SemanticsSemantics

Carmen Bonner JohnsonCarmen Bonner Johnson Amy HaddadAmy Haddad

Summary Summary The essential question seems to be The essential question seems to be ““What do you know about What do you know about

meaning when you know a language?meaning when you know a language?”” How and why does How and why does language give meaning or meaning make sense? language give meaning or meaning make sense? ““The study of The study of the linguistic meaning of morphemes, words, phrases and the linguistic meaning of morphemes, words, phrases and sentences is called semantics. Subfields of semantics are lexical sentences is called semantics. Subfields of semantics are lexical semantics, which is concerned with the meanings of words, and semantics, which is concerned with the meanings of words, and the meaning of relationships among words; and phrasal or the meaning of relationships among words; and phrasal or sentential semantic, which is concerned with the meaning of sentential semantic, which is concerned with the meaning of syntactic units larger than the word. The study of how context syntactic units larger than the word. The study of how context affects meaning – for example, how the sentence affects meaning – for example, how the sentence Its cold in here Its cold in here comes to be interpreted as comes to be interpreted as ““close the windowsclose the windows”” in certain in certain situations – is called pragmaticssituations – is called pragmatics””. (p. 180). (p. 180)

Semantic rules build the meaning of the sentence from its words Semantic rules build the meaning of the sentence from its words and how words combine syntactically. This is called truth-and how words combine syntactically. This is called truth-conditional semantics because it takes speakerconditional semantics because it takes speaker’’s knowledge of s knowledge of truth conditions as basic. It is also called compositional semantics truth conditions as basic. It is also called compositional semantics because it calculates because it calculates

the truth value of a sentence by composing, or putting together, the truth value of a sentence by composing, or putting together, the meaning of smaller unitsthe meaning of smaller units””. (p. 180). (p. 180)

““Knowing the meaning of a sentence, then means knowing under Knowing the meaning of a sentence, then means knowing under what circumstances it would be true or false according to your what circumstances it would be true or false according to your knowledge of the world, namely its truth conditionknowledge of the world, namely its truth condition””. (p. 181). (p. 181)

Ambiguity: Ambiguity:

Words and phrases with more than one Words and phrases with more than one meaning. (p. 182). meaning. (p. 182). ““Our knowledge of lexical Our knowledge of lexical and structural ambiguities reveals that the and structural ambiguities reveals that the meaning of a linguistic expression is built meaning of a linguistic expression is built both on the words it contains and its both on the words it contains and its syntactic structure. The notion that the syntactic structure. The notion that the meaning of an expression is composed of meaning of an expression is composed of the meanings of its parts and how they are the meanings of its parts and how they are combined structurally is referred to as the combined structurally is referred to as the principal of compositionalityprincipal of compositionality””. (p. 183). (p. 183)

Reading Rockets- Semantic GradientsReading Rockets- Semantic Gradients(add pictures to ESOL learners to help language and (add pictures to ESOL learners to help language and

understanding)understanding)

Semantic Rule 1Semantic Rule 1 Rule 1 states that a sentence composed of a subject NP and a Rule 1 states that a sentence composed of a subject NP and a predicate VP is true if the subject NP refers to an individual who is predicate VP is true if the subject NP refers to an individual who is among the members of the set that constitute the meaning of the VP. among the members of the set that constitute the meaning of the VP. This rule is entirely general. It does not refer to any particular This rule is entirely general. It does not refer to any particular sentence, individuals or verbs.sentence, individuals or verbs.”” (p. 185) (p. 185)

When Compositionality Goes Awry: When Compositionality Goes Awry: ““The meaning of an The meaning of an expression is not always obvious, even to a native speaker of the expression is not always obvious, even to a native speaker of the language. Meanings may be obscured in many ways, or at least many language. Meanings may be obscured in many ways, or at least many require some imagination or special knowledge to be apprehendedrequire some imagination or special knowledge to be apprehended”” (p. 186). (p. 186). ““There are, however, interesting cases in which There are, however, interesting cases in which compositionality breaks down, either because there is a problem with compositionality breaks down, either because there is a problem with words or with the semantic ruleswords or with the semantic rules””. . ““We refer to these situations as We refer to these situations as semantic semantic anomaly.anomaly. Alternatively, it might require a lot of creativity Alternatively, it might require a lot of creativity and imagination to derive a meaning. This is what happens in and imagination to derive a meaning. This is what happens in metaphorsmetaphors””. . ““Finally, some expressions – called idioms – have a Finally, some expressions – called idioms – have a fixed meaning, that is, a meaning that is not compositionalfixed meaning, that is, a meaning that is not compositional””. (p. 187). . (p. 187). ““When what appears to be an anomaly is nevertheless understood in When what appears to be an anomaly is nevertheless understood in terms of a meaningful concept , the expression becomes a metaphorterms of a meaningful concept , the expression becomes a metaphor””. . (p. 189). They may have a literal or metaphorical expression. They (p. 189). They may have a literal or metaphorical expression. They may therefore be ambiguous and with a strong cultural component; may therefore be ambiguous and with a strong cultural component; then language creativity is at its highest (p. 190).then language creativity is at its highest (p. 190).

Idioms or Idiomatic phrases:Idioms or Idiomatic phrases:

““It turns out that languages also contain It turns out that languages also contain many phrases whose meanings are not many phrases whose meanings are not predictable on the basis of the meanings predictable on the basis of the meanings of the individual words. These phrases of the individual words. These phrases typically start out as metaphors that typically start out as metaphors that ““catch upcatch up”” and are repeated so often that and are repeated so often that they become fixtures in the language. they become fixtures in the language. Such expressions are call Such expressions are call idioms, or idioms, or idiomatic phrases…idiomatic phrases…”” An example, An example, ““put put his foot in his mouthhis foot in his mouth”” or or ““kick the bucketkick the bucket””. . (p. 191/192) (p. 191/192)

Idioms – BlueIdioms – Blue

Application Application #8- Take a few idioms and try to find their source. #8- Take a few idioms and try to find their source.

(semantic ambiguity) (semantic ambiguity) 1. a friend ( when you 1. a friend ( when you

are) in need, is indeed are) in need, is indeed a true friend. a true friend. (Acceptable in 1562)(Acceptable in 1562)

2. a friend, (when you 2. a friend, (when you are) in need, is are) in need, is someone who is someone who is prepared to act to prepared to act to show it (in deed)show it (in deed)

3. a friend (which is) in 3. a friend (which is) in need, is indeed a true need, is indeed a true friend (indeed)friend (indeed)

4. a friend (who is) in 4. a friend (who is) in need is someone who need is someone who is prepared to act to is prepared to act to show it (in deed)show it (in deed)

- Referenced in the Referenced in the Oxford Dictionary of Oxford Dictionary of Quotations from the Quotations from the 1111thth century century- ““It is sayd, that at the It is sayd, that at the

nede the frende is nede the frende is knowenknowen”” Caxton Caxton’’s s Sonnes of Aymon 1489Sonnes of Aymon 1489

A friend in need is a friend indeedA friend in need is a friend indeedLatin originLatin origin

A la modeA la modeFrench originFrench origin

Commanders that are Commanders that are never a la mode but never a la mode but when all in Iron and when all in Iron and Steel Steel

Anglicized as a noun- Anglicized as a noun- ‘‘glossy black silkglossy black silk’’

English- English- ‘‘with ice creamwith ice cream’’

A la mode was A la mode was referenced in John referenced in John SeldenSelden’’s Laws of s Laws of England in 1649.England in 1649.

An introduction or way An introduction or way into something so that into something so that progress may be progress may be made later. made later.

- it started out as a - it started out as a literal phrase, but literal phrase, but progressed into a progressed into a figurative phrasefigurative phrase

A foot in the door

American origin

A fate worse than A fate worse than deathdeath

Roman originRoman origin Any misfortune that would make Any misfortune that would make

life unlivable, especially rape or life unlivable, especially rape or loss of virginity. It was formally a loss of virginity. It was formally a euphenism for rape. euphenism for rape.

1781 from Roman Empire1781 from Roman EmpireThe matrons and virgins The matrons and virgins

of Rome were exposed to injuries of Rome were exposed to injuries more dreadful in the more dreadful in the apprehension of chastity than apprehension of chastity than death itself. death itself.

1914 from Tarzan of the Apes via 1914 from Tarzan of the Apes via Edgar Rice BurroughsEdgar Rice Burroughs

{The ape} threw her {The ape} threw her roughly across his broad, hairy roughly across his broad, hairy shoulder, and leaped back into shoulder, and leaped back into the trees bearing Jane Porter the trees bearing Jane Porter away toward a fate a thousand away toward a fate a thousand times worse than death. times worse than death.

Literally means Literally means ‘‘according to according to the cardthe card’’• the card refers to looking the card refers to looking

at the menuat the menu

• Earliest references in Earliest references in Joseph ShererJoseph Sherer’’s Notes and s Notes and Reflections During a Reflections During a Ramble in Germany 1826Ramble in Germany 1826

““He will find He will find comfortable comfortable apartments, civil apartments, civil attendance, excellent attendance, excellent fare, a la carte, at any fare, a la carte, at any hour.hour.””

A la carte

French origin

Can you guess where these idioms originated?

1.1. Call A Spade A SpadeCall A Spade A Spade

American originAmerican origin

An American term that originated in the 20An American term that originated in the 20thth century. century.

2. 2. Catch 22Catch 22

American originAmerican origin

Joseph HellerJoseph Heller’’s novel in 1953 was presented as the trap that s novel in 1953 was presented as the trap that confined U. S. Airforce.confined U. S. Airforce.

3. 3. For the BirdsFor the Birds

American origin

A U.S. army term. A shorten form for army vulgar, 1944A U.S. army term. A shorten form for army vulgar, 1944

4. 4.

Lexical semantics (word meaning)Lexical semantics (word meaning)

““……the meaning of a phrase or sentences is the meaning of a phrase or sentences is partially a function of the meaning of the partially a function of the meaning of the words it containswords it contains””. (p. 193). . (p. 193). ““However, However, there is a fundamental difference between there is a fundamental difference between word meaning – or lexical semantics – and word meaning – or lexical semantics – and sentence meaning.sentence meaning.”” Children learning Children learning language must know these meanings language must know these meanings outright. In word meaning, there is a outright. In word meaning, there is a relationship that exist between words and relationship that exist between words and morphemes or the smallest unit of morphemes or the smallest unit of linguistic meaning or function. (p. 193) linguistic meaning or function. (p. 193)

Theories of Word MeaningTheories of Word Meaning

One theory is that the meaning of a word is One theory is that the meaning of a word is what the word is associated with or its what the word is associated with or its reference. reference. ““The real world object is The real world object is called the referentcalled the referent”” (p. 194). (p. 194).

Another theory is that because a word Another theory is that because a word always does not have a reference or always does not have a reference or referent (no reality connected to it, as it referent (no reality connected to it, as it may be abstract), the meaning of a word is may be abstract), the meaning of a word is the mental image in the mind of speakers. the mental image in the mind of speakers. (p. 195);or sense. (p. 195);or sense.

Lexical RelationsLexical Relations

““Words are semantically related to one Words are semantically related to one another in a variety of ways. The another in a variety of ways. The words that describe these relations words that describe these relations often end in the bound morpheme –often end in the bound morpheme –nymnym””. (p. 196) Examples are . (p. 196) Examples are synonyms, antonyms, polysemous (a synonyms, antonyms, polysemous (a word with multiple meaning that are word with multiple meaning that are related conceptually or historically) related conceptually or historically) or hyponyms (relationship between or hyponyms (relationship between the more general and more specific). the more general and more specific).

Exercise #10: Research ProjectExercise #10: Research Project There are many –nym/-onym words that There are many –nym/-onym words that

describe classes of words with particular describe classes of words with particular semantic properties, as was mentioned semantic properties, as was mentioned previously. But what is the etimology of previously. But what is the etimology of –onym? What common English word is –onym? What common English word is it related to? How many -nym words it related to? How many -nym words and their meaning can you come up and their meaning can you come up with? And do you know the –nym word with? And do you know the –nym word that was the winning word in the 1997 that was the winning word in the 1997 scripps National Spelling Bee?scripps National Spelling Bee?

The etymology of –onym is Greek, The etymology of –onym is Greek, onoma which means name or word.onoma which means name or word.

The common English word that itThe common English word that it’’s s related to is name. Name is derived related to is name. Name is derived from onyma.from onyma.

Some –nym words and their meaning:Some –nym words and their meaning:

AutonymAutonym – a word that describes – a word that describes itself; ex. noun is a noun, word is a itself; ex. noun is a noun, word is a word, abbrv. is an abbreviation.word, abbrv. is an abbreviation.

BacronymBacronym – the reverse of producing – the reverse of producing an acronym; taking a word which an acronym; taking a word which already exists and creating a phrase already exists and creating a phrase using the letters of the word as using the letters of the word as initials: ex. Build Absolutely Nothing initials: ex. Build Absolutely Nothing Anywhere Near Anybody (BANANA)Anywhere Near Anybody (BANANA)

*On your index cards try to come up *On your index cards try to come up with a bacronym of your own. with a bacronym of your own.

OronymOronym – a string of words which is – a string of words which is homophonic with another string of homophonic with another string of words; ice cream and I scream, mint words; ice cream and I scream, mint spy and mince pie.spy and mince pie.

RetronymRetronym – an adjective –noun – an adjective –noun pairing generated by a change in the pairing generated by a change in the meaning of the base noun, usually as meaning of the base noun, usually as a result of technological advance; ex. a result of technological advance; ex. watch became pocket watch due to watch became pocket watch due to the introduction of the wristband, pen the introduction of the wristband, pen became fountain pen due to the became fountain pen due to the introduction of the ball-point pen.introduction of the ball-point pen.

TautonymTautonym – a word composed of two – a word composed of two identical parts; ex. yo-yo, tutu, bye-identical parts; ex. yo-yo, tutu, bye-bye.bye.

Euonym was the winning word in the Euonym was the winning word in the 1997 Scripps Spelling Bee. Euonym is 1997 Scripps Spelling Bee. Euonym is an appropriate name for a person, an appropriate name for a person, place, or thing; ex. The realtors name place, or thing; ex. The realtors name was Sue House.was Sue House.

DiscussionDiscussion

(1) What are the two theories of word (1) What are the two theories of word meaning? meaning?

(2) How does context contribute to (2) How does context contribute to the clarification of ambiguity? the clarification of ambiguity?

Ex: When a student tells you something and the sentence that Ex: When a student tells you something and the sentence that they are telling does not have constituent structure, would you they are telling does not have constituent structure, would you correct that student by having them reword the sentence or not correct that student by having them reword the sentence or not acknowledge that the sentence is incorrect?acknowledge that the sentence is incorrect?

(3) What are lexical relations?(3) What are lexical relations?

Did you know??Did you know??

Did you know that Leonard Bloomfield, Did you know that Leonard Bloomfield, who was the most influential figure in who was the most influential figure in linguistics in the U.S. in the first half of linguistics in the U.S. in the first half of the 20the 20thth century, was strongly influenced century, was strongly influenced by behaviorism? The first chapter in his by behaviorism? The first chapter in his book book LanguageLanguage, titled , titled ““MeaningMeaning”” is is evidence of this. He felt we should have evidence of this. He felt we should have a scientifically accurate definition of a scientifically accurate definition of meaning for every form meaning for every form

of a language and that we should of a language and that we should have to have a scientifically have to have a scientifically accurate knowledge of everything in accurate knowledge of everything in the speakersthe speakers’’ world. world.

He also concluded that the He also concluded that the statement of meaning is therefore statement of meaning is therefore the weak point in language study, the weak point in language study, and would stay that way until and would stay that way until human knowledge advanced far human knowledge advanced far beyond its present state ( Journal of beyond its present state ( Journal of Foreign Languages (Shanghai), Foreign Languages (Shanghai), 119:1 (January 1999),2-20).119:1 (January 1999),2-20).

BloomfieldBloomfield’’s s ‘‘stimulus-responsestimulus-response’’ model of meaning was seen as model of meaning was seen as impractical as it was suited to his impractical as it was suited to his theoretical orientation. He tried to theoretical orientation. He tried to reconstruct the field of linguistics as reconstruct the field of linguistics as a purely formal structural basis. a purely formal structural basis.

His view of meaning he shared with His view of meaning he shared with other linguists of the time did prove other linguists of the time did prove to be a strong barrier to the to be a strong barrier to the development of linguistic semantics,development of linguistic semantics,

A barrier which continued into the A barrier which continued into the Chomskyan era ( Abbott, 1998 ).Chomskyan era ( Abbott, 1998 ).

ResourcesResources*Abbott, Barbara (1998). Journal of Foreign Languages (Shanghai), 119:1 *Abbott, Barbara (1998). Journal of Foreign Languages (Shanghai), 119:1

(January 1999), 2-20.(January 1999), 2-20.

*AlexESLvid (2009, Jul 13). *AlexESLvid (2009, Jul 13). Idioms in English- Idioms in English- ‘‘BlueBlue’’. Retrieved May 9, 2012. . Retrieved May 9, 2012. from http://www.youtube.com/watch?from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2_QaTlPpF4s&feature=youtube_gdata_playerv=2_QaTlPpF4s&feature=youtube_gdata_player

*Freymann, Saxton and Elffers, Joost. *Freymann, Saxton and Elffers, Joost. How Are You Peeling?How Are You Peeling? Scholastic Scholastic Press, N.Y., 1999Press, N.Y., 1999

*Jenkins, Steve & Page, Robin. *Jenkins, Steve & Page, Robin. What Do You Do With a Tail Like This?What Do You Do With a Tail Like This?

Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 2003Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 2003

*Martin, Gary. (1996-2012). The Phrase Finder. Retrieved May 9, 2012. from *Martin, Gary. (1996-2012). The Phrase Finder. Retrieved May 9, 2012. from http://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/index.html.http://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/index.html.

*Nym Words. (1999-2012). Retrieved May 14, 2012. From www.fun-*Nym Words. (1999-2012). Retrieved May 14, 2012. From www.fun-with-words.com/nym_words.htmlwith-words.com/nym_words.html

*O*O’’Connor, Jane. (2008). Connor, Jane. (2008). Fancy NancyFancy Nancy’’s Favorite Fancy Wordss Favorite Fancy Words, , Harper Collins, N.Y. N.Y.Harper Collins, N.Y. N.Y.

*Stockdale, Susan. (2011). *Stockdale, Susan. (2011). Bring On the BirdsBring On the Birds, Peachtree Publishers, , Peachtree Publishers, Atlanta,Georgia,Atlanta,Georgia,

*WETA. (2012). Reading Rockets. Retrieved May 9, 2012. From *WETA. (2012). Reading Rockets. Retrieved May 9, 2012. From http.www.readingRockets.org/strategies/semantic_gradients/http.www.readingRockets.org/strategies/semantic_gradients/