SemanticsSemantics Semantics is the study of meaning. It is

concerned with the meanings of words and how the meanings of sentences are derived from them. Semantics is based largely on the study of logic in philosophy.

What is meaning? Why does a certain set of What is meaning? Why does a certain set of words mean one thing and a similar set mean words mean one thing and a similar set mean something very different? When do two something very different? When do two different sentences mean the same thing? How different sentences mean the same thing? How can one sentence mean more than one thing? can one sentence mean more than one thing?

Meaning is a Multifaceted PhenomenonMeaning is a Multifaceted Phenomenon

1.1. Language meaning communicates information about Language meaning communicates information about the world around us. A language is essentially a the world around us. A language is essentially a system of symbols, and symbols are things which system of symbols, and symbols are things which stand for other things. stand for other things. Theories of information Theories of information contentcontent look at the relationship between a word and look at the relationship between a word and what it refers to. what it refers to.

2.2. Language meanings are things understood and Language meanings are things understood and produced in the mind of the speaker/hear as he or she produced in the mind of the speaker/hear as he or she uses the language. Meanings are a cognitive and uses the language. Meanings are a cognitive and psychological phenomenon. The meaning of a noun psychological phenomenon. The meaning of a noun like ‘bird’: is it a dictionary definition? A mental like ‘bird’: is it a dictionary definition? A mental image? Or the concept of a typical bird? image? Or the concept of a typical bird? Theories of Theories of mental representations mental representations of meanings examine this of meanings examine this aspect. aspect.

Meaning is a Multifaceted PhenomenonMeaning is a Multifaceted Phenomenon

3. Language meaning is a social phenomenon in that the 3. Language meaning is a social phenomenon in that the relationship between speaker and hearer comes into relationship between speaker and hearer comes into play in determining meaning, i.e., the play in determining meaning, i.e., the Context of an Context of an UtteranceUtterance, e.g. , e.g.

a- ‘The fish is very good today.’a- ‘The fish is very good today.’

b- ‘Phew. It’s cold in here.’b- ‘Phew. It’s cold in here.’Where’s the speaker with respect to the door in the Where’s the speaker with respect to the door in the

following two sentences?!!following two sentences?!!

c- The door opened and two men went inc- The door opened and two men went in

d- The door opened and two men came ind- The door opened and two men came in

Semantics Semantics What kind of semantic knowledge does a native-What kind of semantic knowledge does a native-

speaker have about his/her language that the linguist speaker have about his/her language that the linguist wants to explore? Three aspects of semantic structure wants to explore? Three aspects of semantic structure of language can be thought of to answer this of language can be thought of to answer this question: question:

1.1. The linguist tries to understand why certain words The linguist tries to understand why certain words can be combined together in a semantically can be combined together in a semantically acceptable way, while others cannot, e.g. the two acceptable way, while others cannot, e.g. the two sentences below are grammatically well-formed, but sentences below are grammatically well-formed, but the later is NOT semantically acceptable. the later is NOT semantically acceptable.

- Hatim arrived yesterday.- Hatim arrived yesterday.- Hatim arrived tomorrow. - Hatim arrived tomorrow.

Semantics Semantics

2. A linguist also wants to know why anyone who knows 2. A linguist also wants to know why anyone who knows a language recognizes certain phrases and sentences a language recognizes certain phrases and sentences as having similar meanings, e.g.as having similar meanings, e.g.

- I am exhausted and I wish to sleep.- I am exhausted and I wish to sleep.- I am tired and I want to go to bed. - I am tired and I want to go to bed.

3. A linguist wants to know how hearers not only 3. A linguist wants to know how hearers not only recognize ambiguous sentences but can also use the recognize ambiguous sentences but can also use the surrounding context to choose the most likely of surrounding context to choose the most likely of possible interpretations, e.g. possible interpretations, e.g.

- Visiting relatives can be very boring. - Visiting relatives can be very boring.

Semantics Semantics

A major division in semantics is between:A major division in semantics is between:

1.1. Lexical semantics: Lexical semantics: the meanings of words, andthe meanings of words, and

2.2. Compositional semantics: Compositional semantics: The way that the The way that the meaning of whole sentences is determined from the meaning of whole sentences is determined from the meanings of the individual words and the syntactic meanings of the individual words and the syntactic structure in which they are combined, e.g. structure in which they are combined, e.g.

a- The dog chased the cata- The dog chased the cat

b- The cat chased the dog b- The cat chased the dog

c- The dog was chased by the cat c- The dog was chased by the cat

Approaches to the study of word meaning Approaches to the study of word meaning

1.1. Componential Analysis Componential Analysis (lexical de-composition): the (lexical de-composition): the meaning of each lexical item is made up of meaning of each lexical item is made up of certain basic certain basic semantic features. semantic features. It refers to the description of the It refers to the description of the meanings of words through structured sets of sematic meanings of words through structured sets of sematic features which are given as ‘features which are given as ‘presentpresent’’ or ‘or ‘absentabsent’’. .

+ animate / - animate + human / - human, + animate / - animate + human / - human,

+ adult / - adult, + male - male+ adult / - adult, + male - male

child, mare, stallion, hen, rooster child, mare, stallion, hen, rooster

Componential AnalysisComponential AnalysisTableCowGirlWomanBoyManFather Mother

AnimateAnimate

humanhuman

malemale

FemaleFemale

MarriedMarried

AdultAdult

Activity Activity

Find the semantic features that distinguish Find the semantic features that distinguish each member of the following pairs:each member of the following pairs:

1- 1- bull – cow bull – cow 2- 2- woman – cow woman – cow

3- 3- cow – calf cow – calf 4- 4- man – child man – child

5- 5- child – bull child – bull 6-6- man – bull man – bull

Componential Semantics Componential Semantics Componential analysisComponential analysis is also used with different is also used with different

word categories, e.g. word categories, e.g. Female Female is part of the meaning of is part of the meaning of the noun the noun mothermother, the verb , the verb breast-feedbreast-feed, the adjective , the adjective pregnantpregnant..

?? The police killed James but James is not dead?? The police killed James but James is not dead CauseCause is a verbal property of : darken, kill, solidify is a verbal property of : darken, kill, solidify

Semantic Property Semantic Property Verbs having it Verbs having it

MotionMotion bring, fall, walk, runbring, fall, walk, run

Contact Contact hit, kiss, touch hit, kiss, touch

Creation Creation build, make, inventbuild, make, invent

Sense Sense see, feel, hear, watch see, feel, hear, watch

Lexical Semantics Lexical Semantics

Lexical Semantics Lexical Semantics deals with a language’s deals with a language’s lexicon, or the collection of words in a lexicon, or the collection of words in a language. language.

Lexical RelationsLexical Relations: A useful way of understanding word meaning is by studying such lexical relations as: polysemy, polysemy, homonymy, synonymy, antonymy, homonymy, synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy.hyponymy.

Lexical Semantics Lexical Semantics 1- 1- Polysemy: Polysemy: A lexical item is said to be polysemous if it A lexical item is said to be polysemous if it

has several meanings which has several meanings which are all relatedare all related. . Foot: human foot, foot of a mountain, foot of a bed.Foot: human foot, foot of a mountain, foot of a bed.

Bank: financial institution/ the building where a Bank: financial institution/ the building where a financial institution offers services/ financial institution offers services/ it means to “it means to “rely rely upon” (e.g. upon” (e.g. "I'm your friend, you can "I'm your friend, you can bankbank on me" on me"))

Wood: a piece of a tree / a geographical area with Wood: a piece of a tree / a geographical area with many treesmany trees

Head: part of the body above neck / person in charge Head: part of the body above neck / person in charge of an institution of an institution

Lexical Semantics Lexical Semantics

2- 2- Homonymy: Homonymy: It is a word that is written or It is a word that is written or pronounced the same way as another, but which pronounced the same way as another, but which has a different meaning. has a different meaning.

bankbank check check spring spring light light fair fair lie lie

There are two types of Homonyms:There are two types of Homonyms:1.1. Homophones:Homophones: words which sound the same but have words which sound the same but have

different meanings and often in spelling (different meanings and often in spelling (whichwhich and and witch) , (sealing/ceiling), (meet/meat)witch) , (sealing/ceiling), (meet/meat)

2.2. Homographs:Homographs: words that are spelled the same but words that are spelled the same but have different meanings and often different have different meanings and often different pronunciations (fair/fair), (wind/wind)pronunciations (fair/fair), (wind/wind)

Activity Activity

Give at least one homonym with a different Give at least one homonym with a different spelling of each of the following:spelling of each of the following:

1- too 1- too 2- flee2- flee3- site 3- site 4- fair4- fair5- there5- there6- sea6- sea7- meet7- meet8- pear8- pear9- by 9- by 10- plane10- plane

Lexical SemanticsLexical Semantics

3- Synonymy:3- Synonymy: Two lexical items are said to be Two lexical items are said to be synonymous if they have the same meaning, e.g. synonymous if they have the same meaning, e.g. answer/reply, freedom/liberty, broad/wide.answer/reply, freedom/liberty, broad/wide.

Perfect synonymy in English is very rare. Perfect synonymy in English is very rare. Answer/replyAnswer/reply

Mary had one correct Mary had one correct answeranswer on the exam. on the exam. Mary has one correct Mary has one correct replyreply on the exam (Wrong).on the exam (Wrong).

Carry/bearCarry/bear The policeman was carrying a gun. The policeman was carrying a gun. The letter bears no signature. The letter bears no signature. Tall building/tall boy Tall building/tall boy High building but NOT high boy High building but NOT high boy

Absolute synonymy comes with dialect variation Absolute synonymy comes with dialect variation Autumn/fall , lift/elevator, rabbit/bunny Autumn/fall , lift/elevator, rabbit/bunny

Lexical Semantics … Activity Lexical Semantics … Activity Give at least one synonym for each of the Give at least one synonym for each of the

following:following:

1- pretty 1- pretty 2- mend2- mend3- fair3- fair4- admire 4- admire 5- big5- big6- below6- below7- relax7- relax8- sad8- sad9- start9- start10- occupation 10- occupation

Lexical Semantics … cont’d Lexical Semantics … cont’d

4- Antonymy refers to words with opposite meanings. The basic property of two words

that are antonyms is that they share all but one semantic property. Beautiful and tall are not

antonyms; beautiful and ugly are antonyms as the semantic property is absent in one and

present in the other.

Lexical Semantics … cont’d Lexical Semantics … cont’d There are three types of antonyms

1- Gradable antonyms: They are at the opposite ends of a continuous spectrum of meanings. They are pairs of

words such as big-small, old-young, slow-fast, short-tall. These words can be interpreted in terms of being

bigger or better, or older than the other item being compared.

Comparison is made in the contexts of the same things compared. So a house is newer than another house not

another car.

Non-gradable antonyms such as single-married, male-female, which do not allow expressions of degree, so

we cannot say very female, quite married, more married

Lexical Semantics … cont’d Lexical Semantics … cont’d In English, the larger item of the pair is often called

the unmarked or the neutral, e.g.

How big is it? How tall is he? How old is she? One thousand feet high Five feet tall

These questions do not pre-judge the matter. They are not biased and open to the expectation of the inquirer.

When we ask How small is it? How young is he? How short is she? We pre-judge the matter and claim that it is in fact small, short, and young, etc. This, however, is not universal as in Japanese they would ask how short is it? How thin is it?

Lexical Semantics … cont’d Lexical Semantics … cont’d

2- Complementary Antonyms 2- Complementary Antonyms areare pairs of words such as pairs of words such as alive-dead, male-female, married-single.alive-dead, male-female, married-single. The absence The absence of one implies the presence of the other. of one implies the presence of the other. If one is not If one is not male, then one is certainly female. male, then one is certainly female.

In certain contexts, the following can be complementary. In certain contexts, the following can be complementary. Food Food drinkdrinkLand Land seaseaTransitive Transitive intransitiveintransitivemortal mortal immortal immortal

Related to complementary pairs are sets of terms like colors where Related to complementary pairs are sets of terms like colors where the assertion of one denies the presence of the others. If we have a the assertion of one denies the presence of the others. If we have a set of words like red, yellow, pink, black and white. THIS IS set of words like red, yellow, pink, black and white. THIS IS GREENGREEN means it is not yellow, or red, or black, etc. means it is not yellow, or red, or black, etc.

John is not single John is not single impliesimplies John is married John is married

Lexical Semantics … cont’d Lexical Semantics … cont’d

3- Relational antonyms (converse 3- Relational antonyms (converse antonyms): they are antonyms): they are pairs in which one describes a relationship between pairs in which one describes a relationship between two objects and the other describes the same two objects and the other describes the same relationship when the two objects relationship when the two objects are reversedare reversed, such , such as as parent-childparent-child, , teacherteacher--studentstudent, doctor-patient, lend-, doctor-patient, lend-borrow, push-pull, give-take, buy-sell.borrow, push-pull, give-take, buy-sell.

The same verb can be in a converse relationship:The same verb can be in a converse relationship:

- John - John rentedrented the house the house toto Peter Peter - Peter - Peter rentedrented the house the house from from JohnJohn

Lexical Semantics … Activity Lexical Semantics … Activity

Give the best antonym for each of the Give the best antonym for each of the following words and following words and decide its typedecide its type: :

o disappeardisappearo truetrueo kindkindo daydayo darkdarko entranceentranceo popularpopularo heavyheavyo good good

Lexical Semantics … cont’d Lexical Semantics … cont’d

5- Hyponym: 5- Hyponym: The meaning of one lexical item is included in The meaning of one lexical item is included in the meaning of another in some type of hierarchical the meaning of another in some type of hierarchical relationship. relationship.

- A horse is a hyponym of animal.- A horse is a hyponym of animal.

- beef is a hyponym of meat - beef is a hyponym of meat

- football is a hyponym of game- football is a hyponym of game

Living thingsLiving things

__________________________________________

creatures Plants creatures Plants

animal insect vegetable flower animal insect vegetable flower treetreehorse dog snake ant cockroach carrot Jasmine horse dog snake ant cockroach carrot Jasmine pinepine

poodlepoodle

Lexical Semantics … cont’d Lexical Semantics … cont’d Metaphor is a phrase that is not used in its usual or literal

meaning but is given a different but analogous one. The essence of a metaphor is that it finds a similarity between two things that are on first consideration quite different from each other.

The sunshine of her smile: the beauty, the sweetness John is a snake in the grass: a false friend. Lame duck: ineffective, helpless person Dr John is a butcher الضاحكة الوديان الغاضبة السماء صارخ عطر Metaphors can be seen as mappings from a source domain onto

a target domain or experience which facilitate the understanding of complex or abstract domains and concepts by constructing them in terms of experientially concrete or familiar ones.

Phrasal verbsPhrasal verbs Phrasal verbPhrasal verb is a special type of idioms which is made is a special type of idioms which is made

up of a verb followed by a preposition or an adverbial up of a verb followed by a preposition or an adverbial particle or both, and usually the meaning is slightly or particle or both, and usually the meaning is slightly or considerably different from the literal meaning of the considerably different from the literal meaning of the words. words.

We We come across come across something: to see or discover it. something: to see or discover it. Look down on Look down on something: scorn or despise it something: scorn or despise it Put up withPut up with: tolerate, endure : tolerate, endure Look after , Look up , break out , break up Look after , Look up , break out , break up These structures are much more frequent in These structures are much more frequent in

spoken English than in written Englishspoken English than in written English

Phrasal verbsPhrasal verbs … cont’d … cont’d

They can be classified into three types They can be classified into three types depending on how much change of the verb depending on how much change of the verb meaning takes place with the addition of the meaning takes place with the addition of the particle(s):particle(s):

1- 1- Transparent type: Transparent type: The meaning of the whole The meaning of the whole phrase is the total sum of its parts:phrase is the total sum of its parts:

come in come in يدخليدخل get away get away يهربيهرب get out of get out of يتملصيتملص

go up go up يصعديصعد go on go on يستمريستمر

Phrasal verbsPhrasal verbs … cont’d … cont’d

2- 2- Semi-transparent type:Semi-transparent type: the meaning of the the meaning of the whole phrase is not exactly the total sum of its whole phrase is not exactly the total sum of its parts, but can be guessed correctly in most parts, but can be guessed correctly in most cases: cases: see off see off يودعيودع get away with get away with ( عقاب ( من )يفلت عقاب ( من يفلتcome to come to يفيقيفيق get over get over على على يتغلب يتغلب

3- 3- Opaque Type: Opaque Type: the meaning of the phrasal verb is not the meaning of the phrasal verb is not the total sum of its parts and is usually very difficult to the total sum of its parts and is usually very difficult to guess unless the contexts makes it very clear:guess unless the contexts makes it very clear:see (someone) to see (someone) to بــ بــ يعتني يتحمليتحمل put up with put up with يعتنيsend down send down ( جامعة ( من طالب يطرد أو )يفصل جامعة ( من طالب يطرد أو يفصلget on with get on with ينسجمينسجم get at get at االقناع االقناع يحاول يحاول

Phrasal verbsPhrasal verbs … cont’d … cont’d Often one and the same phrasal verb can Often one and the same phrasal verb can

belong to two types:belong to two types:1.11.1 come across the road come across the road 1.21.2 come across some old letters come across some old letters 2.1 2.1 put (hand ) up = raise handput (hand ) up = raise hand2.22.2 put up (the money ) = provide put up (the money ) = provide

fundingfunding2.32.3 put (somebody) up = host someone put (somebody) up = host someone3.1 3.1 put out (cigarette) put out (cigarette) 3.2 3.2 put out (the cat) = leave outsideput out (the cat) = leave outside3.33.3 put out (somebody) = annoy put out (somebody) = annoy

Arabic Phrasal VerbsArabic Phrasal Verbs Arabic has the same phenomenon on a large Arabic has the same phenomenon on a large

scale. But here the particle following the verb scale. But here the particle following the verb is more frequently a preposition rather than an is more frequently a preposition rather than an adverbial particle. adverbial particle.

As in English the context helps in guessing As in English the context helps in guessing the meaning of the phrase, though not always the meaning of the phrase, though not always successfully.successfully.

Unlike English, this phenomenon is more Unlike English, this phenomenon is more common in written than in spoken Arabic. common in written than in spoken Arabic.

Let’s consider the following examples: Let’s consider the following examples:

Arabic Phrasal VerbsArabic Phrasal Verbs ( ) الشيء في )رغب ) الشيء في عن desiredesireرغب رغب عن ، رغب ،

( ) الشيء( dislikedislikeالشيء(

( ) ( ) الشيء في نظر ، الشيء إلى ) نظر ) ( ) الشيء في نظر ، الشيء إلى نظرconsiderconsider ( ) لـ نظر ، متقاضين بين نظر ، ( ) لـ نظر ، متقاضين بين نظر ، ( ) شخص( take caretake careشخص(

( ) ( مال> ( ، الشيء عن نام ، الشيء على ) نام ) ( مال> ( ، الشيء عن نام ، الشيء على نامإلى به مال ، مع مال> ، عن مال> ، إلى إلى به مال ، مع مال> ، عن مال> ، إلى

Phrasal Verbs : Activity Phrasal Verbs : Activity Translate the following into Arabic: Translate the following into Arabic: 1- Abdulla’s parents are very much 1- Abdulla’s parents are very much set againstset against his his

marriage. marriage. 2- the drought will 2- the drought will setset the country’s progress the country’s progress backback

several years.several years.3- 3- Setting aside Setting aside my wishes in this matter, what would my wishes in this matter, what would

you really like to do?you really like to do?4- The discovery of gold in California 4- The discovery of gold in California sat off sat off a rush to go a rush to go

there. there. 5- He is a really a good teacher; he 5- He is a really a good teacher; he puts across puts across his subject his subject

very well. very well. 6- She was really 6- She was really put about put about when I went to see her. when I went to see her. 7- The army 7- The army put down put down the rebellion in less than a week. the rebellion in less than a week. 8- Never 8- Never put off put off till tomorrow what you can do today. till tomorrow what you can do today.