ overall percentage of time-on-task was about 50% (Figure 1).

Figure 1 Intervals on-task during the Phase I of the study

However, during the first observation of the second

PHASE I: No Treatment

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However, during the first observation of the second phase it was seen that students’ overall percentage of time on-task increased to 55% (Figure 2). Figure 2 Intervals on-task during the Phase II of the study

When students were observed on the third day of When students were observed on the third day of

implementation, their percentage of time-on-task increased to 62%. Students’ overall on-task behavior was at 65% on the fourth and fifth days. Students’ on-task behavior slightly increased day by day.

In order to reach a sustained increase of students’ time-on-task, the second phase was prolonged to include an increase in positive behavior in time-on-task. During these

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subsequent phases of implementation of the behavior management program, students’ overall percentage of time-on-task increased significantly. In the third phase of the implementation it was observed that student time-on-task increased to an overall 70% (Figure 3).

Figure 3 Intervals on-task during the Phase III of the study

From the results of the teacher research study

conducted, it appeared that the implementation of the behavior management program did increase the percentage of students’ time-on-task. As a result, the hypothesis that the implementation of the behavior management program

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would increase the percentage of students’ on-task behavior at a given time was supported.

Conclusions The concept of teacher as researcher is important

because teachers conducting classroom-based research not only validate their practice and take control of their classrooms, they also critically evaluate their curriculum and practice. Teacher research adds a unique and significant contribution to the body of professional knowledge.

Teachers can help maintain current professional knowledge, inquiry, methods and materials if they become teachers as researchers. The concept of teacher research has brought a new genre and perspective for the teaching profession. Teacher research thus has the potential power to maximize both teacher effectiveness and student learning. In short, as Bissex and Bullock (1987) put it, “doing classroom research changes teachers and the teaching profession from the inside out, from the bottom up, through changes in teachers themselves. And therein lies its power” (p.27).

References

Baer, D. M., Wolf, M. M., & Risley, T. R. (1968). Some

current dimensions of applied behavior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 91-97.

Bilgili, Y. (2004). The teachers’ process of change through action research. Retrieved from http://diginole. lib.fsu.edu/etd/3763

Bissex, G., & Bullock, R. (1987). Seeing for ourselves: Case study research by teachers of writing. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.


Calhoun, E. (2002). Action research for school improvement. Educational Leadership, 59(6), 18-24.

Cardelle-Elawar, M. (1993). The teacher as researcher in the classroom. Action in Teacher Education, 5(1), 49-57.

Clift, R., Veal, M. L., Johnson, M., & Holland, P. (1990). Restructuring teacher education through collaborative action research. Journal of Teacher Education, 41(2), 52- 56.

Cochran-Smith, M., & Lytle, S. (1990). Research on teaching and teacher research: The issues that divide. Educational Researcher, 19(2), 2-11.

Cochran-Smith, M., & Lytle, S. (1992). Communities for teacher research: Fringe or forefront. American Journal of Education, 100, 298-324.

Corey, S. M. (1954). Action research in education. Journal of Educational Research, 47, 375-380.

Dana, N. F. (1995). Action research, school change, and the silencing of teacher voice. Action in Teacher Education, 16(4), 59-70.

Duckett, W. (1986). The adventures of education in wonderland: Implementing education reform. Phi Delta Kappan, 68, 496-502.

Feldman, A. (1998). Implementing and assessing the power of conversation in the teaching of action research. Teacher Education Quarterly, 25(2), 27-42.

Fueyo, V., & Koorland, M. (1997). Teacher as researcher: A synonym for professionalism. Journal of Teacher Education, 48(5), 336-344.

Fueyo, V., & Neves, A. (1995). Preservice teacher as researcher: A research context for change in the heterogeneous classroom. Action in Teacher Education, 16(4), 39- 49.

Gable, R., & Rogers, V. (1987). Taking the terror out of research. Phi Delta Kappan, 68, 690-695.


Johnson, B. M. (1995). Why conduct action research? Teaching and Change, 3(1), 90-105.

Hopkins, D. (1993). A teacher’s guide to classroom research (3rd. ed.). Buckingham, England: Open University Press.

Kelsay, K. L. (1991). When experience is the best teacher: The teacher as researcher. Action in Teacher Education, 13(1), 14-21.

Kelsay, K. L. (1992). Teacher as researcher: Setting the stage for a new role. Florida Journal of Education-al Research, 32(1), 16-26.

Knight, S. L., Wiseman, D. L., & Cooner, D. (2000). Using collaborative teacher research to determine the impact of professional development school activities on elementary student’s math and writing outcomes. Journal of Teacher Education, 51(1), 26-38.

Lovitt, T., & Higgins, A. (1996). The gap: Research into practice. Teaching Exceptional Children, 28(2), 64-68.

Lytle, S., & Cochran-Smith, M. (1992). Teacher research as a way of knowing. Harvard Educational Review, 62(4), 447-474.

Miller, J. L. (1990). Creating spaces and finding voices: Teachers collaborating for empowerment. Albany, N Y: State University of New York Press.

Oja, S., & Pine, G. (1987). Collaborative action research: Teachers’ stages of development and school contexts. Peabody Journal of Education, 64(2), 96-115.

Richardson, V. (1990). Significant and worthwhile change in teaching practice. Educational Researcher, 19(7), 10-18.

Richardson, V. (1994). Conducting research on practice. Educational Researcher, 23(5), 5-10.


Rudduck, J. (1985). Teacher research and research-based teacher education. Journal of Education for

Teaching, 11(3), 281-289. Tawney, J. W., & Gast, D. L. (1984). Single subject

research in special education. Columbus, OH: Merrill.

Watts, H. (1985). When teachers are researchers, teaching improves. Journal of Staff Development, 6(2), 118-127.

75

The Opportunity Cost of Withdrawing

from an Academic Course

Augustine A. Boakye Essex County College

Introduction

The rate at which students drop courses at the college and university level is alarming (Brown, 2012; McKenzie, 2005). Students underestimate the rigor of college work and when realities are confronted, too often quit because they find coping difficult. While some students register for courses to enable them to claim refunds from financial aid (a source of revenue), others follow their peers to college to enjoy their social company without having information about the cost involved in their actions. Similarly, people who are out of work and are looking for places to spend time or are required by the government to go to college in order to qualify for certain welfare benefits, form some components of current student bodies. Some members of these groups jump from course to course because they have no definitive academic plan.

Unfortunately, the primary reasons that account for frequent course withdrawals are not clear to many professors and academic administrators, and so they act on speculation or partial information. And those who have some form of knowledge about the reasons for withdrawals sometimes tend to do little to help reduce this problem. In some cases, there is lack of genuine institutional (from both professors and administrators) commitment to help the ‘at risk students’ (Edwards, Cangemi, & Kowalski, 1990).


Also, at times institutions fail to help eventual dropouts develop the knowledge needed to help them stay focused (Cangemi & Kowalski, 1983).

The fact that most students make withdrawal decisions without proper counsel/advisement or that the institutions provide inadequate information to guide them with these decisions indicates that both the students and the institutions fail to recognize the opportunity cost of course withdrawal, which could significantly affect decision making. The opportunity cost concept, in essence, allows individuals or institutions to properly assess the true cost (both explicit and implicit) of each course in which a student withdraws (Montgomery & Powell, 2006). Even in the case where a student withdraws from a course after a few days and receives a full refund of tuition and fees, there is a true cost to the student and the institution which should not be ignored by the individuals, the institutions or society as a whole.

The primary purposes of the study reported in this paper were as follows: 1) to investigate the speculations of professors and administrators as to why many students withdraw from courses and to identify major reasons that account for course withdrawals and incompletions at the college level; 2) to help unveil the hidden cost of course withdrawal to the student, the institution and society as a whole, using the opportunity cost concept; and 3) to suggest steps toward improving student retention in courses and completion of degrees.

Background Information Many studies have focused on the causes, effects

and recommendations of students completely dropping out of academic institutions (Hoyt & Winn, 2004), as opposed to withdrawing from one or two courses while pursuing a program. However, it may be easier to examine the issue of


students dropping out of institutions or academic programs by first identifying and understanding the reasons for withdrawals from individual courses.

Similarly, scholarly studies have focused on the impact of rising costs of tuition on enrollment in higher education. Leslie and Brinkman (1987) using a ‘student price response co-efficient’ (SPRC) concluded that increase in tuition cost is inversely related to enrollment. This conclusion has been confirmed by other contributors such St. John & Starkey (1990) and Kane (1995). Following the “student price response” concept, Heller (1997), Kane (2003), Avery & Hoxby (2004), Chen & Desjardins (2010), and Kim (2010) added that financial aid (Pell grants) affect enrollment positively.

Unlike the above studies that either focus on students’ ‘enrollment’ or ‘complete dropouts from academic institution,’ the study reported in this paper assesses students’ withdrawals from individual courses at the higher education level. Reasons for Course Withdrawals

Among others, the key reasons for frequent course

withdrawals at the college and university level include the following: work-related problems, fear of getting an ‘F’ grade, inadequate preparations for study, dislike of class, low self-motivation, too much workload, health issues, dissatisfaction with a professor’s approach, dislike of course content, financial problems, family and friends’ interventions, incorrect course registrations, relocations, and other personal tragedies (Chen & Desjardins, 2010; Friedlander, 1981; Melnikova, Williams, Pitts, & Kamery, 2003). Also, weak institutional organization combined with inadequate orientation, assessment, curriculum development and student support contributes to student attrition (Crosling, Heagney, & Thomas, 2009).


Listed above are the primary reasons for which many students quit their respective courses. The secondary reason that students withdraw from their courses is the poor assessment or neglect of the opportunity cost of withdrawing from a course, which, if students were fully aware of, could help them make better, more well-informed decisions.

What exactly is opportunity cost and how can it be applied in this analysis? The term ‘opportunity cost’ refers to “what you must give up in order to get an item you want” (Krugman & Wells, 2009, p. 7)—thus the next best alternative that is sacrificed or forgone in order to satisfy a particular need or desire.

As an example, an individual can use an hour to work and earn money. If the person decides to instead use this hour for academic studies, s/he loses the opportunity to work and, hence, the accompanying hourly wage. In this case, the opportunity cost of studying is the work experience and dollars lost by not working for that hour.

For every decision made that involves some form of resources including money and time, there are always some alternatives that have to be sacrificed. These alternatives are referred to as opportunity cost. Though the concept of opportunity cost is very important in decision making, many tend to neglect it because they fail to consider the alternatives that are displaced after each choice is made.

According to Frederick, Novemsky, Wang, Dhar, & Nowlis (2009), “…people focus only on explicitly presented details and fail to spontaneously ‘fill in’ the logical consequence of a choice or judgment [which] suggests that opportunity costs are likely to be neglected...” (p. 554). This reinforces the notion that people ignore information that remains implicit but are able to recognize its relevance when the choice is framed in a more explicit manner (Frederick et al., 2009).


In this respect, if people are not guided to identify alternatives from which they can choose with their limited recourses, they are unable to make improved or optimal choices. Since course withdrawals appear to be primarily linked to personal reasons, designing a framework that can essentially guide students in the decision making process can help the individuals reduce the extent to which opportunity cost is neglected. The fact that best decision making offers incentives supports the notion that recognition of opportunity cost can lead to better choices made through comparison of available alternatives. Effects and Cost of Course Withdrawal

On the part of students, it is obvious that time as a

resource is wasted whenever a course is dropped. Unfortunately, the opportunity cost of time is not considered as much as that of actual money and, hence, people do not easily recognize the seriousness of wasted time (Okada & Hoch, 2004; Zauberman & Lynch, 2005).

Melnikova et al. (2003) categorizes this wasting of time into short and long run effects. In the short run, a student can use time to pursue a different course or to devote more concentration to her/his other current courses.

In the long run, course withdrawal prolongs the time to stay in school and delays the timeline established to achieve personal goals. In addition, money is wasted paying for another semester in which the withdrawn course must be retaken. Furthermore, spending more time in school leads to more forgone salary and may also increase students’ post-college debt. For international students, frequent course withdrawal can hurt their legal status in the country of study. Course withdrawals, though often pursued to relieve stress and academic pressure, ironically leave many students with psychological and emotional stress.


Though this paper places attention mainly on the cost of course withdrawal to students, institutions and society as a whole also suffer multiple loss whenever students withdraw from courses. On the part of the institution, frequent course withdrawals lead to loss of reputation (reflecting institutional quality), waste of resources, increase in budget deficit due to increase in average cost of training a student, and potentially reduce the institution’ opportunities for state and federal funding (Friedlander, 1981; Melnikova et al., 2003).

On the part of society, course withdrawals, as far as they prolong students’ time of study in college, lead to misallocation as well as waste of society’s scarce resources (especially in the case of publicly-funded institutions). They also lead to the reduction of active labor force, loss of potential knowledge and skills (Crosling et al., 2009) loss of national income, and finally, disappointments to supportive families.

The Study Overview

The study attempted to provide further evidence concerning the following questions: 1) What are the leading factors that drive students to withdraw from academic courses? 2) Does absenteeism have a negative effect on students’ interest--and is there any link between absenteeism and course withdrawal? 3) Does ‘free’ education serve as incentive (or encouragement) to course withdrawal? and 4) Do students enrolled at 2-year colleges withdraw from courses more often than those studying at 4-year colleges and universities?

The study collected data both from the research literature and from students enrolled at seven colleges in the New Jersey area. It used a simple model to estimate the true cost (explicit and implicit) of course withdrawals.


Procedures From the literature and the researcher’s own

preliminary studies, several key factors were found to lead to college course withdrawals. In order to investigate the degree to which each of the factors affects current students, questionnaires were distributed to random students enrolled at the seven institutions in order for them to identify the most pressing factors that drive/drove them to withdraw from academic courses. To ensure equal chances of population sampling, students at each institution were randomly approached on campus at different times and days in their study areas, classrooms, libraries and cafeterias to complete the survey. In all, approximately 1300 questionnaires were given to students, and 1, 205 completed and returned the survey.

Demographically, most of the survey participants were African Americans from relatively low income backgrounds. They were at different level of studies (freshmen through seniors). Results

Of the 1,205 students who completed and handed in

the survey, 564 (47% of the sample) acknowledged withdrawing from courses at least once. Among the 564 students who confirmed that they had withdrawn from courses, 55% had withdrawn just once, 30% had withdrawn two times, 10% had withdrawn three times, 2% had withdrawn four times, and 3% had withdrawn more than four times. Though the participants were at different levels of their studies (e.g., freshmen to seniors were surveyed), the results indicate that a large portion of students are likely to withdraw from courses at least once during their college studies.

As indicated earlier, the study collected data to answer four key questions. The four questions are


presented belong along with the remaining findings from the study.

What are the Leading Factors that drive Students to Withdraw from Academic Courses?

As for the reasons they identified for course withdrawals, 4% indicated family and friends’ interventions; 7% indicated self demotivation; 7% indicated personal tragedy; 10% indicated wrong course registration; 11% indicated financial problem; 12% indicated work-related problem; 21% indicated dissatisfaction with the professor's approach to the course; and 29% indicated they did not want an ‘F’ grade. Figure 1 below provides a graphical report of these findings.

Figure 1 Causes of Academic Course withdrawals

Contrary to other studies (see Friedlander, 1981), which have linked course withdrawal (attrition) mainly to work-related problems, this study did not confirm such findings. Critically analyzing the collected survey response data leads to the realization that issues such as financial

Figure 1: Causes of Academic Course Withdrawals

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difficulties (as found to be a main reason for withdrawal by Baksh & Hoyt, 2001), personal tragedy, and/or work-related problems appeared not to be the leading causes of course withdrawals. Rather, dissatisfaction with the professors’ approaches of handling courses and students’ own low self-esteem and fear of failing (did not want an ‘F’ grade) were the most popular indicated reasons for course withdrawals.

Twenty-one percent of survey respondents who had previously withdrawn from courses, attributed their actions to professors’ poor approaches of handling courses. Though Garza & Landeck (2004) did not associate students at risk of dropping class to professors’ performance, the data from this study shows the need for professors to reconsider their teaching methods or approaches and techniques of handling each course they are instructing.

But can we assign such blame to all professors? Obviously not. Many students underestimate the expectations and requirements of college-level courses and enroll in courses for which they are unprepared, but nevertheless wish to pass with a high grade. Hence, when they realize the challenges of the course, they drop the course to quell the fear of failing.

In this respect, students need to be reminded that if they quit they don’t win, and that another option to failing the course is positive attitude, including self-reorganization and hard-work to develop self-motivation and improve course average. Students need to understand that self-motivation means believing they are capable of ‘making it.’ Also, professors need to be involved and committed to building better futures and fostering the development of better personal outlooks for their individual students—the very people they are entrusted to guide and develop academically.


Does Absenteeism Have a Negative Effect on Students’ Interest—and is there Any Link between Absenteeism and Course Withdrawal?

This study provides evidence that absenteeism is

positively related to course withdrawal. Absenteeism affects students’ interest in the course and, often when they are unable to catch up with missed course material/content, they quit. However, being absent from class alone is not the main issue; rather, it is the frequency, of absences and the availability of support to make-up missed work. These factors (frequency of absences and the make-up of missed material/content support) appear to significantly impact the degree to which absenteeism leads to course withdrawal.

It was found in the study that students who absent themselves from class once or twice a semester are more likely to complete the course than those who are absent three times or more. While 45% of those who missed class once or twice withdrew from their course(s), 63% of those who missed three or more classes withdrew.

Furthermore, the availability of support either with the help of a professor, a tutor, or a fellow student to make-up missed work, apparently impacted the decision to withdraw from the course as well. This study showed that course withdrawal rate increased from 45% to 52% for students with one or two absences who had no make-up work support, while the rate for those with three or more absences without support to make-up missed work increased from 63% to 69%. Interestingly, the rate of those with three or more absences but had support to make-up missed work fell from 63% to 61%.


Does ‘Free’ Education Serve as Incentive (or Encouragement) to Course Withdrawal?

The study found that increasing cost led to a lower

course withdrawal rate. This implies that the higher the out-of-pocket cost of tuition and fees, the lower the course withdrawal rate is likely to be. The data reveal that 51% of students who have financial aid or full-tuition and fee waivers—either through government or private organizations—are likely to withdraw from a course in which they are enrolled, while 47% of students paying the in-county rate of tuition and fees or those who are granted partial scholarships are likely to withdraw from a course. Finally, only 43% of international students or out-of-state/out-of-county students who pay higher tuition and fees are likely to withdraw from a course.

The above data indicates that irrespective of all other factors discussed, the higher the out-of-pocket cost of a course to a student, the lower the course withdrawal rate. In other words, students who depend on external sources such as financial aid to pay their tuition and fees are more likely to withdraw from a course—perhaps because they perceive that they lose nothing by withdrawing.

Montgomery and Powell (2006) arrived at a similar conclusion that “Lowering opportunity cost appears to substantially improve the likelihood of obtaining a degree…” (p. 195), and that is what this study found. Do Students Enrolled at 2-year Colleges Withdraw from Courses More Often than Those Studying at 4-year Colleges and Universities?

To determine if course withdrawal is more common

in 2-year colleges (Community Colleges), this study divided the 2-year and 4-year colleges into two groups and determined what percentages of students from both groups


withdrew from courses. Of the 870 students enrolled at 2-year colleges who responded to the questionnaire, 411 (47%) had withdrawn from courses at least once. Surprisingly, the course withdrawal rate from the 4-year colleges and university students was very similar. Of the 335 survey respondents in this category, 153 (46%) had withdrawn from a course at least once. Thus, at least in this study, course withdrawal rate at 2-year colleges did not appear to be significantly different from that at 4-year institutions.

A Model

In order to help estimate the true cost of course

withdrawal, a model was developed which captured the variables relevant to the cost of taking a college course. Though not a comprehensive method, the model is based on financial factors not always considered (but not including stress and other psychological variables), and is designed to help students identify financial components they might not include in their cost analysis. The model takes into account the following factors:

• cost of books

• cost of transportation to and from school for x

weeks

• the cost of clothes (or uniform) for school purposes per semester

• the cost of other school-related expenses throughout x weeks

• the student’s average hourly wage


• the number of hours spent on the course per week multiplied by the x weeks in the semester

• the number of course credit hours

• the number of weeks spent on the course

Using the above model, the researcher was able to generate figures to estimate the opportunity cost when considering only the economic or measurable cost. For example, for a 3-credit hour course, it’s assumed a student spends an extra 3 hours of private study time each week. This means that if the net tuition and fees for the 3-credit course is estimated to be $450; the cost of books estimated to be $200; the cost of transportation per week to be $15; the cost of clothing to be $100; the cost of other school-related materials to be $20 and the student’s hourly wage to be $10; then the average cost of withdrawing from a 3-credit course after the first week will be $845.

The above variables can be modified as appropriate to a given situation. The important thing is that students and others concerned realize that all of these cost factors need to be considered as components of decisions involving withdrawals from classes.

Summary and Conclusions Though people enroll in courses at colleges and

universities with the hope of completing their various academic programs as scheduled, this goal is too often not realized due to the high rate of course withdrawal. Some of the reasons for course withdrawals are institutional in nature, while, others are beyond the jurisdiction of the institution.

The purpose of the study reported in this paper was to illustrate the opportunity cost of course withdrawal at the


higher-education level. This study found that, though financial problems, work-related issues and other personal circumstances may lead to course withdrawals, dissatisfaction with the professor’s approach and fear of failing (getting an ‘F’ grade) were the paramount factors that contributed to student course withdrawals. Since students and institutions often fail to estimate true opportunity costs of withdrawing, both parties are hindered in decision making—particularly regarding the circumstances under which students should withdraw from courses.

In this study, the researcher used a model to illustrate that the opportunity cost of withdrawing from a course to the student, the institution and the society is extremely higher than many may estimate. Therefore, it is hoped that by identifying the factors comprising the model that this may serve as a guide to students and institutions in working collaboratively to reduce this problem. Marginal analysis, which involves the comparison of marginal (additional) benefits and marginal costs, (McConnell, Brue, & Flynn, 2012), could be best used in decision making when the true cost and benefits are well known or can be reliably estimated.

Overall in regard to colleges and universities, the following steps are recommended as possible remedies to reduce course withdrawals and increase retention (Friedlander, 1981):

• Introduce testing and placement to ensure that

each student is placed appropriately as per her/his capabilities

• Establish student support programs and services

(such as Freshmen Seminar or College Success Seminar) to guide students into and successfully out of courses


• Establish early intervention programs that provide appropriate support to students (see Cassidy & Bates, 2005)

• Establish withdrawal procedures that involve students, instructors and counselors

• Promote better course instruction at all levels and at all times

• Establish rewards for students who are able to complete the degree on time.

When a student quits a course or withdraws from

the college or university, no one wins. For students, better preparation and establishing and maintaining positive attitudes and behaviors are the best student steps to better grades and academic performance.

Professors also need to be aware of their role in in handling and coordinating each course they teach. Providing motivation and guidance to students, rather than threats and demoralization, will improve retention and student success. And finally, institutions need to provide better and more rewarding rules and regulations, programs and facilities to help curtail course withdrawals. A genuine commitment is needed from students, professors and institutions to help increase retention in courses and degree completions.

References

Avery, C., & Hoxby, C. M. (2004). Do and should financial

aid packages affect students’ college choices? In C. M. Hoxby (Ed.), College choices: The economics of where to go, when to go, and how to pay for it (p. 239-302). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.


Baksh, A., & Hoyt, J. E. (2001). The effect of academic scholarships on college attendance. College & University, 76(4), 3-8.

Brown, J. L. (2012). Developing a freshman orientation survey to improve student retention within a college. College Student Journal, 46(4), 834-851.

Cangemi, J. P., & Kowalski, C. J. (1983). The impact of the college experience on some students. In C. J. Kowalski and J. P. Cangemi (Eds.) Perspectives in Higher Education. New York, NY: Philosophical Library.

Cassidy, W., & Bates, A. (2005). “Drop-Outs” and “Push-Outs”: Finding hope at a school that actualizes the ethnic of care. American Journal of Education, 112(1), 66-102.

Chen, R., & DesJardins, S. L. (2010). Investigating the impact of financial aid on student dropout risks: Racial and ethnic differences. The Journal of Higher Education, 81(2), 179-208.

Crosling, G., Heagney, M., & Thomas, L. (2009). Improving student retention in higher education- improving teaching and learning. Australian Universities’ Review, 51(2), 9-18.

Edwards, M., Cangemi, J. P., & Kowalski, C. J. (1990). The college dropout and institutional responsibility. Education, 111(1), 107-116.

Frederick, S., Novemsky, N., Wang, J., Dhar, R., & Nowlis, S. (2009). Opportunity cost neglect. Journal of Consumer Research, 36(4), 553-561.

Friedlander, J. (1981). Why students drop courses. Junior College Resource Review. ERIC Clearinghouse for Junior Colleges, Los Angeles, CA (ED196505).

Garza, C., & Landeck, M. (2004). College freshmen at risk –social problem at issue: An exploratory study of a Texas/Mexico border community college. Social Science Quarterly, 85(5), 1391-1400.


Heller, D. E. (1997). Student price response in higher education: An update on Leslie and Brinkman. Journal of Higher Education, 68(6), 624-659.

Hoyt, J. E., & Winn, B. A. (2004). Understanding retention and college student bodies: Differences between drop-outs, stop-outs, opt-outs, and transfer-outs. NASPA Journal, 41(3), 395-417.

Kane, T. J. (1995). Rising public college tuition and college entry: How well do public subsidies promote access to College? Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper Series No. 5164.

Kane, T. J. (2003). A Quasi-experimental estimate of the impact of financial aid on college-going. Retrieved from www.nber.org/papers/w9703.

Kim, J. (2010). The effect of prices on postsecondary access: An update to Heller. Higher Education in Review, (7), 23-46.

Krugman, P., & Wells, R. (2009). Microeconomics (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Worth.

Leslie, L. L., & Brinkman, P. T. (1987). Student price response in higher education. Journal of Higher Education, 58(2), 181-204.

McConnell, C. R., Brue, S. L., & Flynn, S. M. (2012). Economics (19th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw- Hill.

McKenzie, D. F. (2005). Reducing attrition rates for Maori students. Journal of Developmental Education, 28(3), 12-18.

Melnikova, V., Williams, R. H., Pitts, S. T., & Kamery, R. H. (2003). Reducing withdrawal rate in economics and mathematics. Proceedings of the Academic for Economics and Economic Education, 6(1), 23-27.


Montgomery, M., & Powell, I. (2006). The effect of tuition and opportunity cost on the pursuit and completion of a graduate management degree. Journal of Education for Business, 81(4), 190-200.

Okada, E. M., & Hoch, S. J. (2004). Spending time versus spending money. Journal of Consumer Research, 31(2), 313-323.

St. John, E. P., & Starkey, J. B. (1990). An alternative to net price assessing the influence of prices and subsidies on within-year persistence. Journal of Higher Education, 66(2), 156-186.

Zauberman, G., & Lynch, J. G. (2005). Resource slack and propensity to discount delayed invest time versus money. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 134(1), 23-37.

93

21ST Century Learning--

Supporting Students Fifty and Over

in Higher Education

Martha Anita Connelly E-Learning Professional, Dallas

Ellin Iselin Florida State College at Jacksonville

Introduction The 21st century is still very young. Therefore,

literature and research on learning in this century are scant. If looking at 21st century learning and students fifty and over the literature is almost nonexistent. This paper investigates what 21st century learning should concern and how to support older students. Most people without any thought would quickly reply “technology.” To emphasize this point we turn to the story of Rip Van Winkle and his 100-year-old nap. He awoke to a very changed world. Everyplace he went there were technologies he could not possibly understand. In bewilderment, he finally walked into a classroom in a public school and with a sigh of great delight he said, “Everything is the same; the only change is in the green board.” Although technology is a major element of 21st century learning there is so much more involved in learning in the 21st century.

Assuredly, it is expected in the early years of this century that universities will adapt to 21st century learning because they have always adapted throughout history.


However, will students fifty years and over be able to adapt in like measure? It is felt by these authors that a support system must be in place for these aging students. Part of this support can come in the form of learning to use technology, social media, social justice, diversity and learning skills to write in order to communicate.

There are specific skills that will be needed in the 21st century workplace. In order to be an effective worker in this century one is going to need preparation in use of time, materials, space and interpersonal skills along with the ability to communicate and diffuse information. The employee in the 21st century must also be able to fit into a wide range of social and organizational systems and use technology well.

Employees will also need the competency of basic skills and thinking skills. They will be called on to be responsible and have self-management and integrity. These authors understand that the ever adaptable universities will rise to be part of the 21st century learning—but they must reach that point before institutions can identify the curricula, construct the mentoring systems and change the androgyny to support older students.

Currently, public school education of the 21st century model is exemplified by the New Technology schools which are emerging around the nation. These schools are technology and project based and portfolio aimed, putting rigor into education to turn out critical thinkers, problem solvers, effective communicators (oral and written), having knowledge and skills and understanding globalization. B. Pearlman (personal communication, November, 2012) reported, “There are now close to 120 schools in the New Tech Network around the nation. In Texas, there are fourteen New Tech schools while in Florida currently there are none.” Sharon Oldham (personal communication, 2012) reported, “We are working very closely with Putnam Edge High School, Palatka,


Florida” These authors applaud the New Tech Network. Look into the future for these students traveling on into higher education and doing well working toward their degrees. The schools are autonomous and emphasize student centered, problem based and deep learning. The universities across the nation will need to be firmly planted in 21st century learning in order to receive these well-equipped students. The New Tech schools are propelling self-guided students toward their future. The non-traditional aging students working through the rigors of a higher education degree did not have the privilege of being part of a system such as the New Tech Network, but they certainly have some kind of self-guided and autonomous essence that is moving them forward. These aging students are already at the universities. In Texas in 2009, there were 10,641 higher education students aged 50-76 years old. In 2010, there were 11,284 and in 2011, there were 11, 412 (D. Parker, personal communication, November, 2012).

The best that academia can do for older students is to support them by offering 21st century learning. These students by their very presence in the universities are showing that they are just as adaptable as the universities. Remember, these older students came from educational systems that were closed, linear and deterministic, with perhaps no technology training or support. In a nation-wide review of community colleges, it was found that these colleges appear to be rapidly moving toward 21st century learning. As an example, the League for Innovation, a college initiative comprised of 16 community colleges spread throughout the U.S., is heavily involved in learning outcomes. There are four community colleges in New Jersey that are involved in 21st century community learning centers. There is a “Learning College” movement with six community colleges in Ohio, Michigan, Oregon, Arizona, California and Colorado.


Similarly, the for-profit online universities appear to be firmly into 21st century learning. And, as earlier noted, the New Technology Network schools are well into this approach. Since students in the New Tech high schools will shortly be entering the universities, it would be wise of the universities to examine what the New Tech Network is doing and investigate what the community colleges are doing.

Background Information and Questions

Jerald (2009) stated: “1) The world is changing in ways that affect skills demand. 2) Specific kinds of knowledge and skills will be more important in the 21st century than at any time in history” (p. 34). But how has the world changed? Change has come from automation, computers and miniaturization found today in the world. In the past, a scientist would not have imagined that cameras could be so small as to be able to be inserted in the digestive tract to monitor events. Watches so small, created from silicon, that allows them to be purchased extremely cheaply. People carrying phones in their pockets and blue tooth in their ears. Globalization and technology are changing the world. The workplace is evolving; demographics are changing.

In the 21st century, students need to understand communication including information literacy, be critical thinkers and problem solvers and be able to collaborate with others on common projects—not to mention being globally aware. They must learn to be self-directed and indulge in creation of projects. All this is in addition to understanding the uses of emerging technologies, which many persons over 30 have problems doing. In the meantime, persons fifty years and over are already at the universities, and their numbers are rising exponentially.


Questions What is meant by 21st century learning?

There may be a thought that 21st century learning is

other than technology, but most people would think that 21st century learning just means inclusion of technology in learning. As an example, Facebook is everywhere, and educators should consider bringing Facebook into classes and using it in learning. However, technology alone does not constitute the total meaning of 21st century learning. Parks Daloz, Keen, Keen, and Deloz Parks (1996) identify the challenge as dialogue—the need to cultivate genuine dialogue about real issues. In classes, this means going beyond simply providing answers or merely exchanging opinions, or focusing exclusively on technical disciplinary expertise; it points toward a deeper quality of listening and collaborative learning. It points toward the small class or tutorial that links disciplinary knowledge with the search for practical wisdom. It encourages subliminal reconsideration of both the implicit and explicit curriculum through a re-examination of the relationships among disciplines, the teaching functions of the profession, the commitments undergirding research, and the roles of service learning, internships and travel/study in fostering engagement with the contemporary world. This forms a reset button—21st century learning is not just about new technology. Are the universities keeping up?

Scott (1996) stated, “The university remains a powerful and pervasive institutional form, not just in the West but throughout the world, a tribute not so much to its transcendent virtue but its ceaseless adaptation” (p. 236).


However, he warned that post industrialism and post modernism put the universities in a new environment with which they must deal. The universities, however, because of their adaptability, may well sneak into 21st century learning. What do older students in higher-education need?

Students fifty years and over in higher education, wishing to keep on learning regardless of what is happening in the university, will be at a great disadvantage because of the secondary education they obtained in a closed, linear and deterministic educational system, as noted earlier. However, a greater disadvantage comes in the form of societal prejudice towards an aging mind—the community and family can put up barriers to the aging student.

Education of society is needed concerning what is now known about how healthy brains age. Studies show that the old paradigm of the brain dying after the age of forty has been buried by researchers. We now know that new neurons are generated throughout life and that a healthy brain can learn all through life and perhaps do better in a university than traditional students, as a result of increased motivation. Professors and traditional students, admissions and student services all are a part of society and may be prejudiced to the aging mind. It is proposed that support from universities, at whatever stage they are at in 21st century learning, can encourage and assist aging students in achieving their degrees in the learning setting. Second, they can provide support in the transition to the 21st century workforce. These authors sense that until the universities firmly embrace 21st century learning, aging students will struggle in their transition from degrees to work force.


What do universities specifically need to do in order to support students fifty and over in 21st century learning?

The universities should provide diffusion of knowledge through student-centered learning, technology, theorists, curriculum differentiation, professors who are knowledgeable of how the learning occurs, and the rational and empirical side of a human. They should provide a student with a system of learning that is open, flexible, nonlinear, and socially and culturally aware—a system without borders, interdisciplinary and collaborative. The system should be one that is moving from instruction to learning, which provides movement from teacher-centered to learner-centered learning (one example—a movement from a 50-minute to a 10 minute lecture—understanding that a student cannot listen for more than 10 minutes). The system should be one that is moving from passive to active listening, focusing, and mindful of adult transitions and Socratic questions—i.e., discussion teaching. Time must be given to students as they answer questions. The system also must encourage service learning, mentoring, a learning society and the understanding that both professors and students are part of a learning society.

Problems and Proposals Problems

The National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, Institute of Medicine and National Research Council in the 20th century put together a document “Preparing for the 21st century, Technology and the Nation’s Future” (1997). This document was heavy on technology.

To identify what the response to such a call for action was, knowing what the community colleges are


doing and what is coming out of the public schools in their New Tech Network, these writers did an intensive literature search and found nothing concerning national initiatives for 21st century learning in universities. However, some activity has taken place in specific locations. For example, in 2012, Texas Tech, UNT and UT Austin received Higher Education Excellence in Diversity awards. There appear to be small pockets of universities that are attempting to establish 21st century learning. The major problem is that these programs at the university level are all heavy in technology, which is only one small piece of 21st century learning.

Another example is the University of North Texas at Dallas which has constructed a “21st Century Commission,” while Cisco is helping West Texas A & M offer a rich media across campus and beyond. In spite of the quality of these programs, again they seem to be heavy in technology.

The University of Texas research into 21st century teaching and learning is looking at learning with simulations and games, which add more pieces to 21st century learning—however, this too is most heavy in technology. The University of Texas at Austin’s “Meadows Center” is one of four university partners in a College and Career Readiness Initiative Collaborative program created in 2008 by the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board. Each university partner in a Collaborative is responsible for offering research-based, up-to-date professional development and teaching materials in math, science, English language arts/literacy and social studies to teacher educators at Texas universities. Perhaps the emphasis upon the heavy uses of technology to advance learning results from the fact that most educators do not understand the basic principles of learning and therefore concentrate on what is easier to understand and use. How the brain functions in learning is


a major part of 21st century learning. Brain researchers now know that once information enters through the senses, it is in the brain that learning occurs. Along with the knowledge that neurons regenerate throughout life has come the further knowledge of plasticity--the lifelong ability of the brain to reorganize neural pathways for learning. Proposals As noted earlier, it is the thought of these authors that before aging students can get appropriate support from the universities, that the universities must fully adopt 21st century learning. Also, in order for the aging students to be ready for transition to the 21st century workforce, the university must have 21st century learning in place. The legislatures in at least two states—Florida and Texas—are working toward that end. The Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board has developed papers dealing with closing the education gap, which is certainly part of 21st century learning. Specifically, in 2011 the Board moved the universities in Texas into the 21st century with a paper they published concerning revision of the state core curriculum for the public universities with a focus on 21st century competencies. The revision concerns six core competencies; 1) critical-thinking skills; communication skills; 3) empirical and quantitative skills; 4) teamwork; 5) social responsibility; and 6) personal responsibility.

In 2001, the Florida Legislature established the Florida Emerging Technologies Commission which focused attention of the State University System on the state’s economy and the critical role of the state universities in research discovery, business innovation, and job development. In 2006, the Florida Legislature passed House Bill 1237 which created the 21st Century Technology, Research, and Scholarship Enhancement Act.


This is forward movement, but it is still very heavy on technology.

Looking at other examples, support at the University of Texas in the OLLI groups NOVA, SAGE, LAMP, FORAM and QUEST, all within the Osher Lifelong Learning Institute, offer support for all older students who are not working toward degrees. The goals include educating members on political, social and environmental issues as well as art, as a beginning point. Strategies include a group with an instructor and conversations centered on academia in which their stories can be told and their brains nourished. LAMP (Learning Activities for Mature People) offers Cyberlamp, a Yahoo e-group. Thus, while the universities are looking at community colleges and the New Tech Network, they might consider emulating what the OLLI groups are doing to support the aging mind.

Theoretical Considerations in 21st Century Learning

Postmodernism

Basically, it is necessary to understand modernism to understand postmodernism. Most everything in the world today is still framed by modernism and this includes higher education. Modernism explicitly rejects the ideology of realism (Barth, 1984) and makes use of the works from the past, through the application of reprise, incorporation, rewriting, recapitulation, revision and parody in new forms (Eco, 1990). Modernism rejects the lingering certainty of enlightenment thinking, as well as the idea of a compassionate, all-powerful Creator (Lewis, 2000). The wife of Max Weber (referenced by Ashley & Orenstein, 1995) argued that Weber “Believed that the purpose of political and social institutions is the


development of autonomous, free personality” (p. 267). Slattery (2006) contends that “A postmodern philosophy of education must move beyond the modern bifurcation of philosophy and education to an eclectic integration that incorporates and celebrates both” (p. 190). Postmodernism then is based upon the opinion that reality is not mirrored in human understanding, but is rather constructed as the mind tries to understand its own personal reality or relativism. Therefore, reality only comes into being through our interpretations of what the world means to us individually. Consequently, no one story or reality is any more credible than the next. Identity Construction and Self

There are several themes of thought in discussing identity or picture of self or that agent. How do we identify self as “Me?” Choosing to conceptualize identity rather than choosing to see identity as a category stems from different views of what identity actually is. The traditional view from McCarthey (2002) focuses on “Identity as a unified, cohesive essence belonging to an individual, where the core develops in stages” (p. 11). He continues “Social constructive and postmodern view emphasizes the dynamic and constructive nature of identity” (p. 11-12).

In other words, the social constructivist considers identity as being developed through interaction with others, while the postmodernist considers identity as less coherent than social integrationists’ propose. In addition, postmodernists feel identity is multiple, fragmenting and contradictory; fragmenting and contradictory issues in identity construction arise from the internal dialogue running in each of us. In brief, this dialogue sometimes can create struggles within us but allows the construction of identity or the reconstruction of identity.


In discussing self-identification, the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2008) gave two strains of thought: 1) Evans (1982) believed there is no error in self-identification; and 2) Rovane (1987) believed we identify ourselves through some form of description. Evans would assert that self-reference is identification free, while Rovane would express that there can be errors in our identification, which can be avoided. Through self-reference we know who we are through understanding our place in the world. Throughout life, self-identification, reflection and interpretation play significant roles. As such, persons who do not have a clear picture of who they are may deceive themselves.

Identity is the distinguishing character of personality, which makes an individual unique. There can be a major blur between the knower and the known in that a self scrutinizes self. Identity consists of countless pieces, each forming self-knowledge such as mental state, beliefs, values, desires and sensations, giving one the first-person authority leading to autonomy. Hogg (2008) found “People do generally feel they have an integrated and enduring sense of unique individuality of an overall personality who differentiates them from all other people and provides them with a unique autobiography and stable sense of who they are” (p. 194).

Finally, Carter and Jarvis (2012) argued that knowledge can be more valuable than mere true belief. In a logical manner, then if knowledge is not any more valuable than having a merely true belief, then does it not follow that a student whose self-identity is not clear with no mere true belief about self, then does it not indicate that knowledge is useless to this student? An educator who recognizes that support of a student in identity construction understands that this can support the student in deep learning. The subject of identity is of significant importance today.


Diversity

Although there are many types of diversity, in this paper, diversity is discussed as multiculturalism, cultural diversity or functional diversity. Multiculturalism is the promotion of ethnic cultures; cultural diversity promotes differences in culture, and functional diversity is differences in disability of special needs.

Equality

In discussions on higher education and social justice

the authors work through the complex of equality toward egalitarianism. There is a responsibility of every human towards the morality of equality.

Justice

Equality and justice go hand in hand. Justice in the

realm of higher education is thought of as moral rightness. It is ethical workings in a rational way within natural law and religion—the act of being just and fair and the dignity of every single human. Politics

In this paper, the definition of politics is the science

of managing the federal or state government, which also applies to managing universities, corporate and religious institutions.

Support of Aging Students

in Uses of Technology in the Classroom The bottom line is that 21st century learning brings universities into a new reality. One in which professors,


who are technologically minded, will be of the greatest support for aging students. There are technologies all around that can be used to support any student and especially aging students. The following provides some examples. Simple Computing Tools

Bookmarklet. This is a bookmark in a web browser; a sort of small applet that it is stored as a web address (URL). A student can be taught about bookmarklets and can use them in many ways, one of which is the ability to download an entire web page into a PDF and embed it in an email print out.

Task management tools. An example is Tasskr, which is a simple task manager for teachers and students to use to create projects in a very short time.

Survey tools. Polling software to create real-time surveys in class such as Kwik Surveys allows students and teachers to design surveys, polls and feedback forms.

Apps. There are free apps to create digital portfolios for students and teachers such as VoiceThread, allowing users to create and share conversations about documents, snapshots, diagrams and videos. Three Ring allows teachers to organize and present students’ work from written assignments to classroom presentations. Evernote allows students to take notes, create to do lists, record voice reminders, capture photos and many more. Evernote syncs all of information across all the devices used. More Advanced Technology Tools

Presentation tools. Tools allowing teachers to create presentations and slide shows include Animoto, which turns photos and video clips into professional video


slide shows in minutes and Vuvox, which allows teachers to create interactive slide shows and presentations from photos, video and music from such sources as Flickr, YouTube and Facebook.

Screen capture tools. These tools allow anyone to capture something from online. Bounce allows a student or teacher to capture anything from a website while allowing users to add comments they want in the finalized presentation.

Video tools. These include snisnip which shortens, crops and allows the user to share videos, Zentation which combines videos and slides into one presentation, voice threads, which allow videos and audio multimedia, vixy which allows a user to download and cover video files and finally, Movavi, which allows one to convert videos easily. Social Media

Most students are already using social media, and it seems practical for professors to include social media in the curriculum. Student learning can be positively affected by using networking technologies. Augmented Reality and Articulated Naturality Web

Augmented reality (AR) is a direct or indirect view

of the physical real-world environment. Elements are augmented by computer-generated sensory input. Input can be sound, video and graphics. The technology functions by enhancing an individual’s current perception of reality (Zook & Boulton, 2012). Augmented reality differs from virtual reality (VR) in that virtual reality is simulated (Steuer, 1992). In augmented reality, artificial information about environment and objects can be overlaid on real-world projects (Chen, 2009).


Knowledge about the use of augmented reality for teaching and learning will support any student but especially the fifty years and over students. Augmented reality can bring aging students out of the past and into the future in their path to higher education

What if we can take technology even further? Articulated Naturality Web (ANW) is the ability to see the world as it is or with mixed reality. Articulated Naturality Web fuses augmented reality and the Internet together and includes video, images, multi-sensory coordination, real-time processing, and digital publication. Articulated Naturality Web offers, for instance, a look at items from a museum before you go inside, and one can get a weather forecast just by looking into the sky. “Students can use digital information technologies to access layers of simulated data and intrawebs of documentation, which suggests how information technologies can be integrated into an environment rather than be in competition with classroom activities” (Squire, 2010, p. 2568). Augmented reality and Articulated Naturality Web can be used in teaching and learning activities in business, marketing, medicine, engineering, technology, science, architecture, art, archeology, education, navigation and many other areas.

Summary and Recommendations

This paper has primarily concerned learning, rather than education in the 21st century. Although the authors believe students are in the age of mobile learning, they are not advocating eliminating the need for core knowledge, but rather advocating the inclusion of student centered, open classrooms and community learning groups, problem solving, interpersonal skills and learning that is self-directed. This is the core of learning for students in 21st century higher education.


There is a multitude of technology that students and teachers can use to increase learning. Teachers can provide information on free applications that students can use to help them manage their tasks online, keep organized, develop digital portfolios, use tools to create real time surveys in the classroom, and the like. Students need to be helped to learn about plagiarism and copyright rules. All of these activities can enhance deeper learning. However, throughout the paper it has been emphasized that technology is not the entirety of 21st century learning. Another piece discussed concerned whether or not universities are or will be ready for the 21st century. As pointed out, universities have always been adaptable, and it’s expected that the universities will once again adapt.

Universities can look for guidance to the New Technology high schools. In looking at the New Tech high schools popping up around the nation, Pearlman (nd) tells us that if we walk into a New Tech high school it will not look like a traditional classroom; students will be working on their own projects, and every student will be working. He described the classroom as “Students writing journals online, doing research via the internet, meeting in groups to plan and make websites and digital media presentations and evaluating their peers for collaboration and presentation skills” (p. 123).

The bottom line is this process allows students the freedom to learn how they learn best. It allows them to beat their drums and sing their songs and tell their stories. Allowing students to fulfill personal talents and goals and taking responsibility of their learning and fulfilling civic responsibilities fits with John Abbott’s (2004) thought that what is needed is to reunite thinking with doing.

Universities can also gain a wealth of information from some of the initiatives of community colleges around the nation in order to ramp up for 21st century learning.


In answer to the question—How can the universities support the aging students in 21st century learning? The response was that universities must get fully into 21st century learning, and the support to the aging student will naturally follow. The universities stand in the path of an aging student, and they can build a bridge or be another border that the student must work through. Any student working through the rigors of a degree from any university deserves to be prepared for 21st century workplace.

Finally, thinking about technology, the New Tech schools around the nation, the community colleges and postmodern mindset was shown to fit well with 21st century learning. Once again, however, it has been pointed out throughout the paper that 21st century learning does not mean use of technology alone—there are many pieces involved in 21st century learning. Recommendations

Universities must create an environment of learning

excellence that goes beyond self, allowing reconceptualization during which time conversations take place that bring experiential learning and freedom in learning, leading to 21st century learning. The self-directed student fits in well with 21st century learning. Research shows that older students are more than likely very self-directed.

Universities must come to realize that older students can learn and can do better than many traditional students in a degree path due to possible stronger motivation.

Universities must adapt to 21st century learning in order to support the aging students in their quest for a degree and later their workforce presence in the 21st century workplace.


References Abbott, J. (2004). Master and apprentice. Retrieved from

www.slideshare.net/kimmegssinoro/master-and-apprentice

Ashley, D., & Orenstein, D. M. (1995). Sociological theory:Classical statements (3d ed). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

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Carter, A., & Jarvis, B. (2012). Knowledge and the value of cognitive ability. Retrieved from www.academia. edu/2066066/Knowledge_and_the_Value_of_Cognitive_Ability

Chen, B, X. (2009, August). If you’re not seeing data, you’re not seeing. Wired, 25.

Eco, U. (1990). Travels in hyperreality. Orlando, FL: Harcourt, Brace.

Evans, G., 1982. The varieties of reference. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press

Hogg, M. A. (2008). Personality, individuality, and social identity. In F. Rhodewalt (Ed.), Personality and social behavior (pp. 177-196). New York, NY: Psychology Press.

Jerald, C. D. (2009). Defining a 21st century education. Retrieved from www.centerforpubliceducation.org/

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McCarthey, S. J. (2002) Student identities and literacy learning. National Reading Conference, Chicago, IL.

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Steuer, J. (1992). Defining virtual reality: dimensions determining telepresence. e Journal of Communication, 42(4), 73-93

Zook, G. M., & Bouton, A. (2012). Augmented reality in urban places contested content and the duplicity of code. Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/ doi/10.1111/j.1475-5661.2012.00539.x/abstract

From Brick and Mortar

to Online Learning

Melissa Farrish Lisa A. Heaton

Marshall University

Introduction Higher education has evolved from brick and

mortar structures to high tech online environments. This new learning environment allows institutions of higher education to reach students anytime and anywhere. Learning is convenient and accessible. Online learning has made educational opportunities available regardless of geographic, time or other constraints.

Online education has become a priority for colleges and universities across the country with 6.1 million students taking at least one online class during fall, 2010 (Allen & Seaman, 2011). According to a study conducted by Allen and Seaman (2011) sponsored by The Sloan Consortium, “the rate of growth in online enrollments is ten times that of the rate in all higher education” (p. 11). The study reports 65% of all chief academic officers believe “online learning is a critical part of their long-term strategy” (p. 4).

Faculty are often making the shift from the classroom to an online environment. Brown stated as reported in Fabry (2009), “shifting from traditional to online teaching requires a thoughtful consideration of how


best to use a learner-centered approach in the delivery of online instruction to optimize instructor-learner interaction” (p. 254).

Faculty accustomed to teaching using a teacher-centered pedagogy must now adapt their courses to a learner-centered style. Unfortunately, many college faculty “have had little training in pedagogy for online instruction and might be less likely to participate in online teaching due to a perceived unsettled nature of pedagogy for distance learning efforts” (Crawford-Ferre & Wiest, 2012, p. 11). With this rapid transformation, educators must understand effective strategies for teaching and designing online courses.

This paper is organized around best practices gleaned from the literature along with ideas used by the authors to integrate these ideas into online courses. In general, the paper seeks to address two major questions:

• What are some effective strategies for teaching

online courses?

• What are some effective strategies for designing online courses?

Best Practices

In the essay, “The Debate about Online Learning: Key Issues for Writing Teachers,” Patricia Webb Peterson explained:

The affective factors of face-to-face teaching are not easily (if at all) replicated in distance-learning courses and without considering what students need in order to learn, our adoption of distance-learning


technologies will not serve our educational goals (as cited in Deacon, 2012, p. 9).

Effective Teaching Strategies The online teaching environment can be cold and

impersonal. Many envision the online classroom with little interaction between the professor and other students. However, this is not the case when faculty utilize effective teaching strategies in the online classroom.

Care. Deacon (2012) recommends creating a “context of care” within the online classroom. She explains a context of care creates “a robust environment for student learning; it facilitates better dialogue between students and teachers and allows teachers to draw out individual students and help them achieve their potential” (p. 6). Anticipating student anxiety and minimizing anxiety from technological concerns is a key component of creating a context of care. Deacon recommended the following strategies to prevent technological issues and to encourage contact:

• Develop a “FAQ about online classes” to

provide answers to frequently asked questions

• Create a discussion thread or “student lounge” forum to entertain student questions and discuss concerns

Student anxiety can be reduced by the “careful

organization and presentation of course material” (Deacon, 2012, p. 7). Deacon advises the structure of the course should be consistent and predictable. To prevent overload, she recommends posting one unit at a time. Lawton et al. (2012) advise course designers to “present words as audio narration rather than onscreen text” (p. 252) to reduce cognitive load.


A “context of care” can be created with a Start Here module designed to guide students through the beginning of the course. A Start Here module immediately provides students with direction. Faculty may incorporate a student lounge or “water cooler” discussion for students to communicate on topics beyond those in the course in a relaxed format.

Communication. Instructors should provide continuous communication which is proactive, diligent, and fulfills commitments made to students (Fish & Wickersham, 2009). Fish and Wickersham (2009) emphasize feedback must be “prompt, relevant, and continuous” (p. 282). In a study conducted by Heischmidt and Damoiseau (2012), they advise that instructors should be easily accessible, the course website should be available any time of the day or week, and feedback should be comprehensive and timely on assignments, tests, grading of assignments and recording grades in the online grade book.

Rubrics are a valuable tool for providing feedback. Rubrics define quality by providing clear expectations about what will be assessed. Once the rubric is completed by faculty, students have valuable feedback which explains the deficiencies and the opportunities for improvement in their work.

Other options for improving communication within online courses include making the course available 24/7 within the learning management system and encouraging faculty to be responsive by routinely reviewing email and discussion posts within their courses to allow for prompt responses to student inquiries. Posting announcements in the course to provide additional instruction on weekly assignments provides valuable information for students at a distance. While not always feasible based upon enrollment numbers, contacting students by telephone shortly after the beginning of the course allows faculty an opportunity to connect with students and address questions or concerns.


Interaction. Faculty have the ability to minimize student anxiety and maximize opportunities for learning by addressing the affective and social components in online courses (Deacon, 2012). An important component is to create a sense of community. Potvin (2012) insists community development “must be designed for and intentionally built” (p. 1) into the course design.

Deacon (2012) emphasizes building a sense of community through online discussion. Listening is the key component and instructors should set the tone for the discussion. Deacon (2012) suggests instructors “shape discussion threads and topics around students’ concerns, backgrounds, and experiences” (p. 8). Allowing students the freedom to shape discussion around their own concerns and interests will increase participation and their interest in the topic.

Instructors may share their own perspectives; however, the perspectives must be connected to those of students. A student should not misinterpret the instructor’s thoughts as the best or the correct position on a subject.

Integration. Opportunities for interaction among students are possible through the effective use of blogs, discussions and wikis. Topics which invite students to share personal experiences or opinions encourage participation. Discussions or blogs with questions written by students and where students facilitate the discussion within their own threads stimulate interaction and strengthen the relationships among the students. Wikis open up additional opportunities for collaboration through the ease of producing a single product edited by a group.

Effective Course Design “Successful online instruction requires new

methods of course design” (Crawford-Ferre & Wiest, 2012, p. 12). Studies on effective online course design are


abundant. Despite the research, and the increasing number of online courses, Fabry (2009) found “many are not instructionally sound” (p. 255). Many educators believe online courses can be developed using the same design principles as traditional classroom courses. Others believe unique design principles must be created to respond to the technological requirements of online courses.

According to Wiggins and McTighe’s Understanding by Design, course design consists of three basic steps (Lawton et al., 2012). Course developers should create Big Ideas with units of instruction centered around basic concepts. Assessments should be developed to gauge the level of understanding of each idea. The final step is the creation of learning activities and presentations.

Dayton and Vaughn (2007) believe effective course design: a) creates a learning community; b) presents appropriate challenges; and c) fosters individualized motivation and growth. These themes were adapted from Chickering and Gamson’s (1987) “Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education” to promote effective course design:

1. Contact between students and faculty

2. Reciprocity and cooperation among students

3. Active learning techniques

4. Time on task

5. High expectations

6. Prompt feedback

7. Respect for diverse talents


There are several existing models and frameworks for the development of effective online course design. In addition to Chickering and Gamson’s (1987) Seven Principles, Oliver and Herrington identified features of learning tasks, learning supports, and learning resources for the design and development of effective online courses (Ireland, Correia, & Griffin, 2009). Garrison and Anderson emphasized the importance of cognitive presence, social presence, and teacher presence within the course design (2009).

Technology. Many institutions of higher education utilize packaged learning management systems (LMSs) including BlackBoard, Moodle, ANGEL, and Desire to Learn (D2L). Technology should be adopted that is compatible with varied student needs (Crawford-Ferre & Wiest, 2012). To implement a successful online program, institutions must be willing to invest in technical support and equipment (Fish & Wickersham, 2009).

Faculty often lack knowledge and have little training on the functionality of learning management systems. Faculty need training on the functions of the system and technical support should be made available (Crawford-Ferre & Wiest, 2012).

Fish and Wickersham (2009) advise institutions to “provide ongoing faculty training and support through professional development opportunities that expose instructors to current technologies and related software” (p. 280). Systems offer a variety of options although Deacon (2012) advises “instructors should only use features that truly enhance the learning environment or fit with their own personal comfort level” (p. 6). According to Fabry (2009), “online courses suffer due to an ill-informed selection of features that are not aligned to course learning objectives” (p. 254). There should be collaboration between faculty and web design teams (Fish & Wickersham, 2009).


Instructors must understand technological requirements required for each feature within the learning management system. If audiovisual-rich media is embedded within the course, instructors should include the minimum communication speed and video plug-in needed within the course syllabus (Deacon, 2012).

To enhance online course development skills, Fish and Wickersham (2009) recommend faculty attend online education workshops, conduct literature reviews on effective online education practices, and consult and network with other online faculty. Faculty may collaborate with colleagues to see how technology has been used to enhance a specific topic.

Fish and Wickersham (2009) emphasize “comprehensive student online training is necessary in order to reduce student frustration levels and to ensure that online technology does not interfere with learning” (p. 281). Crawford-Ferre and Wiest (2012) suggest institutions of higher education provide an online orientation to familiarize students with the course management system. The orientation should provide training on how to post in a discussion, send email, chat, submit assignments, attach files, and how to work with PDF and document files.

Technical support should be available to support students. Within the course management system, Crawford-Ferre and Wiest (2012) suggest a frequently asked questions section and a page of helpful resources.

Online course delivery allows students from across the world to enroll in courses. Whether living within the United States or in their home country, international students face challenges with online instruction. Time-zone differences with synchronous discussions and the lack of visual cues in asynchronous discussions present difficulties for these students. As a result of cultural differences, some international students feel uncomfortable and unwilling to respond to posts when they disagree with their instructor or


fellow students (Crawford-Ferre & Wiest, 2012). Crawford-Ferre and Wiest (2012) recommend “providing more context and assignments, more specific information about expectations, and greater use of audio/visual aids” (p. 13).

Integration. In house professional development programs in addition to more comprehensive programs such as Quality Matters (http://www.qmprograms.org) can be beneficial in promoting effective pedagogical and design skills. To ensure quality, adjunct faculty should be included in training opportunities and have the same technical resources as full-time faculty. A faculty-driven technology users group focused on sharing best practices and problem solving may also be worth considering.

Development. Beyond the course management system, infusing technology into a course may incorporate a variety of tools. Crawford-Ferre and Wiest (2012) recommend utilizing “multiple methods of content exploration and transmission” (p. 12) in the design of online courses including “synchronous and asynchronous learning activities, compressed videos, presentation slides, video lectures, website viewing, and multiple communication methods, such as e-mail, chat rooms, and webcam conversations” (p. 12).

Peterson and Slotta (2009) recommend incorporating peer review, brainstorming, wiki authoring, reflection, and critiquing activities to increase student participation and interaction to build a sense of community. According to a study conducted by Ward, Peters, and Shelley (as cited in Crawford-Ferre & Wiest, 2012), “students reported perceiving classes with synchronous communication as having higher instructional quality than those with only asynchronous communication methods” (p. 12).

Incorporating technology into an online class can be time consuming. However, there are many advantages.


Technology has the ability to reduce administrative tasks such as record keeping and checking for plagiarism while fostering creative, innovative, and meaningful assignments (UCLA Office of Instructional Development, 2011).

Multiple Methods. An example of using multiple methods of content exploration and transmission is creating an assignment requiring students to work in groups using a wiki to synthesize content that they select. The students further develop a presentation using either PowerPoint or Prezi to share online with others in the class. Each student posts a question to prompt discussion and facilitate the discussion threads.

Conclusions

Fish and Wickersham (2009) emphasize “effective

online course delivery requires more than simply repackaging existing traditional course content” (p. 279). Many faculty are reluctant to begin teaching online. Often, traditional course content is placed into a course management system without consideration of how the materials should be adapted to the online instructional environment.

Faculty should be careful not to integrate technology for the sake of technology. “Technology cannot ‘save’ a badly developed curriculum or ‘rescue’ a poor teacher; indeed, it may exacerbate an already poor situation” (UCLA, 2011, paragraph 2). Instructors should incorporate the technology which will best support the course learning objectives.

Online learning requires faculty to think differently. Faculty must learn new technological skills to design and develop quality courses. As this paper identified, there are successful approaches to online teaching which will enhance learning while providing students a positive experience with technology and online education.


The effective strategies for teaching an online course discussed in this paper include care, communication, and interaction. Faculty should create a “context of care” in the online classroom to minimize anxiety and address questions and concerns. Communication is an integral component. Instructors should be easily accessible and proactive and diligent in their communication. To address the affective and social components, integrating opportunities for interaction with classmates will create a sense of community.

Faculty are well advised to consult both research and best practices when designing online courses. Faculty must work closely with the web design team to become familiar with the various tools available. The key is selecting the best tool or tools to meet the course learning objectives. The institution, in turn, should provide ongoing training and support for both faculty and students on the chosen learning management system .

As the education landscape has evolved from a brick and mortar structure to a high tech online environment, faculty must make the shift from traditional classroom teaching practices to an online classroom incorporating a variety of technological components. This exciting new classroom provides endless opportunities for growth and innovation.

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Reality Learning:

Two Techniques

and a Grand Experiment

Barclay Hudson Fielding Graduate University

Introduction

“Reality learning”—as distinct from traditional classrooms or online schooling—calls for new forms of partnership between students and faculty, clearer ideas about what kind of “reality” we're looking for, and practical techniques for peeling away the blinders. This paper examines three approaches to reality learning, all of them unconventional yet grounded in well-established current and historical practices.

The paper begins with two techniques for reality learning that involve field exercises under faculty guidance. One is a process of awakening non-verbal senses to realities of the environment that are usually ignored by traditional learning through texts and speech. This alternative technique is described here as “connecting through stillness.” The second technique is borrowed from a method developed fairly recently by the U.S. Army, for gaining a more realistic sense of environmental conditions and the outcome of actions, especially in the way that events depart from plans on paper. This technique has been used as part of a deliberate shift in Army culture to place greater value on the perspective of troops on the ground up


and goes by the name “After Action Review” (AAR). The paper then looks at the century-long experience of land-grant colleges, which was essentially a “grand experiment” in reality learning, with specific lessons for reality learning in today's universities.

Reality Learning as Expansion of Individual

Consciousness—Connecting Through Stillness Native American traditions don't have a common

term for this process: tribes varied greatly across North America, and without written languages or libraries or universities, learning came through direct observation, following role models, and listening to elders. Nature provided a major context for learning—playing a key role in the culture, spiritual life, technology, and livelihood of most tribes. Nature provided a living laboratory-without-walls for reality learning.

One technique used by some Native Americans, with variations, was designed to help their children learn about Nature on their own, through direct observation. This was an exercise requiring patience, independence from coaching, and—most important—the shutting down of habitual conversation to open up different ways of “sensing” their surroundings and deriving meaning about their place in the world. The technique was simple, but demanding. Groups of children were told to go off by themselves to a remote location and sit in silence, absorbing what they experienced, and then to come back at the end of the day and report (Beck & Walters, 1977).

The first day, they might come back and describe what they saw—grass, trees, clouds, sun, animals. Then they would be asked: What else? Did you only use your eyes? So the second day the children might focus on listening, reporting back what they heard—birds, cicadas, rain water tapping on leaves. Or one child might mention


what she had felt—heat, cold, breeze, a dragonfly on her arm, prickly grass, wetness.

What else…What else?—asked again and again, until gradually, over days in a place of stillness and verbal silence, each child becomes aware of the hidden richness and inter-connectedness of things usually ignored or taken for granted: internal sensations (hunger, stiff limbs, light-headedness); external connections (animals' behavior changing with time of day or weather or presence of other animals); and ultimately the sense of everything linking with everything else, connecting all the way from internal sensations to the universe as a whole (Basso, 1996; Glenn, 2004). Even aesthetics come into play, as illustrated by a Navajo prayer about “Hozho”—a state of balance and belonging and awareness—the spirit that resides in everything, called the “House Made of Dawn”—the Tsegihi: “In the house made of dawn.In the story made of dawn. On the trail of dawn…Beauty before me, Beauty behind me, Beauty above me, Beauty below me, Beauty around me…” (Beirhorst, 1974, p. 312).

Here, the beauty comes from setting aside abstraction and using concrete images as more than examples and metaphors but as the actual holistic infusion of parts and wholes, self and nature, material and spirit: “In the house made of dawn, In the house made of the evening twilight,…made of the dark cloud, the he-rain, the dark mist, the she-rain,…pollen,…grasshoppers” (Bierhorst, 1974, p. 326).

This form of reality learning—“connecting through stillness”—is revolutionary and difficult for faculty and students alike, for several reasons. First, it is very difficult for today's generation of cell-phone users to disconnect — their identity is too bound up in social networks and real-time access to information. Shutting down their left-brain activity (words and numbers) feels like shutting down, period. But that is the point of “connecting through


stillness.” The constant noise of the familiar needs to be shut off in order to perceive the signal of a less familiar reality.

Secondly, “connecting through stillness” is a form of holistic perception, based on raw, personal experience, quite different from the compartmentalization of highly filtered and neatly packaged subject-matters offered by most formal education. In most curricula, nature belongs under environmental studies, spiritualism under theology, aesthetics under art, perception and sensation under psychology, alternative ways of knowing (comparative epistemologies) under philosophy or literature.

Third, the Native American exercise is strongly rooted in personal experience, without words, or background theories to frame expectations. (In philosophy, this would be labeled an example of phenomenology.) In contrast, European-American knowledge is validated by words and numbers; and when scientific method is brought to bear, the observer is discounted or removed entirely from discussion as a subjective flaw that might contaminate objective and impersonal descriptions of facts and relationships.

Personal experience and graphic language were important in Native American culture, whose entire natural environment was considered the primary source of learning, as well as providing material and spiritual nourishment. In our own Western environment of cities, smart phones and commerce, it is easy to lose a sense of value in connection with a real—that is, natural— environment. At the same time, university-based learning puts a heavy discount on anything other than verbal, textual, and digital ways of knowing.

Fourth and finally, we have all been brought up to communicate through words. But “connecting through stillness” calls for shutting down abstractions, turning off conceptual filters, and silencing chatter, in order to make


way for other ways of listening, and other ways of knowing. Today, Anglo teachers of Native American children tend to think of silence among their students as a sign of inattention, or inability to follow the lesson, or a fundamental lack of potential, whereas in Native American culture, silence is more often a mark of respect and attentiveness (Plank, 1994).

This bias against the uses of silence may be built into American culture. As William Ruch points out in his cross-cultural study of communication styles, “In many cultures, silence is used very effectively in the course of conversation; Americans, on the other hand, rush to fill silence, talking when they should wait patiently” (Ruch, 1989, p. 28). Americans have a tendency to interrupt others in the middle of a thought—it shows interest and enthusiasm, and collaboration in the joint development of ideas. But it comes across as rudeness in many other cultures. And it can also handicap Americans, because it causes them to miss most of the message. Pascale and Athos make a similar assessment:

Americans listen in an evaluative way, accepting or rejecting ideas presented, which leads to fatigue and listening shortcuts so that they absorb only about 30 percent of the message. [In contrast] The Japanese practice “less-ego listening”:..They hold “principle” in abeyance, regard themselves as one among others in the situation, and thus achieve easy accommodation with the circumstances of the meeting. This situational ethic enables the Japanese to air different views without falling into a duel of personalities (Pascale & Athos, 1981, pp. 130-131).

The council format of Indian meetings (for

example, passing a “talking stick” to avoid interruptions) is used in some schools today, to create more space for


stillness, reflection, and attentive listening. Native American speeches often end with the phrase, “I have spoken,” which can sound pompous or seem like an attempt to put an end to discussion; but it is simply the speaker’s way of saying, “That's everything I wanted to say. Your turn now, and I will give my full attention to your own thoughts. Take your time.” Silence in Native American traditions means giving respectful attention, while in modern American culture it's more likely to indicate indifference, disagreement, or defensiveness. Among Native Americans, the sense of connection with a larger set of processes having their own rhythms and meaning instills a sense of virtue in patience, based on the understanding that things unfold in time according to their own dynamics, which can't be forced (Basso, 1973).

In sum, “connecting through stillness” calls for a kind of reality learning that validates personal experience, non-verbal information, and intuitive synthesis. These are all major departures from traditional education and online learning. They directly confront the notion of learning through texts, at the pace of a group or course or curriculum, or within the boundary of disciplines, or through verbal interchange. All these habits of learning need to be suspended, if the sounds, smells, sensations, and rhythms of nature are allowed to enter consciousness.

This is not to say that nature is the only phenomenon to be grasped through reality learning, but it is one of the abiding themes of human inquiry and human context from the beginning of time, and one of the experiences that each generation is leaving further and further behind. To go back to our roots is, in the literal sense, radical, and perhaps a little scary, in the same way that Ralph Waldo Emerson's writings on “Self-Reliance” (1830/1975) disturbed his contemporaries. There's a whiff of 1960s free thinking spirit here, about dropping out, turning off, and tuning in. There's a suggestion that reality


resides behind a curtain that society has closed, because it can't be controlled or packaged and sold. And now, with reality learning, we're asking the young adults in our charge, to look behind that curtain.

Reality Learning As Group Process:

After Action Reviews Peter Senge, MIT-based author of “The Fifth

Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization” (2001) has called the U.S. Army’s After Action Review (AAR) “arguably one of the most successful organizational learning methods yet devised” (Darling & Parry, 2004, Introduction). Among others, the novelist and non-fiction military author Tom Clancy has given After Action Review high praise for its transformation of practices and thinking in actual combat (Clancy & Franks, 1997). And it has been written up as a major innovation for organizational development in the Harvard Business Review (Pascale, Millemann, & Gioja, 1997).

After Action Reviews are a technique, now widely used in business, but developed by the U.S. Army in the 1980s as a method for debriefing soldiers after field exercises. Originally, it was a traditional instruction tool to help soldiers understand why things had gone wrong in field exercises, and how to correct shortcomings in performance. But unexpectedly, it grew into something quite different, as part of a major shift in the Army’s culture of training, self-examination, and learning from experience to evolve new practices and policies to meet changing realities in the field. At this transition, in the mid-1980s, the author of this paper was working at Ft. Polk, Louisiana, which trains and deploys combat units, and tests emerging operational doctrines through large-scale training


maneuvers. Some of the following descriptions are based on first-hand observation.

Initially, After Action Reviews focused on ensuring compliance with “the plan” and making the plan work better. Before long, however, its principle value came to be seen in quite different terms—the evaluation of actual conditions affecting action in the field, to get a clearer picture of specific contexts, which often revealed that it was better not to have followed the plan. Instead, troops began to receive more credit for acting on what they were seeing under real conditions, departing from assumptions made at higher levels in the chain of command. There were several reasons for this transformation:

Technology. Newly deployed video cameras from field exercises gave new insights for the debriefings— clear, visual evidence that there were major discrepancies between the plans developed at headquarters and actual conditions encountered in the field. When things went wrong, it became clear that the problem was often due to an over-rigid adherence to plans and policies, and an under-appreciation of soldiers’ capabilities for thinking independently and adapting in the field.

A curious bit of history explains why the Army began using video cameras in field exercises. When the Army adopted the new Abrams M1 main battle tank in 1980, it was too expensive to deploy in large numbers for training, and initially too wide to operate on railroad cars and bridges at the Ft. Polk training grounds. Consequently, jeeps were used as “virtual” tanks, fitted with cameras so that experienced tank drivers and war game judges could watch in real time from a remote location, and give feedback to the jeeps about whether they were realistically maneuvering according to the capability and tactics of an M1 tank.

The unintended consequence was the realization that judges seeing maneuvers in real time through the lens


of the jeep-mounted camera, arrived at quite different evaluations of troop actions than judges simply monitoring the execution of orders at the end of the day. It became clear that plans were only part of the story; just as important were the shifting, unpredictable conditions encountered moment to moment, and creative adjustment by troops dealing with conditions first hand. What better example can be found for the difference between traditional teaching “by the book” versus reality learning.

New challenges. Particularly in Iraq, U.S. soldiers were confronting types of combat they weren’t prepared for —especially urban conflict with its problem of distinguishing between friendly civilians and enemy combatants. This called for major changes in tactics, strategies, weapons, and skills, with major departures from war college doctrines, and rebuilding of practices almost from scratch based on lessons in the field.

A new mindset of learning. General Gordon Sullivan, the U.S. Army’s Chief of Staff, pushed for widespread use of After Action Reviews before his retirement, realizing that they were playing a critical role in transforming the use of information. Instead of using them for finger-pointing and assigning blame, he saw them as a way to systematically learn from experience. After Action Reviews became an important tool in the development of new strategies and tactics at the Army's Doctrine and Training Command.

Cell phone and blog communication. Independ-ent of headquarters, troops in the field began to develop their own channels of communication, sharing stories of mistakes and ways to correct for them. At first resisted by central command, these informal networks were eventually sanctioned and even supported. Eventually, every brigade in Iraq and Afghanistan developed its own secure Internet page, which soldiers were encouraged to fill with observations and questions. Secure online chat rooms


allowed for exchange of questions and suggestions, and helped soldiers get access to technical experts or counterparts in the war zone. Some of these exchanges became catalogued at a specially created Center for Army Lessons Learned, resulting in some 400 reports that then made their way into training programs for new troops (Special report, 2005).

Since the 1980s, After Action Reviews have migrated from military uses to corporate and non-profit sectors, taking on new terminology such as “decentralized intelligence” or “leading from a different place” (Pascale, Millemann, & Gioja 1997), or “consequences management” (Special report, 2005). There are different versions of After Action Reviews, ranging from small and informal for quick lessons learned, or large-group and very structured, for redesign of tactics and strategies and training programs. The US Army summarizes the After Action Review process in a “Leaders Guide” (United States, 1993), whose main points are shown in Figure 1.


Figure 1 Essentials of the After Action Review (AAR)

The After Action Review is a professional discussion that includes the participants and focuses directly on the tasks and goals. It is not a critique: It does not judge success or failure, but attempts to discover why things happened. It encourages all participants to surface important lessons in the discussion.

Steps for Conducting the AAR 1. Gather all the players, introduce the

process and rules 2. Review events—what was supposed to

happen, and what actually happened 3. Encourage everyone to react from their

own point of view 4. Do not allow the process to become either

a critique or a lecture 5. Exchange “war stories” (lessons learned) 6. Trace events to their subsequent results,

both intended and unintended 7. Explore alternative courses of actions that

might have been more effective 8. Summarize findings and conclusions 9. Allow people to discuss the events with

their peers in private 10. Follow-up on needed actions The AAR facilitator needs to: * Remain unbiased throughout the review * Try to draw out comments from all * Prevent discussion from swerving off on

personal attacks * Keep the focus on learning and continuous

improvement. * Strive for the troops, rather than the officers,

to offer solutions


After Action Reviews are not just a particular method but an “attitude of inquiry” with profound implications for how learning takes place. The transition entails more than just a process of review, but an actual cultural transition that is almost always very awkward for everyone, taking both officers and soldiers out of their comfort zone. It requires a shift of mind-set, a re-socialization demanding from the supposed experts a “great resolve…to resist the temptation to provide the answers. The solution, and the commitment to deliver on them, must come from the ranks” (Pascale, Millemann, & Gioja, 1997, p. 134).

For this transition to happen, officers need to help soldiers (just as teachers need to help students) tolerate the inevitable build-up of anxiety, and maintain the pressure until students see that “they are going to have to make things happen” and until leaders within the group “step forward and begin to engage in leaderlike acts” (Pasale, Millemann, & Gioja, 1997, p.134). The change is just as difficult for teachers—to let go of control, and “place themselves in the zone of discomfort and learn to tolerate ambiguity” (Pascale, Millemann, & Gioja, 1997, p. 135).

A key point here is that it doesn’t feel right at all in the beginning. The change in behavior needs to be forced, until the results allow the process of be embraced. “We are all much more likely to act our way into a new way of thinking than to think our way into a new way of acting” (Pascale, Millemann, & Gioja, 1997, p. 135). The same is probably true for students (and experts) when they first become engaged in reality learning, about things that classrooms and texts cannot neatly package into solid, credentialed facts and plans.


A Grand Experiment In Reality Learning: The Land-Grant Colleges

Clark Kerr, former President of the University of

California, called the land-grant college system “a critical turning point in American higher education, a ‘new type of institution in the world’ brought into existence by ‘one of the most seminal pieces of legislation ever enacted’” (Kerr, 1964, p. 35)—a unique and unlikely blend of “pure intellect and raw pragmatism” (Kerr, 1964, p. 36).

The best way to describe the unique contribution of the land-grant college system might be “the TRX formula,” which stands for a three-part integration of Teaching, Research, and Extension Services. In retrospect, it was the “X factor”—the Extension Services—that made the greatest difference, both as an educational transformation and as a model for reality learning.

The T, the R, and the X actually evolved over fifty years, in a drama of three Acts. Act One opened with the passage of the Morrill Act, signed by Abraham Lincoln in 1862, creating land-grant colleges in every state of the union, funded by the sales of public lands—hence their name. In the early years, their charter focused almost entirely on the T component—teaching. But even in its earliest form, the aim was to address real problems, with an activist social agenda.

The prototype for the system was a small institution in central New York state called the People’s College. It was established in 1851 and its goal was to produce graduates “to deal directly with affairs” and not be “sprouts grown in the shade...waiting for something to turn up before they can enter upon the duties of life” (Ross, 1942, p. 23). Intended as a radical departure from European and American elitist academic traditions caged in thought-stifling classrooms, the language of the Morrill Act stated the intention of promoting the “liberal and practical


education of the industrial classes” (Long & Groskind, 1973, p. 6).

The significance of the land-grant system was amply recognized at the centennial of the Morrill Act (in 1962), but much less attention seems to be paid today, at the 150th anniversary. In the last 50 years, American higher education seems to have lost touch with the original sense of earlier social mission. The economic sectors of agriculture and industry—which dominated land-grant curricula—have faded from attention, giving way to 21st century economic concerns with consumer goods, information technology and service sectors. And the original mission of universal education, with special attention to middle and lower class needs, has been somewhat eclipsed by its very successes. What made the land-grant model special, however, and still makes it supremely relevant to reality learning, was its evolution beyond teaching—beyond the “T” element in the TRX formula.

The “R” factor—Research—came in Act Two, with the passage of the Hatch Act in 1887, exactly a quarter century after the program opened its doors. The main goal of this second round of legislation was to establish research stations in the field. Science was thus put to work on agriculture in a way that paralleled the birth of “scientific management” in industry under Frederick Taylor in the 1880s (Kanigel, 1997).

These land-grant research stations provided a major boost to the system's reputation and its significance. Research drove the agricultural revolution that helped the U. S. become the breadbasket of the western hemisphere, and established an export base that fueled an important fraction of America’s growth in the 19th century (De Kruif, 1928). Until the land-grant colleges took “knowledge” beyond books into laboratories, the accumulation of texts provided poor returns in terms of actual productivity. One


could say that the colleges had literally nothing to teach without the research stations—agricultural science was almost non-existent until the Hatch Act established the land-grant college research stations.

Finally, after another quarter century, the evolution of the land-grant colleges entered its third phase. Act Three opened its curtain with the Smith-Lever Act in 1914, bringing onto center stage an innovative institution, the Agricultural Extension Service. Extension services were the “X” factor that shifted the whole dynamic from teachers/researchers framing the problem and “delivering” the product to users, to a situation where “students” (farmers, factory workers, miners, engineers) were acknowledged as experts in their own right. The very idea of knowledge shifted from a static truth embedded in texts, to a dynamic evolution of ideas in practice, constantly adapting to conditions and challenges identified by who needed to make the knowledge “work”.

This meant moving beyond the applications of pure theory, abandoning one best way solutions, and instead coming to terms with the unique circumstances of each farmstead. Reality learning about local conditions meant taking into account local soils and climate, local pests and water supplies, region-specific transportation, storage and processing facilities, changing market prices and equipment costs, and even banking regulations. These were the realities of agriculture and industry that needed to be grasped as a tangled whole, in a way not addressed by traditional textbooks and curricula.

A close look at land-grant college history reveals that until the final “X” element of extension services came into its own, fifty years after the system's inauguration, the colleges were in many ways failures, or at least unrealized promises. The early decades were full of meandering detours, a path of unsteady lurching toward evolving purposes. Despite strong advocates, the original legislation


to establish the land-grant system languished for years until the Civil War. This spark created an urgent need for training of northern states’ militia, which became the colleges’ first major function and the catalyst for their funding by Congress. Another source of support came from land speculators who bought the public lands, with the proceeds going to the finance of new campuses (Bowman, 1968; Mumford, 1940; Ross, 1942).

In the early decades, the educational import of the program was only dimly seen—in fact, the New York Tribune failed to even mention the Morrill Act in its annual summary of Congressional achievements in 1862 (Randolph, 1962). Only in the midst of centennial celebrations a hundred years later would someone like poet Robert Frost proclaim that there was “no greater name in American education” than that of Senator Justin Morrill, whose legislation, the Morrill Act, gave birth to the land-grant system (Vermont Centennial Land-Grant Commission, 1962).

But the great, important discovery of the system was that teaching and research are not enough. Extension services—the X factor—proved the final piece of the puzzle, by forcing teachers and researchers to deal with knowledge that was relevant to local conditions and responsive to their ultimate clients.

Even if the textbooks and research findings were technically accurate, farmers had little respect for “book farming,” and research without the complement of extension services in the field lacked “feelers” for the conditions under which research could be applied or re-directed to address specific local needs. But in 1914, with the Agricultural Extension Service in place, curricula and research could be steered more effectively through trial and error testing of ideas formed around day-to-day involvement with practical farming (Bowman, 1968).


This is reality learning backed by a powerful institutional commitment to listen and not just preach, and to evolve in light of realities that were unexpected and brought to light by those outside of academia. Here is a case where Bernard Shaw’s words aptly apply: “There are some subjects about which you will learn the truth more accurately from the first man in the street than from people who have made a lifelong study of it” (Shaw, 1971, p. 155).

Other Examples of TRX

for Reality Learning There are other institutions which have incorporated

the “X” factor found in the Land Grant colleges, especially in post-WW II endeavors in Third World countries dealing with poverty intervention and self-help development. Unlike most foreign aid or technical assistance programs, these X factor programs look for expertise among the beneficiaries themselves. The institutions might provide finance, as in the case of the micro-finance programs of the Grameen Bank (Grameen Bank, 2011; Yunus, 1996). Or they may provide a clearinghouse for farmers, urban dwellers and small entrepreneurs to efficiently exchange solutions to common problems—for example, Radio Sutatenza in Colombia (Fraser & Restropo-Estrada, 1998).

Another example is the Honeybee Network in India —one of the most remarkable organizations on earth— according to Peter Day, host of the program, “Global Business” on BBC World Services. The Honeybee Network works with India’s National Innovation Foundation to support scouting, spawning, sustaining and scaling up grassroots innovations (see Anil Gupta’s TED lecture at http://www.ted.com/speakers/anil_gupta.html).

Closer to home, the Hull House settlement house in Chicago, founded in 1889 under the leadership of social reformer Jane Addams, is a good example of the TRX


formula at work. It started with a single building and grew to almost 500 settlement houses nationally within 30 years (Addams, 1911/1999). One of Jane Addams colleagues, Alice Hamilton, was a doctor who became the first woman ever to join the faculty of Harvard University. But she had a healthy respect for reality learning, through field practice and exchange of ideas with locals, however untrained. As Hamilton wrote in her autobiography, “Those Italian women knew what a baby needed, far better than my Ann Arbor professors did” (Hamilton, 1943, p. 69).

Lessons For Reality Learning

In all these examples, from the land-grant college to

the Honeybee Network, three lessons stand out for reality learning.

Engagement of Community Intelligence

First, there is a need to engage the local

communities—small or large groups—with a sense of shared purpose. Whether it’s a group of young American Indians learning about their world, an Army platoon extracting lessons of experience to improve tactics and communication, an educational institution seeking greater relevance and better-tuned research and outreach efforts, or a micro-loan bank trying to understand how it can do most good in serving people’s basic needs. In all these cases, there needs to be a sense of social mission beyond simply delivering pre-packaged knowledge to anyone who walks in the door. One of the books celebrating the land-grant centennial was titled Beacon Across the Prairie (Hunter, 1961), a fitting image to evoke the importance of physical context and the sense of mission that underlies reality learning.


Community-based reality learning calls for distinctive techniques and disciplines, but also a shift in the culture of teacher/student dependency. It calls for a commitment to shut down the habits of didactic “knowledge push”—to inculcate greater self-reliance among students and to help them open their senses, define the nature of problems to be addressed, and collaborate on solutions. This is neatly summed up by Jonathan Darby, Director of the Working in Partnerships Project at the UK Open University: “We are trying to apply too much of our intelligence and not enough of our students’ intelligence.” (Personal communication, from a telephone interview on university-based action research, March 21, 2003). Clean Break with Tradition

The examples of reality learning cited in this paper

all entail a direct confrontation with traditional education. In the case of Native American learning, silence and stillness replaces the busy chatter of social exchanges and reliance on printed text. In the case of the U.S. military After Action Review, both commanders and troops have to enter an awkward space where the leaders have to stop talking and listen closely to the raw experience of those in the field, replacing blame with a commitment to collaborative search for lessons learned. In the case of micro-loan systems, it involves a direct challenge to traditional institutions—banks, foreign aid agencies, massive infrastructure projects—by demonstrating that people in the poorest strata of society, even without providing collateral, will repay loans at a higher rate (96 %) than richer, more socially and politically connected borrowers (Grameen Bank, 2011; Yunus, 1996).

In the case of the land-grant colleges, the Three Act drama over fifty years—culminating in the eventual embrace of the TRX formula—entailed the growing


recognition that book learning and lab research alone had fallen short of solving pressing problems in a real context. Research and teaching agenda needed to be guided by the practical everyday needs of farmers in the field, dealing with a complex, inter-twined reality—not just seeds and fertilizer and soil, but weather, banks, economics, transportation, storage, and management of local cooperatives for pooling resources, marketing and technology sharing (Banfield, 1951; Knapp, 1969).

In effect, the functions of curriculum and research allocation committees—previously held by lords of the academic manor—were ceded to the reality priorities of learning from problems in the field. In all these examples, there was a clear understanding of a need to break from the past, based on a conviction that tradition-hallowed institutions were not up to the task.

The Test of Pragmatism

Pragmatic thinking runs through all these examples

of reality learning in three ways. First, pragmatism emphasizes a focus on practical outcomes of community significance. The idea of pragmatism was first expounded by Charles S. Peirce in an article where he argued that beliefs are really rules for action (Peirce, 1878/1955).

Secondly, pragmatism applies to reality learning as a test of accurate understanding. William James popularized Peirce's ideas, noting that “It is astonishing to see how many philosophical disputes collapse into insignificance the moment you subject them to this simple test of tracing a concrete consequence” (James, 1907/1978, pp. 124-125).

Edward Banfield wrote a classic book in 1951 on evaluation of New Deal Era experiments aimed at re-settlement and job creation for displaced workers. This was a contentious program that initially divided Democrat


proponents and Republican naysayers, but brought the two sides together when they agreed to evaluate results on objective grounds of real outcomes. The experiments encountered significant difficulties in the beginning, but they quickly began to achieve high rates of success based on the test of pragmatic action. “Experience, and experience alone…taught…that certain things work, certain other things do not” (Banfield, 1951, pp. 227-230). The keys were application, again and again, of the more successful formulas; the commitment to an objective, pragmatic attitude and discipline to acknowledge and correct problems; and the development of a unified organization with persons trained through their successive experiments.

Third, pragmatism signifies a way of knowing —an epistemology of inquiry—based on the evolution of specific techniques for learning from experience. Both the content and methods of knowing are highly contingent on contexts that change over distance and time, so they need to evolve in relation to specific problems, and local circumstances. To be sure, there are generic principles, whether sitting still to take in the environment through non-verbal senses, or following the demanding guidelines of After Action Reviews, or evolving curricula and research priorities through extension services. Yet in all these instances, reality consists of blending general theories about how to achieve results with highly particularized understanding of local conditions.

Learning comes as much from trial and error, and from failure, as it does from things already known in classroom lessons and texts. George H. Mead, a psychologist and one of the main contributors to pragmatist thinking, argued that consciousness does not exist prior to social action, nor does thinking proceed from impulses of the central nervous system. Comprehension instead comes from interactions with the natural and social environment


(Mead, 1934/1959). That insight is precisely what guided the U. S. Army's embrace of the After Action Review. To repeat the underlying principle of After Action Reviews quoted above: “We are all much more likely to act our way into a new way of thinking than to think our way into a new way of acting” (Pascale, Millemann, & Gioja, 1997, p. 135).

Recovering the Lost Art of Reality Learning—

the Need for a Clear Purpose Reality learning is in many ways a lost art. The

examples cited in this paper draw on thinking and experiments from decades and even centuries past, before most people had access to Internet-based information, or the experience of “virtual reality.” Much of the literature cited in this paper is taken from the yellowing pages of books with cracked binders, from dimly lit shelves of seldom-visited library archives at UCLA, Harvard, the Los Angeles Central Library, and the National Library of Education in Washington, DC. Many of these sources have not been digitized, and we are in serious danger of losing or overlooking a rich history of hard-gained experience that bears directly on the tasks of reality learning. Community-based learning of the kind envisaged by pragmatists like John Dewey—driven by local collective purpose—is being displaced by a more homogenous, global culture. Social missions like the opening of the American west, and the campaigns against poverty seen in the decades of the 1930s and 1960s have given way to a more complaisant agenda of boosting middle-class consumer expenditures in order to reduce unemployment.

Yet it is clear that deep and long-abiding issues face this country, shared by most others around the globe. These include environmental quality and crises of weather, climate, clean water and renewable energy; deep inequality


within national borders and among nations; poverty itself, which is almost as widespread today, in absolute terms, as it was in the Great Depression, but hidden behind the success of middle- and upper-income groups.

The history of reality learning suggests that these great unsolved issues of our time are fertile grounds for applying such learning. Even more important, reality learning may prove to add little, if its only purpose is to enhance what is already being provided by mainstream social and economic institutions—the capacity to tap into information anywhere, anytime; the capacity to ramp up consumption and hang onto a job; the opportunity to sit in a classroom and be provided an education.

Reality learning is about looking behind the curtain of dreams, to address issues and problems largely ignored by the agendas of mainstream education and economics. From the examples given here, reality learning can't hope to compete on the same agenda. If it is to have any significant role at all, it needs both a different medium and a different message from business as usual. Poverty, the environment, creative renewal, grand experiments deeply embedded in social purpose—those may be the new testing grounds of ideas, where techniques and philosophies of reality learning have an important role and a vibrant future. It might even open the curtain to a new Act of our history, with its own “beacon across the prairie” for a new generation of pioneers.

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The Use of Technology in the

Calculus-Based Physics Sequence

Victor J. Montemayor Middle Tennessee State University

Introduction The calculus-based introductory physics sequence is a well-known one, especially among engineering students. Typically taken during their freshman or sophomore years, these courses often make the difference between a student continuing with the choice of engineering as a major or finding a new major. While it could be argued that engineering is not the right major for everyone leaving high school thinking that they want to be an engineering major, it can equally well be argued that a significant number of students are turned away from the path to an engineering degree simply because of the way some of the calculus- based physics courses are taught. The standard organization of the introductory calculus-based physics sequence is not unique among the introductory sciences: 3 hours of lecture per week with one 3-hour lab per week, along with possibly some extra problem-solving sessions added in to help the students work on homework and test-type problems (Redish, 2003). The lectures tend to be just that: lecture, while the more modern labs often use special apparatus that can automatically take measurements for the students and graph the results on a computer for student interpretation. The problem with the above is that the lectures tend not to be very engaging—something that has been well known for

Selected Conference Papers 156 quite some time (McNeal & D’Avanzo, 1997). And further, the laboratory activities, while computer-based and interactive, nevertheless often leave the students feeling disengaged and uninformed. This paper describes the results of a major overhaul of the two-semester introductory calculus-based physics sequence at Middle Tennessee State University, with an emphasis on the technology used in the first-semester labs.

The Course Environment There has been much attention paid to the advantages of a student-centered, active-learning environment (Bain, 2004), especially in the sciences and particularly in physics (Redish, 2003). The algebra-based introductory physics sequence at Middle Tennessee State University has been run with such an environment for about 15 years with much success, while the calculus-based sequence, with an enrollment about twenty times smaller than that of the algebra-based sequence, was left with the traditional science set-up.

About two years ago it was decided that a change in the environment of the calculus-based physics sequence was long overdue. Plans were made for a total overhaul of the sequence—revise the curriculum, revamp the set-up, write new activities (labs), and implement the changes. This effort was begun with trial sections in the summer of 2011, the fall of 2011, and the spring of 2012. Full implementation of the new course environment with multiple sections and multiple instructors was begun in the fall semester of 2012. The new organization of the courses has one 1.5-hour lecture per week and two 3-hour activity (lab) classes per week. The activity classes are designed to nurture a sense of a learning community within the courses by having the students work in cooperative-learning groups


(Bransford, Brown & Cocking, 2000). Within these groups the students discuss concepts and problem-solving strategies, and work on small white-boards to develop solutions to non-trivial problems that are then discussed with the whole class.

The cooperative-learning groups also work on activities in which they try to model real physical systems in an effort to see how the physics they are learning applies to the real world. The cooperative groups are changed three times throughout the semester, so that the students get to know most of the other students in the class by about mid-term. The graded work for the class basically falls into five categories—reading quizzes, homework exercises, activities, homework problems, and tests. Two of these, homework problems and tests, are very traditional in that the students are graded on the presentation style, correct logic, and depth of understanding of the material displayed in the written solutions. On the other hand, three of these five categories hinge critically on the use of technology—the reading quizzes, homework exercises, and the activities. The reading quizzes and homework exercises are comprised of online multiple-choice questions available through WebAssign, the online grading and homework delivery system (WebAssign® is a registered service mark of North Carolina State University under license to Advanced Instructional Systems, Inc.). The purpose of the reading quizzes is to motivate the students to read the text (Chabay & Sherwood, 2011) and think about the material to be covered in class before the start of the class, while the homework exercises are intended to give the students practice with the basic mechanics of problem solutions associated with the material being covered. This is to be contrasted with the homework problems, which on average

Selected Conference Papers 158 tend to involve a higher level of critical thinking skills and a greater amount of work than the homework exercises. The lab portion of the course is held in a studio-type environment (Redish, 2003), and typically starts with an overview and perhaps some lecture over material covered in a previous class or some new material that was covered in the reading. After working an example or two for the students, the instructor will give the student groups a problem to work on using their small whiteboards. After discussing the various solutions and resolving any issues remaining about the solutions, the cooperative-learning groups typically move on to apply the physics they were just discussing to a real-life system as a part of a class activity.

Technology in the Class Activities The activities vary in complexity and application, but generally have some elements in common. The majority of the activities involve the analysis of a high-speed video of a moving system (carts, balls, wheels, air pucks, etc.) taken at 240 frames per second (a typical video takes images at the rate of 30 fps). Analysis of the videos involves two software packages: LoggerPro and Microsoft EXCEL. (LoggerPro is a data acquisition and analysis program made available by Vernier Software & Technology.) The high-speed nature of the videos was mandated by the need for relatively clear images of the system being studied in each frame of the video. The students then apply the physics currently being studied to the system in the video in order to construct a mathematical model of that system. With the mathematical model they are able to predict the future motion of the system. The students can then compare the data from the video analysis to the predictions from the model, allowing them to draw conclusions about the suitability of their


model (and the physics contained therein) to that particular system. In a few special activities, the students are introduced to a very important tool in modern science: numerical modeling. In this approach to modeling a physical system using computational methods within a computer program, it is possible to solve problems for which a closed solution cannot be obtained using standard mathematics (Chabay & Sherwood, 2011). These ideas will now be discussed within the context of a specific system that is studied by the students: the motion of a ball as it flies through the air—so-called 2-D motion.

Two-Dimensional Motion: An Example The two-dimensional motion of an object flying through the air at the Earth’s surface is a standard problem solved by students in all introductory physics courses (Halliday, Resnick & Walker, 2010). The analytical solution allows for the prediction of the future position or velocity of the object given its initial position and motion. This solution produces good results as long as the object is dense and compact—that is, as long as it is like a dense ball. Under this assumption, the single force that dominates the change in the ball’s motion is gravity. And, under this assumption, the solution to the 2-D motion problem is very straightforward. The corresponding motion is called free-fall motion. A strange thing happens when the free-fall approximation is not a good one, however. In this case a second force competes with gravity in determining how the motion of the object flying through the air changes: air resistance. Despite the fact that the solution of the free-fall motion problem is so straightforward, the corresponding motion with air resistance is, in general, impossible to solve analytically (Marion & Thornton, 1995). For this reason,

Selected Conference Papers 160 this problem is typically not addressed in the introductory physics classroom. As recommended by the authors of the course text (Chabay & Sherwood, 2011), the Visual Python (or VPython) programming language is used to numerically model this system. (VPython is the Python programming language coupled to a 3D graphics module called "Visual", which was written by David Scherer in 2000. See the website at http://vpython.org.) The students in the 2-D motion activity first use LoggerPro and EXCEL to analyze the motion of a ball thrown into the air. LoggerPro allows for the details of the motion to be extracted from the video with 0.0042 seconds between each frame of the video. Figure 1 shows a screen capture from LoggerPro of data being taken from a high-speed video of a ball flying through the air. The dots in the video image show the positions corresponding to the data in the columns on the left side of the screen. These data can then be copied into EXCEL for further analysis.


Figure 1 Extracting Data in LoggerPro from a High-Speed Video of the 2-D Motion of a Ball

A program written in Vpython is provided for the students to use. Time in the introductory physics courses does not allow for the students to be taught computer programming. However, one of the advantages of the Python programming language is that it is very readable— given a few basic commands, the students can readily follow the reasoning in the program. They can therefore see how the physics that they learned in class is applied within the program. Indeed, the non-standard formulation of the physics in the text was designed specifically for easy implementation to numerical modeling (Chabay & Sherwood, 2011).

Since it is desirable to have the students really try to understand the application of the physics in the program,

Selected Conference Papers 162 errors in the model have intentionally been incorporated into the program so that the program runs, but not correctly. Big hints have been left for the students pointing out where the errors lie, but they still have to figure out how to fix them by applying the physics from the course. Once the students have corrected the VPython program, they can run the program and obtain position and time data from the numerical model. Another advantage of the VPython programming language is that it is very straight-forward to obtain an animation of the behavior of the system being studied (the ball in this case). Figure 2 shows a screen capture of the animation of the ball’s motion. The completed trajectory with the ball down at ground level corresponds to a mathematical model incorporated into the program under the assumption of free-fall motion (no air resistance). The second trajectory corresponds to the mathematical model with air resistance included. The arrows pointing out of the front of the balls in the animation indicate the magnitude and direction of the ball’s velocity (so the faster the ball is moving, the larger the arrow). Figure 2 Visual Python Animation of 2-D Ball Trajectories With and Without Air Resistance


The VPython program outputs position and time data that can be copied into EXCEL and compared with the data obtained from the video of the ball’s actual motion. This comparison then allows the students to gauge the success of the model in predicting the ball’s motion under the influence of the effects of air resistance. In addition, by varying parameters within the program, the students are able to determine characteristics of the ball’s motion that are typically unobtainable in an introductory physics course.

CONCLUSIONS The reorganization of the introductory calculus-based physics sequence at Middle Tennessee State University into a set-up minimizing lecture and significantly increasing student -student interactions within a cooperative-learning environment has enabled the incorporation of some very non-traditional learning experiences into the courses. “Whiteboarding” solutions to non-trivial problems allows students to discuss how to approach solutions to those problems, to encounter difficulties and obstacles, and then to figure out how to overcome those difficulties and obstacles with the help of their peers.

One year into these new changes, the instructors of the course have already observed an increased ability of the students to apply what they are learning to a variety of systems in the “real world.” This beneficial effect of “social learning” is well known (Redish, 2003). In addition, the incorporation of technology into the course by means of high-speed video capture, data extraction from the videos, and data analysis has allowed for the detailed studies of systems that are not possible with even other computer-assisted data-acquisition systems. Equally important, the studio set-up of the classroom in

Selected Conference Papers 164 which the students can work on problem-solving techniques and then immediately apply those techniques to the study of a real physical system within a hands-on activity has given the students a strong sense of the utility of what they are learning in the class.

Coupled with all of the above is the numerical modeling of systems within a programming language that allows for models that would otherwise be intractable or at least not applicable within the confines of the mathematical backgrounds of the students. The result has provided for a greatly enhanced student experience.

References Bain, K (2004). What the best college teachers do.

Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L. & Cocking, R. R. (Eds.).

(2000). How people learn. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

Chabay, R. W., & Sherwood, B. A. (2011). Matter & interactions. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Halliday, D., Resnick, R. & Walker, J. (2010). Fundamentals of physics. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley

Marion, J. B., & Thornton, S. T. (1995) Classical dynamics of particles and systems. Orlando, FL: Saunders.

McNeal, A. P., & D’Avanzo, C. (Eds.). (1997). Student-active science: Models of innovation in college science teaching. Orlando, FL: Saunders.

Redish, E. F. (2003). Teaching physics with the Physics Suite, Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Examining the Impact of Video

in Online and Blended Courses

Madine Renée Rawe Florida State College at Jacksonville

Introduction

Students today thrive on technology. It appears that computerized networked technology has pervasively diffused itself throughout our younger generations. Their standard modes of communication are reliant on text messaging, social media, and cell phones. Rarely does the younger generation write a letter (or note) to someone and mail it via the postman or even have a house phone for every family member to share. When students are asked why they don’t wear a watch, as previous generations do, they state they are inefficient baggage as they only serve one function. They prefer their cell phone as cell phones are multifunctional and have the time available for them.

Advances in technology have led to an increase in enrollment in college level distance education instruction. Online instruction rates have increased at a greater rate than traditional face-to-face instruction enrollment rates (Harrington & Loffredo, 2010). Online enrollments increased by 12.9% from 2006 to 2007 as compared with traditional enrollments rates of 1.2% (Allen & Seaman, 2008). In 2008, online learning increased 9.7% over the previous year and continues to grow (Allen & Seaman, 2008). Furthermore, in 2005, Rivera and Paradise (2006) reported in the American Society of Training and Development’s annual benchmarking study that


organizations delivered 36% of their training using technology, thus substantiating that technology is in demand in the educational arena.

However, even though enrollment in online coursework is higher than traditional classroom education, the dropout rate for online courses is also higher and thus student success rates are lower (Moody, 2004). Long, Dubois, and Faley (2009) stated, “Dropout rates for online courses are one of the biggest problems facing organizations when implementing online training” (p. 348). It’s postulated that student success can be increased by creating a more user-friendly college environment within the online coursework. What is needed is to utilize the technology that is already available. The Research Problem.

The problem of concern in this paper is that

distance education has a higher student dropout and failure rate than traditional methods of teaching and learning, as identified above. Many researchers (Aragon & Johnson, 2008; Levy, 2004; Nistor & Neubauer, 2010) reported dropout rates up to 50% and more in online courses showing evidence that the problem exists. This has resulted in many colleges treating their Web sites as a low priority educational tool when, in fact, students need this alternative form of access (Keller, 2011). Chen, Gonyea, and Kuh (2008) stated, “Distance learning is the fastest growing segment of higher education today” (p. 1). There is a problem with the increased rate of the popularity of distance education classes and lack of student success rates (compared with traditional courses) that needs to be explained and resolved.

According to Cator (2010), the U.S. Department of Education identified four goals for its National Technology Plan of 2010. The first goal is that, by 2020, the United


States will have more college graduates per capita than any other country. The second goal is to proliferate 24/7 mobility of social interactions for learning online. The third goal is to proliferate digital content. The fourth goal is to transition from print to digital (Cator, 2010).

The United States Department of Education would probably not have troubled to create a National Technology Plan if there weren’t an educational problem or two in this area. Their goals are excellent; however, online learning environments impose a different type of cognitive load on a student. In online learning, the student must extract the relevant meaning on his or her own from the information presented (Clem, 2002). This has been shown by research that has compared brain activity when engaged in virtual and real environments (Sonwalker, 2001). By observing students, it can be seen that they are connected when they watch short video clips on their iPhones and computers.

Instructional Design and Learning Theory

Students today are already producing technology-rich social media in their personal lives (Gibson, 2008). Their use of YouTube, Facebook, Wikkis, and blogs is utilizing the student’s cognitive surplus in a social respect. Gibson (2008) stated that most of a student’s life experiences are outside of school. Because this is how students choose to spend their time, educators have new motivational tools available. Rogers and Mize (2005) studied first-semester freshman college students to identify their perceptions of how technology is utilized in the design of the course. The student comments reinforced the importance of evaluating technology in education as a motivator for student success. The students commented that the usefulness of the technology that is placed in the course is dependent on how the course is designed, the emphasis the instructor places on the technology for completion of


the course’s projects and assignments, and how the instructor models the use of technology in their own teaching. Sonwalker (2001) stated that technologies such as streaming video, virtual learning environments, and experiments, all lend themselves to distance-education classes. Education needs to consider reinventing pedagogy for the new course management systems (CMS) to include multimedia enhancements.

Technology, utilized appropriately, is more than just “bells and whistles” for instruction (Sherman & Kurshan, 2005). Sherman and Kurshan (2005) examined eight effective constructivist characteristics: learner centered, interesting, real life, social, active, timely, feedback, and supportive. Classrooms that have lessons that are redesigned to use these eight characteristics produce more successful students. Teaching students to know how and what to learn is the goal of constructivism (p. 39). Best Practices

The Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS, 2000) published their recommendations for best practices. The areas are divided by the institutional activity involved in online education—institutional context and commitment, curriculum and instruction, faculty support, student support, and evaluation and assessment.

Briefly, the institution must support online education if it is going to offer it. Curriculum and instruction must adhere to SACS standards of quality. Faculty must support the student and gain technical support and knowledge to enhance student success. The institution must have library, admissions, and technical help available just as do traditional on-campus students. Assessment of the student and evaluation of the program must be valid to the successful achievement of the goal or goals of the


course or program. This document was general and specific in nature thereby offering the institution the flexibility to design programs and courses as they choose.

Blackboard is a Learning Management System (LMS) that has been a major help in enhancing the distance-education learning environment. In fact, Blackboard has established a standard of exemplary course programs (Day, 2009). It has established a rubric for instructors to utilize in designing their courses that will engage students in online learning. Instructors using this rubric as a guide to plan their courses find help in designing the course, creating collaboration and interaction among students, giving learner support, and providing assessment for both instructor and student. This rubric provides instructors with the ability to evaluate their work based on strengths and weaknesses of their design and offers consistency with an increased focus on learning objectives.

Blackboard’s course design includes the evaluation of course goals and objectives, content presentation, learner engagement, technology use, communication strategies, development of a learning community, interaction logistics, assessment expectations, assessment design, self-assessment, orientation to the course and course management system, supportive software, instructor role and contact information, course and institution policies, tech-support information and issues, accommodations for disabilities, and feedback.

Each area of the course design rubric is broken down into the following scoring categories: exemplary, accomplished, promising, and incomplete. Each category has its own specific definitions and explanations. This can be a valuable tool when designing an online course. Blackboard offers a yearly contest for recognition of exemplary course design that has been designed and utilized by an instructor.


The U.S. Department of Education, Office of Postsecondary Education (2006), called for accrediting agencies to look for faculty who utilize the best practices for distance-education coursework. The accrediting reviewers also assess courses as they are in progress or by reviewing transcripts of the course. They look for what faculty members have done in the course management system that goes beyond the scope for the textbook. They realize this evaluation goes beyond that of the traditional classroom as faculty members have to be technology savvy in addition to all their other requirements. Based on the U.S. Department of Education report, distance education is exemplifying quality in its curriculum. Although Blackboard (2012), Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (2000), and the U.S. Department of Education (2006) have reported quality standards, there is still a lot of room for improvement. Sonwalker (2005) reported that students’ achieve higher learning standards when individualized instruction is utilized. With the advent of the new teaching technologies that are available, the instructor has a range of options on how to design and implement a lesson. Today’s learners can take advantage of these technologies with their own individual preferred learning style if the instructor chooses to create lessons utilizing them.

New course management systems provide the instructor with the flexibility to teach synchronously and asynchronously; continuously monitor student progress and generate reports; and integrate multimedia, collaboration, and various learning pedagogies within one course. These adaptive learning styles allow for formal representation of knowledge to include various learning styles and strategies and provide students with the ability to learn based on their individuality.

Svanum and Bigatti (2009) said, “Engaged students are more likely to earn a degree, do it faster, and do it


better” (p. 120). Engagement approaches must include what students normally do outside of class and what the institutions do to encourage and support student involvement. Their study involved measuring the shortcomings of single items traditionally included in a classroom such as lecture, seeking help from professors, time management, and interaction with peers. The longitudinal study over a 5-year period showed that college success can be manipulated by the institution and is contingent on the activities in which students are engaged.

Purpose of the Study

Educational teaching designs must be updated to

meet the challenges, needs, and demands of the students in the 21st century. Students today are not of the same mindset as students in the 20th century. Society has changed significantly since the Industrial Revolution and World Wars I and II. The family structure has changed and along with it the demands on the nuclear family have increased stress levels and time consumption. Students of the 21st century demand individualized instruction to meet their various needs. They demand attention and don’t hesitate to speak up when they feel the desire to do so. Due to our advances in online teaching and learning, educators are now able to bring individualized education to students in an effort to meet them where they are at in their various stages of life.

Individualizing education to meet the student’s need for success poses several challenges for the educational institution and the educator. This study helps fill the research gap and lay a foundation for future educators to follow for the 21st century.

The purpose of this study was to determine if teaching methodologies utilizing video demonstrations designed for distance education college students in


beginning computer science application classes would increase student success. A secondary purpose of the study was to determine if students are satisfied with the current teaching styles or prefer a more multimedia approach.

The data were collected and analyzed concurrently for a triangulation design interpretation of the quantitative and qualitative elements to see if a relationship existed between the variables. The data collected and evaluated also provided the researcher with the information that was required to develop a profile of a drop out distance education student. Finally, the information provided a basis for further research. Research Questions

The research questions that were asked in this study

are the following: 1. Quantitative: To what extent does integrating

video demonstrations into a blended delivery format of beginning computer applications courses affect student success in those courses?

2. Quantitative: To what extent does integrating video demonstrations into fully online distance education computer applications courses affect student success in those courses?

3. Qualitative: What are the perceptions of students about the integration of video demonstrations into blended courses?

4. Qualitative: What are the perceptions of students about the integration of video demonstrations into online courses?

5. Qualitative: What is the profile of the dropout student in an online course?

6. Mixed: To what extend do the qualitative and quantitative data converge? How and why?


The articles that were reviewed show a gap in the

literature for specific information on computer applications coursework comparisons of online versus traditional classroom teaching utilizing video demonstrations. Based on the answers to the questions above, the researcher’s purpose was to add to the body of literature available in this area, which will be used to create interventions or programs that would address these issues while increasing collaboration and developing a sense of community within the structure of the college that is attractive and motivating to today’s millennial students.

Methodology Participants

Quantitative. A total of 260 students were

involved in the study. The study’s experimental group consisted of 86 volunteer students from a state college in the southeastern United States who took a beginning computer applications course fully online or in blended-delivery format, with the researcher serving as the instructor for these classes.

The students were enrolled in two beginning computer science classes--one of 40 students with blended course delivery, and one of 46 with fully online delivery. These two groups (N=86) had video demonstrations available to them for the duration of the course.

A baseline comparison group of the results of instruction for 174 students in comparable blended and online classes was obtained from the college database. These students did not have video available to them for the duration of their coursework. This group served as the control group.


Qualitative. The study participants for the collection of qualitative data utilized the same procedures and study population. Instruments

Quantitative data. Grade information and reasons for dropping out were obtained from the researcher’s grade book and the college’s Artemis Employee Alert System database for the computer applications online courses and blended courses in all four study groups. Student identification numbers and social security numbers were not collected in order to protect the student’s identity.

Qualitative data. Beckem’s (2010) “Voice of the Learner” online survey was adapted for use in an online format and administered to answer Research Questions 3 and 4. This survey asked for the students’ perceptions of the online and blended courses that utilized the videos and if the students felt that the videos were helpful for their success.

The survey was administered to the students in the experimental group at the end of the semester. This survey was chosen as it had been utilized by Beckem (2010) for previous studies with courses utilizing various technologies. The survey asked pertinent questions as to how the student felt about the usefulness of the videos and if s/he believed the videos helped achieve his or her success in the course.

Criterion validity was established by Beckem (2010). Construct validity was determined upon the calculation of student participant responses. Reliability of the survey instrument was determined by Beckem in his previous studies. In order to establish a research base, it was recommended to utilize the existing survey instrument, and Beckem gave his approval for its use in this study.


Procedures This was a mixed methods study utilizing

triangulation with independent and dependent variables. The independent variables were the following: 1) Blended course delivery to students with or without video demonstrations (n=127); and 2) Online course delivery to students with or without video demonstrations (n=133). The dependent variables were the following: 1) Success rates based on grades of the students within blended courses who did or did not have video demonstrations available (n=127); and 2) Success rates based on grades of students in fully online courses who did or did not have video demonstrations available (n=133).

Beckem’s “Voice of the Learner” survey (2010) asked student perceptions of the use of video in their courses; it was administered only to students in the experimental group during their last week of classes.

General Procedures. The videos were streamed to the student through Blackboard’s course management system for their use on demand concurrently throughout the course. Counters were activated in the MediaWorks (2012) repository to gather ordinal data based on how many times the students utilized the video demonstrations. The required course content was delivered sequentially. Nominal information based on the grade and drop out reasons were collected for each participant as the online and blended groups are different in, so much as, how the course was designed, administrated, and implemented. The categories of the groups are dichotomous in nature.

Two sets of step-by-step videos were created— demonstrations and assignment explanations. Lectures and step-by-step demonstrations of how to achieve the learning objectives for the beginning computer applications course, Microcomputer Applications for Business, were digitally recorded for video playback. The videos were recorded and


digitized by a professional camera staff member at the college television studio with the researcher as the presenter. These courses utilized Microsoft Office 2010 (2010) basic and intermediate skills procedures. The assignment explanation videos were created by the researcher in a home environment utilizing a home video camera.

The videos were edited for quality of sound, picture, and content, limiting each video to a short segment of 15-20 minutes maximum in length. The videos were saved in a compressed MP4 file format and linked to the Blackboard’s course management system for the students to view on their own time. The MP4 format was chosen as it is versatile enough to play on PC, MAC, and mobile Internet devices that students use daily. The compression allowed the videos to load quickly and take less space in the repository. To keep the Blackboard server from becoming overloaded, the videos were stored in a MediaWorks (2012) repository account, then linked individually by topic to the Blackboard courses using HTML code.

The step-by-step application software skill procedures covered in the videos were the following: Windows utilities and operations; using Word to create, format, and edit business documents, such as a flyer and a report in MLA format; using Excel to create a financial spreadsheet; using business templates; creating spreadsheet graphics and analyzing business spreadsheets; using the Access database application to create a database, table, report, and form and query the database, and using PowerPoint to create a business presentation, integrate text, spreadsheets, and graphics into the presentation.

Nineteen step-by-step demonstration videos were created to the specifications of the course outline that had been approved by the college and the Southern Association of Colleges (SACS). Twelve assignment videos were created that explained each of the assignment requirements and tips for success with that particular assignment.


The qualitative aspect of this study helped determine student perceptions of the video demonstrations at the end of the semester. In addition, nominal information was gathered for each participant based on grade or drop out information and age categories.

Timeline. Upon approval by Nova Southeastern University and Florida State College at Jacksonville’s Institutional Review Board (IRB), demonstration videos were linked into Blackboard’s course management system from the repository for use in the Winter 2012 and Spring 2012 terms for the experimental online and blended beginning computer application courses.

The college’s database (Orion) was queried and statistics compiled for analysis of student grades of beginning computer application students in online and blended classes without video demonstrations (control group) in the Spring 2012 semester (L.G. Collins, College Registrar, personal communication, February 22, 2012).

In the Winter 2012 term the newly created videos were inserted and used in the beginning computer application courses. During the last two weeks of each term, Beckem’s (2010) “Voice of the Learner” survey was distributed via email and an announcement in Blackboard to each participant asking for their perceptions of the use of videos in their course. The survey was utilized as a self-administered, structured email survey facilitating the exclusion process to permit only students who utilized videos (N=86) to participate both voluntarily and anonymously. At the completion of the winter and spring terms, the student grades and the results of the survey were compiled for statistical analysis of student success rates.

To answer questions #5: What is the profile of the dropout student in an online course? Information was gathered from the college Artemis Employee Alert System database (2012) regarding the reasons for dropping out provided by students who dropped.


Data Analyses

Quantitative Data Analysis. Research Question 1. To what extent does integrating video demonstrations into a blended delivery format of beginning computer applications courses affect student success in those courses? Research Question 2. To what extent does integrating video demonstrations into fully online distance education computer applications courses affect student success in those courses?

The results of the independent variables and the

dependent variables were compiled and analyzed using Microsoft Excel spreadsheet program, which allows for compilation and statistical analysis of the results. Quantitative statistics were used to calculate the success rates of students: 1) who utilized the videos in online courses versus those in online courses who did not use the videos; and 2) who used the videos in blended courses versus those in blended courses who did not use videos. In order for the statistical analysis to be completed numbers were assigned to the grades as follows: A=4, B=3, C=2, D=1, F and W=0. A p-test for significance (p) to test alpha levels and Pearson’s analysis of variance (r) were calculated to determine effect size for the quantitative sections of the study.

Qualitative Data Analysis. Research Question 3. What are the perceptions of students about the integration of video demonstrations into blended courses?


Research Question 4. What are the perceptions of students about the integration of video demonstrations into online courses?

Student responses from Beckem’s “Voice of Learner” (2010) survey were compiled into the Excel program. The open-ended answers to the questions such as whether the students believed the videos helped them be successful in the course were coded as to the common nature of response categories by the Survey Monkey (2012) program. The results of the student survey were analyzed using the Survey Monkey’s qualitative data analysis tool. Triangulation Data Analysis Research Question 5. What is the profile of the dropout student in an online course? Research Question 6. To what extend do the qualitative and quantitative data converge? How and why?

Based on the results of the preceding four questions’ results and interpretation allowed the researcher to formulate an answer as to what extent the data converged, as well as how and why they converged. The strengths and weaknesses of the analyses were also evaluated. Finally, the researcher was able to build a profile of a student that is at risk of being unsuccessful in distance education courses. Limitations

Most volunteer research populations know what is

being studied. A potential challenge for any volunteer research population is to be objective about the study. In an effort to help with encouraging objectivity, the researcher


did not talk about the study with the participating students until the end of the semester when the survey was introduced as a way for them to voluntarily help future students be successful in their learning. No incentives were offered to entice volunteer participation. Other limitations were the small number of subjects at only one institution, the type and level of courses concerned, and especially the lack of a control group taught by the same instructor. Validity of the Blackboard counters has yet to be established.

Results Description of Experimental Group Subjects

Nominal information collected on the students

utilizing Beckem’s “Voice of the Learner” (2010) survey indicated that fifty percent (50%) of the online students and 73% of blended students answered the survey. Most of the students (78%) were under the age of 35.

In the blended category, nominal information collected found most (79%) of the students were also under the age of 35. Thirty-one percent of the blended students described their learning styles as visual or auditory. However, most (62%) stated their learning style was a combination of visual, auditory, reading, and kinesthetic. Fifty-five percent of the respondents were female and forty-five percent were male.

Thirteen percent (13%) of online students described their learning style as visual; whereas, the majority (61%) described themselves as a combination of visual, auditory, reading and kinesthetic learners. Sixty-one percent (61%) of respondents were female and thirty-nine percent (39%) were male.


The analysis of the number of college courses previously taken by the blended and online students is shown in the Figure 1. Figure 1 Number of College Courses Previously Taken

In both blended and online, most of the students had previously taken between six and ten courses. Also, 63% categorized their technology experience as that of a beginner computer applications user. Results of Research Questions

The results of the research questions that were asked in this study are recorded as follows: Research Question 1

To what extent does integrating video

demonstrations in a blended delivery format of beginning computer applications courses affect student success in those courses?

Sixty percent (n=24) of the students in the blended

course format with videos successfully completed the course. Successful is defined as making the grade of a “C”


or better. Actual percentage and grades are depicted in the Figure 2.

Figure 2 Student Grades in Blended Courses with Video

Whereas, seventy percent (n=61) of the students

successfully completed the blended courses without the videos. Actual percentages of students who earned each grade are shown in Figure 3. Figure 3 Student Grades in Blended Courses without Video

The study found no significance (p=.34) with the

use of videos in the blended courses. Pearson’s effect size indicator was calculated as -.14 (r=-.14).

n=87

N=40


Research Question 2 To what extent does integrating video

demonstrations into fully online distance education computer applications courses affect student success in those courses? Eighty-seven percent (n=40) of the students in the online format with videos successfully completed the course. Actual percentage of students who earned each grade is shown in Figure 4. Figure 4 Student Grades in Online Courses with Video

Whereas, seventy percent (n=61) of the students in online courses without video were successful. Figure 5 shows the actual percentage of student’s achievements in each grade category.

n=46


Figure 5 Student Grades in Online Courses without Video

The study found no significance (p=.007) with the

use of videos in the online courses. Pearson’s effect size indicator was calculated as .07 (r=.07). Research Question 3

What are the perceptions of students about the

integration of video demonstrations into blended courses?

Research Question 4 What are the perceptions of students about the

integration of video demonstrations into online courses? Overview. Of the 40 students in blended courses

with video available, 73% (n=29) responded to the survey. Of the 46 students in online courses with video available fifty percent (n=23) responded.

Five students in the blended delivery group (20%) commented on the use of videos in their courses through keywords used in their writings. Two students stated they enjoyed the videos, one said they helped to connect with the instructor, one said more instructors should use them and one said it is easier to teach yourself the procedures with the videos. One student stated he likes the college

N=87 (2 withdrew)


because they are always upgrading their technology and really likes the Blackboard phone app. Two suggestions were made. One was to improve the sound quality on the assignment videos, the other suggestion was to run live feed from actual classroom demonstrations.

Overall, the blended students responded to the survey with more comments (n=11) than the online students. Three students commented the videos were interactive and helpful. Three students stated the videos easily taught them more in-depth situations. One said the videos were “magnificent”, another liked them and Skype. Two students suggested improving the sound on the assignment videos and one student requested a slower pace in the course.

Types of Videos. There were two sets of videos created, one for the demonstration and introduction of new procedures and one set explaining and showing each assignment. The following Tables 1 and 2 show the results of student attitudes toward the videos in the demonstration and assignment explanation categories. Table 1 Online Student Attitudes Toward Video Demonstrations* Video demonstrations enhanced learning?

Online Blended

Very helpful 34.8% (n=8 ) 58.6% (n=17) Somewhat helpful 39.1%(n=9 ) 6.9% (n=2) Neutral 26.1% (n=6 ) 27.6% (n=8) Not helpful 0.0% (n=0 ) 6.9% (n=2) Waste of time 0.0% (n=0) 0.0% (n=0)

* Results from Beckem (2010) Voice of the Learner Survey


As can be seen, the students found the video demonstrations and the video explanation of assignments helpful and felt they were not a waste of time. Table 2 Online Student Attitudes Toward Video Explanations of Assignments* Video explanation of assignments

Online Blended

Very helpful 52.2% (n=12) 64.3% (n=18) Somewhat helpful 21.7% (n= 5)

10.7% (n=3)

Neutral 26.1% (n=6) 17.9% (n=5) Not helpful 0 7.1% (n=2) Waste of time 0 0 * Results from Beckem (2010) Voice of the Learner Survey

Figure 6 shows the breakdown of student’s attitudes

of how useful the video demonstrations were to the student’s learning. Fifty-eight percent (n=17) of students who responded to the survey in blended courses thought they were helpful and seventy-four percent (n=17) in online courses felt they were helpful. Figure 6 Student View: Video Demonstrations Enhanced Learning


The video demonstrations were viewed 1,524 times through the semester’s coursework by the blended students. This is an average of 38 times per student. The assignment videos were also extremely popular. Sixty-four percent (n=26) of blended students and seventy-four percent (n=17) of online students who responded to the survey found them useful. Figure 7 shows the breakdown of student attitudes toward the assignment videos. The assignment videos were viewed 1,508 times throughout the semester’s coursework. This is an average of 38 times per student. Figure 7 Student Views of Assignment Video Explanations.

Research Question 5

What is the profile of the dropout student in an

online course? Students who withdrew from the online courses

gave specific reasons as to why they could not take the courses. The main reasons students gave were they were overwhelmed with too many courses and family


responsibilities kept them from continuing with the course. Five percent (5%) of students withdrew from the online courses that did not have videos available to them. Four percent (4%) of students in the online courses with videos withdrew.

Research Question 6

To what extent do the qualitative and quantitative

data converge? How and why? Discussion of the “How and Why?” will take place

in the Summary section. The qualitative and quantitative data are incongruent with the blended students. The online students watched the videos demonstrations 1,524 times; whereas, the blended students watched the assignments videos 3,852 times. Figure 8 shows a graphic depiction of the breakdown for the online students. Figure 8 Total Video Views for the Online Students

What the students state in the survey responses are not significantly reflected in the success rates or the withdrawal numbers in the blended category. The success


numbers reflect how insignificant the videos were at helping the blended student achieve success; however, the student’s state otherwise in the survey. Qualitatively speaking, the online students did benefit from having the videos available for their use on demand as there was an increase in student success, even though not significant. The students reported how useful both the assignment videos and the demonstration videos were for them.

Summary

The results show interesting findings in regard to

the grades of online students rising with the use of the demonstration and assignment videos; however the grades of the blended students with videos fell. This study therefore needs to be expanded to determine why this dichotomy exists. Overall, the outcomes of this study lend themselves to further and more refined research.

A first priority is to determine specifically why the videos in this study did not significantly help the blended students’ success rate.

The second major implication for further study is to expand research on this topic to include a larger study population enrolled in more diverse types and levels of courses and institutions. Studies should include courses taught with and without videos by the same instructor.

The third major area for further study is the Blackboard statistics tracking. The researcher is not confident the statistics obtained by Blackboard that tracked the number of views for the videos is completely accurate. The college Blackboard specialists are looking into the matter with the creators of Blackboard. The researcher recommends future research in these three major areas to magnify the accuracy and completeness of this study.


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Teaching the Way We Learn:

Civic Engagement and Innovative

Learning in the Millennial Classroom

A. Danielle Way Woodbury University

Introduction

Real change in education requires learning from the past, leveraging strengths and working for a common purpose with the active intent to contribute to something greater than oneself (Kellogg Foundation, 2012). The idea of incorporating civic engagement into curricula is not a new phenomenon nor does it warrant scrupulous analysis or justification, as a number of scholars have addressed its importance (Bringle & Hatcher, 1996, 2005; Dewey, 1967; Eyler & Giles, 1999). Yet, successfully incorporating civic engagement programs into a college course does entail a unique level of conceptualization and structural course design.

This paper surveys the literature in the area of civic engagement (service learning) and its place in learning at the higher education level. To supplement the literature reviewed, the author reports the results of a study initiated to provide insights into the processes required to incorporate this type of learning into a college-level course at a predominately commuter institution.


Background Information Findings from the year 2000 survey of first year

college students (Higher Education Research Institute, 2001) indicated more than 81% of students had performed some type of volunteer work in the previous year. However, while 31% indicated that they valued becoming a community leader, only 27% of students indicated that it was important to participate in a community action program.

Baxter Magolda (2000, 2001) explores the process in which young adults move from external formulaic definitions of self to an internal foundation of identity and integrates relationships with others. The author suggests that civic engagement provides an opportunity for students to develop self-authorship and thus thrive in the learning process (2001).

But what is civic engagement? Bringle and Hatcher (1996) define civic engagement as “a credit bearing educational experience in which students participate in an organized service activity that meets identified community needs . . . and [builds a] broader appreciation for the discipline and an enhanced sense of civic responsibility” (p. 505). “Others have viewed it as providing an opportunity for students and faculty to apply rigorous pedagogical framework to the work that we all do in our individual courses and [demonstrate] how those courses may connect with the surrounding community” (Hobart and William Smith College, 2009).

The key themes that appear in a majority of definitions pay special attention to the incorporation of and active engagement in community, values and learning. Often the terms civic engagement and service-learning are used synonymously in the realms of education. Consequently, this article will define civic engagement and service-learning as one concept.


Undergraduate education demands an integrated, comprehensive approach to learning that is responsive to the whole student (National Survey of Student Engagement, 2011). Competition for jobs is fierce. High grades are expected and required by potential employers— the art of translating those high grades into a story that will successfully allow job seekers to market themselves requires more active involvement within the community.

It is because of the above that educators and students must work diligently and creatively to incorporate value and community into the classroom learning environment. Further, educators must actively collaborate on the experience of their students, talk about what students know and can do, and design new approaches to engaging students at high levels (National Survey of Student Engagement, 2011).

Civic engagement is a three-way partnership between the instructor, the student and the community placement. Gill (2009) notes that it changes the instructors’ role in that it’s necessary to reduce personal control. This allows for a non-traditional learning opportunity which speaks to students in a unique way.

Research conducted on student retention and absenteeism and civic engagement has produced interesting outcomes. Institutional Research, Assessment and Planning at California State University, Los Angeles, released data to support the effects of civic engagement and learning. Findings showed that freshmen’s one-year persistence rate after taking a course that incorporated civic engagement was higher than for students not enrolled in such curricula (Higher Education Research Institute, 2001).

Data from the 2007 National Survey of Student Retention also indicated that seniors, who had participated with civic engaged learning initiatives in conjunction with traditional coursework, were more likely to report a higher level of job related knowledge, skills attainment and a more


developed personal code of values and ethics than non-civically engaged students. In addition, graduation rates were higher for these students (National Survey of Student Engagement, 2007).

Studies also show that the incorporation of team-based assignments greatly reduces the issue of absenteeism as well as student class withdrawal, as the student has a team that is depending on them to produce their part of the assignment (Schomberg, 1986).

Higher Education Support

and Accreditation Considerations The philosophy of John Dewey (1967) addressed

the challenges associated with providing quality education within a democratic society and argued that education was essential to advancing society through volunteerism and service. Dewey’s theory has been supported through wide-spread implementation of numerous service oriented programs within the higher education arena (Bringle & Hatcher, 2002, 2004; Kinsley, 1994).

Bringle and Hatcher (1996) examined student service from a programmatic perspective through extracurricular and curricular models. Neither of these means is mutually exclusive and a student could very well participate in both curricular and extracurricular activities. However, the motivation and drive for each is very different. Faculty have noted that the incorporation of civic engagement activities into classroom work “brings new life to the classroom, enhances performance on traditional means of learning, increases student interest in the subject, teaches new problem solving skills and makes teaching more enjoyable” (p. 40).

However, incorporating civic engagement into classroom curricula at a university or college that has traditionally not embraced this type of pedagogy can be a


challenging task for a professor. Theoretically, the development of a service-type initiative would be applicable to the mission of many universities and colleges as it relates to values, service and engagement of students and faculty with the community. Yet practical development, university and college support, and structural design of curricula of specific schools and colleges within a university affect the inclusion of this type of student activity.

An example of positive support is provided by the standards of the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB). These standards represent considerations for professors who teach in a business school, and AACSB supports the idea of civic engagement. Recent revisions to the accreditation policy and procedures handbook state:

The processes used to strengthen curricula, develop faculty, improve instruction, and enhance intellectual activity determine the direction and rate of improvement. Thus, these processes play an important role in accreditation, along with the necessary review of inputs and assessment of outcomes. As part of each institution's effort to prepare its students for future careers, it must deliver an educational experience that emphasizes conceptual reasoning, problem-solving skills, and preparation for lifelong learning. (Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business, 2012, p. 4) Hurdles to be overcome, however, include securing

administrative support and understanding the intricacies of appropriate course design, funding, and faculty involvement. Ward (1998) tackles these challenges in her


essay reflection “Participatory action research as service-learning” in which she states:

Moving service-learning from the periphery to the core, and from an idea to practice, requires addressing these challenges while understanding the complexities of the organization and faculty work. Service-learning depends not only on the support of senior level administrators but requires expanded involvement of those directly and actively involved in routine academic management and policy functions (that is provost, dean, and department chairs. (Ward, 1998, p. 59)

Ward goes on to provide suggestions for how the incorporation of such programs could enhance a faculty member’s portfolio as it relates to tenure, while simultaneously addressing the university mission of being involved in community and allowing for students to synthesize their volunteer experience with course material.

The Project To verify the literature reviewed above and to

expand knowledge on the topic, the author of this article initiated a study involving the introduction of a civic engagement project to an introductory marketing class at a small private university. The course was a traditional 16-week undergraduate course. Requirements for enrollment in the course included the completion of 40 credit hours and one prerequisite business introduction course. Twenty-six students enrolled in the course with three students withdrawing during the first week of the term. The students were members of the Los Angeles workforce; they represented various majors and cultural


backgrounds, inclusive of first-time generation students. Ages ranged from 18 to 34 years old.

As an exploratory study, a goal of the project was to assess the non-traditional learning styles of millennial students. Another goal was to assess the benefits and limitations of incorporating non-traditional style teaching into a more conservative commuter university. Procedures

Students were provided with a traditional syllabus that outlined weekly chapter readings, exam and presentation requirements. An introduction to the civic engagement project, which would be completed in conjunction with the traditional assignments, was discussed on the first day of class and teams were assigned during the second class session.

For the civic engagement project, students were charged with researching the retention of students at the university. Based on each team’s research, teams were to develop a campaign that directly targeted a specific demographic for which the team found to be at risk for decreased enrollment.

Students had the option of segmenting the student population as they saw fit; however, all recommendations were required to be supported by foundational secondary and primary research. In order to assist students with preparing for the civic engagement project, the director of institutional research at the university was brought in to review resource information with students (i.e., a tutorial on how to retrieve university and national statistics on retention at all colleges and universities in the United States was provided for students).

Students were initially asked to complete a free-writing exercise during the second week of class, in which they were asked to discuss their understating of


service-learning/civic engagement. In addition, they were asked to reflect on their expectations for the course. A second free-write exercise was required toward the end of the term in which students were asked to once again communicate their understating of civic engagement and to discuss their expectations for the course at this point. A guest lecture was also introduced at this point. During the final weeks of class, students made presentations to members of the faculty and the Office of Student Development.

Overall, participants were provided with a pre-term, mid-term and post-term assessment in which they were asked two questions: 1) What is your understanding of service-learning/civic engagement?; and 2) What is your understanding of marketing? During the pre-assessment, participants were also asked to communicate their expectations for the course.

Findings

A theme that emerged in student responses to the

free-writing exercise was uncertainty and/or no expectations. Some of the comments received from the informal free-write exercise included:

Truly, I have no expectations at this moment. This class seems challenging and will require me to be very organized I have no expectations except to learn more about marketing and this project seems like it will incorporate a new level of expectation for the course. It will help me understand the course better. I have never done this before


I am curious about having to conduct research and apply that knowledge to the development of a campaign about marketing. I am curious about going through this process and learning the ins and outs of everything. I have no marketing knowledge or skills . . . this project will help me work with others over a long period of time. I have had team projects before but I have never had to work with a team for the entire semester. It will be interesting to see how my team works and progresses over the semester.

Students also communicated a heightened level of

interest in the course due to the immediate practical implementation of concepts learned through the civic learning project. Positive feedback from students also demonstrated an enhanced level of significance toward the project by incorporating outside faculty into the learning process. By having two experts in the field (the instructor and the director of institutional data) act as facilitators of learning, the students appeared to have a greater respect for the project.

This is a good way to apply the material we learn in class to real life projects. This way we can see the direct connection between classroom and real life. I hope to be able to apply what I learn in class to the project…I hope to be able to apply it to future use, maybe at my work as well.


I would like to gain as much knowledge as possible and this project will require me to organize my work throughout the semester. I will have to work at a level as required when I start working. I expect to gain much knowledge.

The second free-write exercise was called for toward the end of the term, and it’s important to note that at this stage in the course students had completed more than half of the requirements for the assignment and were approaching the campaign development and implementation stage of the course project. The overarching themes that emerged during the second free-write mirrored a different type of reflection with more concrete understandings of the project relevance. The connection to, and relevance of the assignment appeared to be understood while the ironing out of team dynamics began to shine through as a hurdle for some students.

Overall, the level of uncertainty dissolved and was replaced by excitement and teamwork. While many students commented on the challenge of teamwork and working with individuals with different work ethics, this hurdle did not appear to hinder the dedication of students in learning the course material and applying that knowledge to a project that would directly affect the university. Contributions to the university and making a difference were consistently reflected on by students:

I like researching and finding out about new things and I never thought that I would say that I like marketing but I really do like it now. The project is helpful in linking the concepts that we learn in class to the real


world. I wish I had a smaller team. This would make things easier.

I love my team and working with them makes learning easier and more interesting. I feel like I am making a difference and not just taking another course. It makes me want to come to class and to do a good job because I know that someone is going to see my thoughts and ideas and what I do in here actually matters. I never thought that I would like marketing but I look forward to coming to class. It is a lot of information, but I am learning a lot in here.

Throughout the overall project and the presentations

to faculty and the Office of Student Development, The efforts put forth by each student were intentional, focused and relevant to their future at the university. The project resulted in serving as a catalyst to promote partnerships across disciplinary lines throughout the university. Discussion

In addition to the students’ interest in participating in a more involved course style, in this project the course professor was herself, a member of the millennial cohort generation. Consequently, the learning style of students were able to be effectively addressed, as the instructor was able to teach in a corresponding manner. This included incorporating new media, interactive coursework, and e-Portfolio development into the overall curricula.


By designing tangible and intangible items that built on textbook learning, the students (and professor) were able to consistently receive instant gratification throughout the learning process. Students were urged to develop programs that reflected their style and further, to incorporate new media platforms into their overall campaigns. Autonomy was encouraged and supported throughout the term.

Toward the end of the semester, the professor invited the director of career services to come and speak to the class. For this guest lecture, the career services department used the course syllabus as a guide for topic development and discussion. This discussion was able to build on concepts learned throughout the term. For example, research skill development, communication and the marketing of oneself (i.e., resume, interviewing, etc.) were reviewed. The guest lecturer was, therefore, able to add key insight to the topic of civic engagement.

Overall, the specific instructional discipline as well as the learning objectives that are set forth for each course will affect a teacher’s decision regarding the selection of community partners. Special attention must be paid to student autonomy, as well as the flexibility and willingness of the instructor to allow for a significant amount of collaboration between her/himself, the student, and the community partner. In doing so, the instructor is able to facilitate a richer learning community inside and outside the classroom.

Summary and Conclusions

This pilot study provided the professor with a foundational understanding of the benefits and limitations of civic engagement assignments and will serve as a structural framework for enhancing future assignments for the course. The students enrolled in the course represented


a high percentage of first generation college students that were matriculating at a small, private university.

The results from this course will be used to refine and further develop course design in the introductory marketing course. As mentioned, civic-engagement assignments are not customary in the introductory marketing courses at this university. It is a delicate task to effectively teach foundational course concepts while concurrently requiring immediate implementation of concepts learned.

For students that learn by doing, civic-engagement is effective in assisting them in developing a deeper understanding of materials. Conversely, this format has the potential to prove to be more demanding for a student that is challenged by time management and/ or language barriers. Because of this, the professor must be prepared and willing to dedicate much more out of class time to the latter group of students.

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Contributors Linda Allen Professor, Instructional Leadership Educational Resources Jacksonville State University [email protected] Gerald D. Baumgardner Associate Professor, Business Admin/Mgmt. Penn College [email protected] Christine Bezotte Associate Professor, Biology Elmira College [email protected] Yakup Bilgili Associate Professor, Psychology Florida State College at Jacksonville [email protected] Augustine A. Boakye Chairperson, Business Division Essex County College [email protected] Jack A. Chambers Associate Vice President and Adj. Professor, Psychology Florida State College at Jacksonville [email protected]


Martha Anita Connelly E Learning Professional Dallas, TX [email protected] Melissa Farrish Assistant Professor, Business University of Charleston [email protected] Susan Fontaine Adj. Professor, Biology Elmira College [email protected] Lisa A. Heaton Professor, Elementary & Secondary Education and Coordinator, Online Studies Marshall University [email protected] Barclay Hudson Professor, Master’s Program, Organizational Development Fielding Graduate University [email protected] Ellin Iselin Adj. Professor, Humanities Florida State College at Jacksonville [email protected]


Bill Kiser Chair, Educational Leadership Program Educational Resources Jacksonville State University [email protected] Victor J. Montemayor Professor, Physics Middle Tennessee State University [email protected] Mary Montgomery Professor, Educational Administration Educational Resources Jacksonville State University [email protected] Madine Renée Rawe Assistant Professor, Computer Science Florida State College at Jacksonville [email protected]

Danielle Way Assistant Professor, Marketing Woodbury University [email protected]

selected papers from the 24th international conference on college teaching and learning

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