semantics a world of · pdf filewhyismeaningimportant? * semanmcs%is%the%study%of%meaning% %...
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Semantics A World of Meaning plus a li(le test of colors and tools
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Seman&cs: How do we know the meaning of words? Made-‐up words in Lewis Carroll’s Jabberwocky:
He chortled in his joy. . . What does chortle mean? What about this:
‘Twas brillig, and the slithy toves Did gyre and gimble in the wabe: All mimsy were the borogoves And the mome raths outgrabe.
‘twas ADJ, and the ADJ N+pl did V and V in the N: all ADJ were the N+pl and the adj n v.
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Why is meaning important? SemanMcs is the study of meaning A tradiMonal definiMon of meaning:
the relaMonship between referents and referends; linguisMc symbols and the objects or concepts they refer to
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Reference:
• when we use words in u(erances, to what do they refer? • what is a dog?
Dr. Johnson, 1755:
According to Noah Webster, 1828: ‘A species of quadrupeds, belonging to the genus Canis, of many varieMes, as the masMff, the hound, the spaniel, the shepherds dog the terrier, the harrier, the bloodhound, etc.’
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American Heritage DicMonary definiMon: dog (dôg, dŏg) dog n. 1. A domesMcated carnivorous mammal (Canis familiaris syn. Canis lupus subsp. familiaris) occurring as a wide variety of breeds, many of which are tradiMonally used for hunMng, herding, drawing sleds, and other tasks, and are kept as pets. 2. Any of various carnivorous mammals of the family Canidae, such as the dingo. 3. A male animal of the family Canidae, especially of a fox or a domesMcated breed. 4. Any of various other animals, such as the prairie dog. 5. Informal a. A person: You won, you lucky dog. b. A person regarded as contempMble: You stole my watch, you dog. 6. Slang a. A person regarded as una(racMve or uninteresMng. b. Something of inferior or low quality: "The President had read the speech to some of his friends and they told him it was a dog" (John P. Roche). c. An investment that produces a low return or a loss. 7. dogs Slang The feet. 8. See andiron. 9. Slang A hot dog; a wiener. 10. Any of various hooked or U-‐shaped metallic devices used for gripping or holding heavy objects. 11. Astronomy A sundog.
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Merriam-‐Webster, dog, n. 1a : canid; especially : a highly variable domesMc mammal (Canis familiaris) closely related to the gray wolf b : a male dog; also : a male usually carnivorous mammal 2a : a worthless or contempMble person b : fellow, chap <a lazy dog> <you lucky dog> 3a : any of various usually simple mechanical devices for holding, gripping, or fastening that consist of a spike, bar, or hook b : andiron 4: uncharacterisMc or affected stylishness or dignity <put on the dog> 5 capitalized : either of the constellaMons Canis Major or Canis Minor 6 plural : feet 7 plural : ruin <going to the dogs> 8: one inferior of its kind <the movie was a dog>: as a : an investment not worth its price b : an undesirable piece of merchandise 9: an una(racMve person; especially : an una(racMve girl or woman 10: hot dog 1
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is there a quality of dogness that you can disMll? What about chair? What about man?
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From the Oxford English Dic@onary: man. I. A human being (irrespecMve of sex or age).
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from Samuel Johnson’s DicMonary (1755): MAN 1 n.s. [man, mon, Saxon.] 1. Human being. 2. Not a woman. 3. Not a boy. 4. A servant. 5. A word of familiarity bordering on contempt. 6. It is used in a loose significaMon like the French on, one, any one. 7. One of uncommon qualificaMons. 8. A human being qualified in any parMcular manner. 9. Individual. 10. Not a beast. 11. Wealthy or independent person. 12. A moveable piece at chess or draughts. 13. Man of War. A ship of war. .
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Noah Webster, 1828: MAN, n. plu. men. [Heb.species, kind, image, similitude.] 1. Mankind; the human race; the whole species of human beings; beings disMnguished from all other animals by the powers of reason and speech, as well as by their shape and dignified aspect.
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From the Century Dic@onary (1890):
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From Merriam-‐Webster’s Collegiate DicMonary: 1 a (1) : an individual human; especially : an adult male human
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The problem of reference-‐-‐ Does this sentence refer? -‐-‐
The present king of France is bald.
What about this one: I am a Cretan; all Cretans are liars.
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the limits of reference:
• lexical meaning is mediated by our experience of the world
• words don’t mean in isolaMon from sentences
• words mean in a physical and a cultural context
• when we isolate words from their context, we limit/change the way they ‘mean’
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To interpret a word in context, we sort through the various meanings we know unMl we find one that suits the context:
Would you like to adopt a dog? We use not just references or dicMonary definiMons, but also the cogniMve skills we have developed for navigaMng the world to interpret the meaning.
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Jessie doesn’t like beer. Beer doesn’t like Jesse. There are two disMnct linguisMc contexts at work here.
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Physical and cultural context play a role in interpretaMon: Hey, dog, how’re ya doin’? I wanna’ dog. My dogs are barking. Do you “share” the context of this last sentence?
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What do you know that a MarMan doesn’t?
Lather, rinse, repeat.
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The problem of shared meaning: What’s at issue in this Nancy cartoon in terms of meaning?
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What are the presupposi&ons that underlie this statement:
I’ll have a cheeseburger.
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Grover the waiter
Presupposi&on
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Semantic relationships:
hyponomy: from general to specific; dog, spaniel meronymy: relationship of whoe to part: dog, tail/paw
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synonymy: differences in denotation and connotation: what’s up dawg? / what’s up? / *what’s up, my friend? (is it really unlikely, as the authors claim?) the thesaurus: part of the problem or part of the solution? denotation : reference; connotation: implication few cases of true synonymy (cemetery/graveyard [cf. litchfield]; others differ regionally (pop/soda) or by some other variable)
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antonymy
gradable: fat/thin, hot/cold, good/bad, slow/fast nongradable: (complementary): single/married (what about, it’s complicated?] male/female [are there other categories of gender?] dead/alive [and yet we can say, he was more dead than alive; and what about the undead?] converseness
parent/child [a person with a child/a person with a parent]
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homonymy: different words in the same form: sink (plumbing fixture, verb)
homonyms: radically different meaning/sharing same form
homophone: share pronunciaMon homograph: share spelling someMmes they are both: rose; someMmes not: sink/sync
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processes of seman&c change:
the word wit in IE, ‘to see’ in OE: ‘mind, understanding, intelligence’ (other words for mind: mod, > MnE ‘mood’) the 5 senses sanity: out of one’s wits mental talent, genius pracMcal ability (mother wit) talent for saying sparking things, bons mots cleverness, intellectuality
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generaliza&on:
lovely, ‘capable of being loved’ > general posiMve term, ‘very nice’ awful: ‘inspiring awe’ > general negaMve term
specializa&on:
meat ‘food’ > animal flesh > red meat; liquor ‘liquid’ > potable liquid > alcoholic beverage (not beer or wine)
metaphorical extension:
crane bird > construcMon equipment
on board from ships to trains to planes to rockets to ideas
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Descrip&ve rule (cons&tu&ve rule):
You have to win at least 270 electoral votes to become president. Prescrip&ve rule:
You can’t be re-‐elected president if the unemployment rate is over 7.2% What’s the difference?
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taboo:
the n-‐word; the c-‐word; the s-‐word (socialism) everybody has words they can’t say
euphemism:
words for dying, being drunk, body parts, sex, excrement dysphemism:
insult terms (racial, ethnic and religious)
pejora&on:
a word develops a negaMve quality: the 1980s
ameliora&on:
a word develops a posiMve quality: gay, bitch, ho (reappropriaMon)
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linguis&c rela&vity
does language determine thought? Humboldt: language > worldview (Weltansicht)
Sapir-‐Whorf hypothesis and linguisMc relaMvity: does language limit or constrain cogniMon?
“We dissect nature along the lines laid down by our language”
objecMvism: we can access reality, bypassing language linguisMc relaMvity: differences in language create differences in thought
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linguis&c determinism: thought is determined by the categories available in language -‐-‐ ie, we can’t think outside the box
argument for: desensiMzaMon argument against: creaMvity
all languages are capable of expressing what their speakers need to express we cannot assume world view based on language –
English has no future tense, but that doesn’t mean we can’t or don’t think about the future
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Poli&cally correct language
original meaning: used by the lew to mean a dogmaMc and mindless liberality revived by the right in the 1980s to mean knee-‐jerk liberalism it’s generally a dysphemism but can be used neutrally PC language reform assumes a Whorfean view: language encodes meanings that channel our thinking about people – but words do have connotaMons:
waitress, stewardess, lady doctor, lady lawyer, male nurse girl / woman / lady Miss/ Mrs. / Ms.
Examples of poliMcally correct language?
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Naming rights: Geneva Smitherman on sociolinguisMc determinism:
African American, black, colored, Negro
other ethnic and racial terms/preferences?
responses to Asian as a category?
LGBTQ, gay, queer, lesbian, homosexual . . .
trans pronouns:
Chelsea Manning and she the case for they or an invented pronoun like xie, jie
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Catalogs give creaMve names to colors, but what in the spectrum do these represent?
capri glacier storm light ginger seedling waterfall brook autumn berry
cadet mist safari vine endive heather smoke geranium
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capri
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glacier
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storm
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light ginger
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waterfall
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brook
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autumn berry
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cadet
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mist
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safari
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vine
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endive
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heather smoke
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geranium
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A world of color balanced by a world of tools:
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