semester review. the tailored design method uses multiple motivational features in compatible and...

Semester Review

The Tailored Design Method


• Uses multiple motivational features in compatible and mutually supportive ways to encourage high quantity and quality of responses


• Premised on social exchange perspective on human behavior

• Assumes that the likelihood of responding is greater when the expected rewards outweigh the anticipated costs


• Gives attention to all aspects of contacting and communicating with respondents

• Encourages response by considering survey sponsorship, the nature of the population and variations within it, and content of questions


• Emphasizes reducing errors of coverage, sampling, nonresponse, and measurement

Coverage Error

• Occurs when all members of a population do not have a known, non-zero probability of selection

• Occurs when those who are excluded are different from those who are included

Sampling Error

• Results from surveying only some rather than all members of a population

• Represented by B, the bound on the error of estimation

Nonresponse Error

• Occurs when people selected do not respond and are different than those who do

• Nonresponse can occur at the level of items within a survey or at the level of the survey– MAR– MCAR

Measurement Error

• Occurs when responses are inaccurate or imprecise

• Primarily related to poor layout and poor design and wording of questions

Social Exchange and Surveys

• Addresses three central questions about design and implementation1. How can the perceived rewards for

responding be increased?2. How can the perceived costs of

responding be reduced?3. How can trust be established so that

people believe the rewards will outweigh the costs of responding?

Increasing Benefits

• Provide information about the survey• Ask for help or advise• Show positive regard• Say thank you• Support group values• Give tangible rewards• Make the questionnaire interesting• Provide social validation• Inform people that opportunities to

respond are limited

Decreasing Costs

• Make it convenient to respond• Avoid subordinating language• Make the questionnaire short and

easy to complete• Minimize requests for personal or

sensitive information• Emphasize similarity to other

requests or tasks to which a person has already responded

Establishing Trust

• Obtain sponsorship by legitimate authority

• Provide a token of appreciation in advance

• Make the task appear important• Ensure confidentiality and security of

information

Features that can be Tailored

• Survey mode– Singular or multiple

• Sample design– Type of sample– Number of units sampled

• Incentives– Type of incentive– Amount or cost of incentive– Before or after


• Contacts– Number of contacts– Timing of initial and subsequent

contacts– Mode of each contact– Whether contacts will be personalized– Sponsorship information– Visual design of each contact– Text or words in each contact


• Additional materials– Whether to provide them at all– Type of materials (e.g., research report)– Visual design of materials– Text or wording of materials


• Questionnaire– Topics included– Length (duration, number of

pages/screens, number of questions)– First page or screen– Visual design– Organization and order of questions– Navigation through questionnaire


• Individual questions– Topic (sensitive, of interest to the

respondent)– Type (open-ended versus closed-ended)– Organization of information– Text or wording– Visual design

Coverage and Sampling

Central Terminology

• An element is an object on which a measurement is taken

• A population is a collection of elements to which an inference is made from a sample

• A sample is a collection of sampling units drawn from a frame or frames

• Sampling units are nonoverlapping collections of elements from the population that cover the entire population

• A frame is a list of sampling units

Central Terminology

• A completed sample is the units that respond

• Sampling error is the result of collecting data from only a subset, rather than all, units from a frame– Again, represented by B, the bound on

the error of estimation

Coverage

• The degree to which the units in a sampling frame correspond to the population of interest

• Coverage is likely one of the most serious problems in most surveys

Coverage and Frame Problems

Target Population Frame Population

Covered Population

Undercoverage

Und

erco

vera

ge

Ineligible Units

Ineligible Units

Reducing Coverage Error

• Central questions:– Does the list contain everyone in the

survey population?– Does the list include people who are not

in the study population?– How is the list maintained and updated?– Are the same sample units included on

the list more than once?– Does the list contain other information

that can be used to improve the survey?

An Overview of Crafting Good Questions

Issues to Consider

1. What survey mode(s) will be used to ask the questions?

2. Is the question being repeated from another survey, and/or will answers be compared to previously collected data?

3. Will respondents be willing and motivated to answer accurately?

4. What type of information is the question asking for?

Choosing Words and Forming Question1. Make sure the question applies to the respondent2. Make sure the question is technically accurate3. Ask one question at a time4. Use simple and familiar words5. Use specific and concrete words to specify the

concepts clearly6. Use as few words as possible to pose the question7. Use complete sentences with simple sentence

structures8. Make sure “yes” means yes and “no” means no9. Be sure the question specifies the response task

Visual Presentation of Survey Questions1. Use darker and/or larger print for the question and lighter and/or

smaller print for answer choices and answer spaces2. Use spacing to create subgrouping within a question3. Visually standardize all answer spaces or response options4. Use visual design properties to emphasize elements that are

important to the respondent and to deemphasize those that are not5. Make sure words and visual elements that make up the question

send consistent messages6. Integrate special instructions into the question where they will be

used rather than including them as freestanding entities7. Separate optional or occasionally needed instructions from the

question stem by font or symbol variation8. Organize each question in a way that minimizes the need to reread

portions in order to comprehend the response task9. Choose line spacing, font, and text size to ensure the legibility of the

text

From Questions to a Questionnaire

General Premises

• The design of a questionnaire should consider how to motivate the recipient to respond

• It should also avoid measurement errors, ranging from order effects to item nonresponse

Guidelines for Ordering Questions

Ordering Questions

• General guidelines1. Group related questions that cover

similar topics, and begin with questions likely to be salient to nearly all respondents

2. Choose the first question carefully3. Place sensitive or potentially

objectionable questions near the end4. Ask questions about events in the order

that they occurred5. Avoid unintended order effects

Guidelines for Creating a Common Visual Stimulus

Visual Stimulus

• General guidelines1. Establish consistency in the visual presentation of

questions (across pages and screens) and use alignment and vertical spacing to help respondents organize information on the page

2. Use color and contrast to help respondents recognize the components of the questions and the navigational path through the survey

3. Visually group related information in regions through the use of contrast and enclosure

4. Use visual elements and properties consistently across questions to emphasize or deemphasize certain types of information

5. Avoid visual clutter6. Minimize the use of matrixes and their complexity

Yes

No

First name/initials(optional) (name)

Relative 1

(name)

Relative 2

(name)

Relative 3

Does this relative live in Kalamazoo? . . . . . . .

If no: about how far away from Kalamazoo do they live? . . . . . . . . Miles Miles Miles

About how old is this relative? . . . . . . . . . . . .

Years Years Years

Every day

Every week

Approximately, how often do you communicate with this relative? . . . . . . . . . . . .

Once a month

Less than once a month

Every day

Every week

Once a month


Every day

Every week

Once a month


Guidelines for Mail Questionnaires

Mail Questionnaires

• General guidelines1. Determine whether keypunching or optical imaging and

scanning will be used, and assess the limitations imposed on designing and processing questionnaires

2. Construct paper questionnaires in booklet formats, and choose physical dimensions based upon printing and mailing considerations

3. Decide question layout and how questions will be arranged on each page

4. Use symbols, contrast, size, proximity, and pagination effectively when designing branching instructions to help respondents correctly execute them

5. Create interesting and informative front and back pages that will have wide appeal to respondents

6. Avoid placing questions side-by-side on a page so that respondents are asked to answer two questions at once

Guidelines for Web Questionnaires

Web Questionnaires

• General guidelines1. Decide whether an electronic alternative is

appropriate2. Choose how the survey will be programmed and

hosted, commensurate with needs, skills, and sponsorship

3. Take steps to ensure that questions display similarity across platforms, browsers, and user settings

4. Decide how many questions will be presented on each page and how questions will be presented

5. Develop a screen format that emphasizes the respondent rather than the sponsor

Web Questionnaires

• General guidelines6. Use a consistent page layout across screens and

visually emphasize questions information that respondents will need to complete the survey while deemphasizing information not essential to the task

7. Do not require responses unless absolutely necessary

8. Design survey-specific and item-specific error messages to help respondents troubleshoot

9. Evaluate carefully the use of interactive features, balancing improvements in measurement with the impact on respondent burden and the implications with mixed-mode surveys

Web Questionnaires

• General guidelines10. Use audiovisual capabilities sparingly, and evaluate

the differential effect they have on respondents11. Allow respondents to stop the survey and finish

completing it at another time12. Whenever possible, collect paradata that provide

feedback on how respondents interact with questionnaire

13. Test the survey using a variety of platforms, connection speeds, browsers, and user-controlled settings, and test the database to ensure that items are collected and coded accurately

14. Take screenshots of each page of the final questionnaire for testing and documentation

Guidelines for Pretesting Questionnaires

Pretesting Questionnaires

• General guidelines1. Obtain feedback on the draft of the questionnaire

from a number of people, each of whom has specialized of some aspect of questionnaire quality

2. Conduct cognitive interviews of the complete questionnaire in order to identify wording, question order, visual design, and navigational problems

3. When the stakes are high, consider experimental evaluations of questionnaire components

4. Conduct a small pilot study with a subsample of the population in order to evaluate interconnections among questions, the questionnaire, and implementation procedures

Implementation Procedures

Mail Survey Implementation


• When high quality implementation procedures are used, response rates of 50%-70% are not uncommon– In my own work, I have had response

rates as high as 90%

• Implementation must receive considerable thought and planning– It should not occur after questionnaire

design, but simultaneously


• General guidelines1. To the extent possible, personalize all

contacts to respondents (even when names are unavailable)

2. Send a token of appreciation with the survey request

3. Use multiple contacts, each with a different look and appeal

4. Carefully and strategically time all contacts5. Select all mail-out dates with the

characteristics of the population in mind


• General guidelines6. Place information in the mailing exactly

where it needs to be used7. Take steps to ensure that mailings will not

be mistaken for junk mail or marketing materials

8. Evaluate the size and weight of mailing materials on mailing costs

9. Assemble the mailings in a way that maximizes the appealing aspects of each element when the package is opened


• General guidelines10.Ensure that all addresses in the sample comply

with current postal regulations11.Assign an individual ID number to each sample

member12.Establish procedures for dealing with

undeliverable mail13.Establish procedures for dealing with returned

incentives14.Establish procedures for dealing with respondent

inquiries15.Evaluate early returns for problems that can be

addressed mid-stride

Prenotice Letter

• Sent to respondents a few days prior to the questionnaire

• It notes that a questionnaire is for an important survey that will arrive in a few days and that the person’s response will be greatly appreciated

• This letter can increase response rates by 3%-6%– No recent research comparing postcards

to letters (I prefer the former)

Questionnaire Mailing

• Includes a detailed cover letter explaining why a response is important

• The questionnaire• A prepaid postage envelope• A token incentive if one is to be

provided

Thank You Postcard

• Sent a few days to a week after the questionnaire

• The mailing expresses appreciation for responding and indicates that if the completed questionnaire has not yet been mailed it is hoped that it will be returned soon

Replacement Questionnaire

• Sent to respondents 2 to 4 weeks after the previous questionnaire mailing

• It indicates that the person’s completed questionnaire has not yet been received and urges the recipient to respond

Final Contact

• Sent using a different mode of delivery 2 to 4 weeks after the previous mailing

• The different mode of contact distinguishes each type of final contact from regular mail delivery

• Special contacts have been shown to increase response

Web Survey Implementation


• Major concerns associated with web surveys– Mode of initial contact– Extent to which personalized elements

can be used– Whether and how incentives are

delivered– Timing of contacts


• General guidelines1. To the extent possible, personalize all

contacts to respondents2. Send a token of appreciation with the

survey request3. Use multiple contacts and vary the

message across them4. Carefully and strategically time all

contacts with the population in mind5. Consider contacting respondents by

another mode when possible


• General guidelines6. Keep e-mail contacts short and to the point7. Take steps to ensure that e-mails are not

flagged as spam8. Carefully select the sender name and

address the subject line text for e-mail communications

9. Provide clear instructions for how to access the survey

10.Make obvious connections between the opening screen and other implementation features


• General guidelines11.Assign each sample member a unique ID number12.Know and respect the capabilities and limits of

the web server(s)13.Establish a procedure for dealing with bounced

e-mails14.Establish procedures for dealing with returned

incentives15.Establish procedures for dealing with respondent

inquiries16.Implement a system for monitoring progress and

evaluating early completes

When More than one Survey Mode is Needed

Why Consider a Mixed-Mode Survey Design

• Lower costs• Improve timeliness• Reduce coverage error• Deliver incentives

Four Types of Mixed-Mode Surveys

Type I

• Use one mode to contact respondents and to encourage response by a different mode

Type II

• Use a second mode to collect responses from the same respondents for specific questions within a questionnaire

Type III

• Use alternative modes for different respondents in the same survey period

Type IV

• Use a different mode to survey the same respondents in a later data collection period

Mixed-Mode Surveys and their ImplicationsType Motivation Limitations

I. Use one mode to contact respondents and to encourage response by a different mode

• Improve response rates• Reduce coverage and

nonresponse error

• Increased implementation costs

II. Use a second mode to collect responses from the same respondents for specific questions within a questionnaire

• Reduce measurement error

• Reduce social desirability bias for sensitive question

• Increased design costs• Increased nonresponse if

respondent must respond by other mode at a later time

III. Use alternative modes for different respondents in a the same survey period

• Improve response rates• Reduce coverage and

nonresponse error• Reduce survey costs

• Increased design costs• Measurement error from

differences that may be confounded with differences among subgroups

IV. Use a different mode to survey the same respondents in a latter data collection period

• Different modes become available to survey respondents

• Reduce survey costs

• Increased design costs• Measurement error from mode

differences that impact the ability to measure change over time

Why Different Survey Modes Sometimes Produce Different Answers to Survey Questions

Presence versus Absence of an Interviewer

• Locus of control• Normative question order effects• Social desirability• Acquiescence

Aural versus Visual Communication Effects

• Primacy/recency effects