senger the idea of change

7/27/2019 Senger the Idea of Change

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Sonderdrucke aus der Albert-Ludwigs-Universitt Freiburg

HARRO VON SENGER

The idea of change as a fundament of the Chinese

art of cunning

Originalbeitrag erschienen in:

Viviane Alleton (Hrsg.): Notions et perceptions du changement en Chine: Textes prsents au IXecongrs de lAssociation Europenne dtudes Chinoises.Paris: Collge de France, Inst. des Hautes Etudes Chinoises, 1994. (Mmoires de lInstitut des Hautestudes Chinoises ; 36), S. [21]-28


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THE IDEA OF CHANGE AS A FUNDAMENT OF THECHINESE ART OF CUNNING *

HARRO VON SENGER(Albert-Ludwigs-Universitt, Freiburg im Breisgau)

The Chinese Art of Cunning has developed over at least three mil-lenia. The most concise form of the Chinese experience in how to dealwith hostile persons and precarious situations is the catalogue of the 36stratagems (36 jz) coined about 500 years ago at the end of the Ming beginning of the Qing dynasty (16-17th centuries A.D.). The old-est existing treatise on the subject is entitled Secret Book on the Art ofWar: The 36 Stratagems (Sanshiliu Ji: Miben Bingfa . { i } : * 6

. 1 When I mention in this paper the Treatise on the 36 Strata-gems, I always refer to this book.The fundamental theory on which the Treatise on the 36 Stratagem s

is based, is and here I quote from the Treatise on the 36 Stratage m s "the harmonization and regulation of the operations of Yin andYang" (yin yang xie li E I) . 2Yin and Yang are considered as two opposite elementary cosmic

forces. Their various combinations create all things and form all ac-tions. The way in which Yin and Yang operate and how things changeand develop because of the interplay between Yin and Yang, has inChina been described and explained in a most elaborate and sophisti-cated manner in the Book of Changes (Yijing All of the 36chapters of the Treatise on the 36 Stratagems contain references to

' I thank Martin Sychold, Swiss Institute of Comparative Law in Lausanne, whoas a linguistical advisor read through the manuscript.1. I am using the edition Wu Gu, Huitu Sanshiliu Ji (The 36 StratagemsIllustrated), Changchun, 1987.2. Wu Gu, op. cit., pp. 1 and 4. This formula is quoted from The Book of History,Zhouguan; James Legge, The Chinese Classics: The Shoo King, Taibei, 1971, p. 527.


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22arro von Sengerdifferent parts of the Book of Changes. 3 However, the most importantlink between the two works is the spirit of the concept of Yin andYang. This concept inspires the text of the whole Treatise on the 36Stratagems. In this way, the Chinese Art of Cunning has been based onthe idea of change.

The idea of change as a fundament of the Chinese Art of Cunninghas the following three implications:

1) A dynamic, non-static concept of reality, or to quote ProfessorJacques Gernet, "une notion dynamique du temps et de l'espace [...]l'idee de situations instables, de configurations [...] transitoires". 4

between Yin and Yang. Nothing is fixed, everything is in a state offlux. The instability of reality affects also social norms and values.The social norms and values are reasonable only with respect to acertain reality, but become unreasonable with respect to a changedreality. Social norms are therefore relative and not absolute. Neitheractual, nor normative reality is unchangeable. This insight has beenformulated in the Book of Mencius :

Mencius said: "He who would not rescue the drowning woman is a wolf.For males and females not to allow their hands to touch in giving andreceiving is the ritual rule; when a sister - in - law is drowning, to rescue herwith the hand is a [reasonable] variation [of the normal rule]." 5

Another way to express the same idea is: gouqg, tl]lx. Thiscould be translated as follows:

In a normal situation, one has to follow the normal rule, in case of achange, one has to resort to a [reasonable] variation [of the rule] . 6

3. Zhang Xiaomei, Sanshiliu Ji Yi Yi fie Ji (The 36 Stratagems Explainingthe Stratagem s with the Book of Changes ), 3rd edition, Shanghai, 1991, pp. 11 ff.4. Jacques Gernet, Preface l'edition francaise, in: Harro von Senger, Strata-gemes Trois millenaires de ruses pour vivre et survivre, Paris, 1992, p. VI.5. The Works of Me ncius, bk. IV (Li Lou), pt. I, ch. XVII; James Legge, The FourBooks : The Works of Mencius, Taibei, 1973, p. 307. Legge translatesquan) with"a peculiar exigency". Richard Wilhelm, Mong Dsi Die Lehrgesprche desMeisters Meng K'o, Kln, 1982, p. 120, translates quan with "Ausnahme" (exception).

My translation is based on Morohashi Tetsuji, Dai Kan-Wa Jiten (Great Japanese-Chinese Dictionary), vol. VI, p. 605, n 15926, 1.10: ": (...), lR " , and onCiyuan (Source of Words), Peking, 1988, p. 892: "41:t1/0,141M,ggitiig6 . Ma Senliang, Sanshiliu Ji (The 36 Stratagems), 4th enlarged edition, Taibei,1989, (preface), p. 23.


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The Idea of Change as a Fundament. . .3The idea of change therefore implies the concept of human flexi-

bility in normative behaviour. The human being has, in certain circum-stances, the freedom to chose a non-normal, unorthodox way of be-haviour. The dynamic concept of reality, in principle, allows vari-ations from the official social, ritual, customary, or legal norms ac-cording to changing situations.2) The human being as the promoter, manipulator, subject ofchange. The Book of Changes does not treat the human being as a help-less victim of fate. On the contrary, the Book of Changes with itsspecific techniques of divinatory analysis, seeks to enable the humanbeing to foresee different future scenarios and developments and, aftercareful and conspicuous deliberation, choose the most appropriate one.Exactly this aspect of the Book of Changes is emphasized in the Trea-tise on the 36 Stratage m s. By connecting 29 of the 36 stratagems withone or several of the 64 hexagrams, the Treatise on the 36 Stratagemsinstructs the person who intends to use a stratagem to analyze the dif-ferent possible stages of the future developments within the conceptualframework of the hexagram- and stroke-analysis. The person who in-tends to apply the stratagem gains in this way a rather comprehensiveview of possible positive and negative consequences of the stratagem-application.3) Change is not only an objective process. Change can also be pro-voked by the human being. If the situation is bad, the human being inhis role as the master of change is considered to be able to influencereality in order to transmute the negative situation into a positive situ-ation. In the Chinese language, this idea is reflected in several expres-sions such as:

VWV/Mk* -4ig^ to change inferiority into superiority;to change w eakness into strength.As a result of years of research, I am convinced that among the

Chinese there are many people with a high degree of self-esteem, self-consciousness, with the ardent desire of self-realization, and possiblyeven with quite a lot of selfishness and egoism. This can be demon-strated by quotations such as:

P 1 R M q ' 6 ,If, on self-examination, I find that I am upright, I will go forwardagainst thousands and tens of thousands. 7

7 . The W orks ofMe ncius, bk. II, Pt. I, ch. II; Jam es Legg e, op. cit., p. 187.


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24arro von SengerRichness and honour cannot corrupt him, poverty and lowness cannotchange his mind; power and weapons cannot subdue him that is a greatman. 8

Mencius said: "The principle of the philosopher Yang was `Each onefor himself'. Though he might have benefited the whole kingdom byplucking out a single hair, he would not have done it". 9

^G i\J A.I would rather betray the world than let the world betray me. 10Unless a man looks out for himself, Heaven and Earth will destroy him;[everyone for himself and the devil take the hindmost]) 1Since antiquity, time and again, there have lived Chinese personal-

ities who found themselves in unfavorable circumstances which theywanted to overcome. They strived to change reality according to theirintentions. This kind of change can be illustrated by the relation be-tween the hexagrams no. 12 and no. 11 of the Book of Changes. 1 2 Thehexagram no. 12 Pi () has a negative meaning. If this hexagram isturned upside-down which is called in the technical terminology ofthe Book of Changes, zonggua (ig ') - the hexagram no. 11, Tai (),appears. Contrary to Pi, Tai has a very positive meaning. Thesymbolism xiang (*)of the Pi-hexagram says:

Symbolism: "The distress and obstruction having reached its end, itis overthrown and removed" how could it be prolonged? 13

8. The Works ofMencius, bk. III, pt. II, ch. II; James Legge, op. cit., p. 265.9. The Works ofMencius, bk. VII, pt. I, ch. XXV I; James Legge, op. cit., p. 464.10 . This sentence is ascribed to Cao Cao (155-220); Li Zongwu, HouheixueDaquan (The Great Compendium of Teaching to Have a Thick Skin and a BlackHeart), Peking, 1989, p. 1. See also: Luo Guanzhong ),WW 4, San Guo YanyiE.[IM, vol. 1, Peking, 1973, p. 38, english translation by C.H. Brewitt-Taylor,Romance of the Three Kingdoms, vol. 1, Taibei, 1983, p. 42.11. Hanyu Da Cidian (Great Dictionary of the Chinese Language), vol. 1,Shanghai, 1986, p. 1035.

12. I am following here Nan Huaijin, Lishi Shang de Zhimou (StratagemicalWisdom in History), Shanghai, 1991, p. 7.13. Translation taken from Z.D. Sung, The Text of the Yi King (and itsAppendixes), Chinese Original with English Translation, Taibei, 1973, p. 62.


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The Idea of Change as a Fundament. . .5A starting point of the Chinese Art of Cunning is the conviction

that "distress and obstruction" can be "overthrown and removed"through active human interference. Change for the better can theo-retically be effected by human beings with orthodox, conventional,direct methods, as for instance legal steps, rational arguments, moralor religious reasoning, acts of (military) force, etc. This is just the artof using more or less normal methods to solve problems. However,the Chinese Art of Cunning is helpful when normal methods to solveproblems do not work. It is the art of creating and using unusual, un-orthodox, unconventional ways to change reality and attain goals. Notsome super-natural power or magical forces, but just human wisdom,especially the ruseful dimension of wisdom, in Chinese called zhi('), is the inexhaustible source enabling human beings to find unusual,extraordinary ways to overcome difficult realities.

Probably because the contradiction between individuals and theiraspirations on one hand and the oppressive ritual, customary, moraland legal order in ancient China on the other was so sharp, the Chineserefined the stratagemical potential of human wisdom to an unmatchedlevel, and they developed the Art of Cunning to a degree of per-fection without parallel in the world. The crystallization of theChinese Art of Cunning is the catalogue of the 36 Stratagems men-tioned at the beginning of this lecture. This catalogue is a more or lesscomprehensive collection of unorthodox means to change unfavorablerealities.

The concept of Yin and Yang which underlies the Chinese Art ofCunning, as condensed in the Treatise on the 36 Stratagem s, is not onlya concept of allegedly objective cosmic opposite forces forming thedifferent features of reality. Yin and Yang serve also to symbolize allkinds of opposite aspects in whatever context. In the Treatise on the 36Stratagems, Yin and Yang symbolize certain basic polarities which arerelevant for stratagemical change. I want to introduce some of thepolarities of stratagemical change mentioned in the Treatise on the 36Stratagems, such as:

1) secrecy and transparencyIn the Chapter concerning Stratagem no. 1, it is written:

Yin is in the Yang, it is not in opposition to Yang. Greatest Yang containsgreatest Yin.


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26arro von SengerThe symbolism of Yin and Yang has to be interpreted in this

context as follows: secret ruses are not incompatible to, but hidden inopen acts. Extreme transparency conceals extreme secrecy.

2) unreality and realityIn the chapter on stratagem no. 7, it is written:

"PR, )K , tIM .Sm all Yin, great Yin, great Yang.Here, the Yin-Yang-symbolism can be translated into the stra-

tagemical language as follows: First a small unreality, then a big un-reality, and suddenly a big reality.

3) em ptiness and fullnessIn the chapter on stratagem no. 2, it is said:

o t n T # c Q o f ( a .To fight against Yang is not as good as to fight against Yin.Transformed into stratagemical language, this means: To attack

the enemy where he is full is not as good as to attack him where he isempty. "Fullness" means preparedness, "emptiness" means lack of pre-paredness.

The basic polarities of stratagemical change are not always sym-bolized by Yin and Yang. The Treatise on the 36 Stratagems uses alsoother word-pairs which, however, are always imbued with the dia-lectic spirit of the concept of Yin and Yang, such as:

4) hardness and softnessI quote from the chapter on stratagem no. 10:

Hardness inside, softness outside.This can be understood as: an adamant will under a compliant

appearance.5) normality and non-ormalityIn the Chapter on stratagem no. 8, one can find the following sentence:


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The Idea of Change as a Fundament. . .7The non-normal is produced from the normal; without the normal, thenon-normal could not be produced.6) inferiority and sup eriority

This idea is expressed by stratagem no. 30 itself:

To exchange the role of guest to that of host."Guest" and "host" are here symbolizing inferior and superior po-

sitions and also lack of initiative and possession of initiative.Other basic polarities of stratagemical change are:nothingomething;weaknesstrength;impossibilityossibility;defeatictory,

and so on.A first function of the basic polarities of stratagemical change is to

designate typical pairs of opposite features of reality. These basicpolarities reveal the many-sided and complex character of realitywhich is difficult to grasp and to peer through. The basic polarities ofstratagemical change enable the person who applies a stratagem toplay with the different layers of the multi-dimensional reality so thathe can achieve his aim. A second function of the basic polarities ofstratagemical change is to mark typical directions of stratagemicaltransformations of reality.

Finally, I want to give four examples of how the idea of change as afundament of the Chinese Art of Cunning can function.1) According to a very well-known anecdote which seems to have

some historical background, the young woman Zhu Yingtai ( ),living at the time of the Jin dynasty (265-420), wanted to receive thesame education as a man. In her time, the education which Zhu Ying-tai wanted to receive was exclusively reserved to male Chinese. Ac-cording to the normal course of affairs, it was impossible for ZhuYingtai to realize her intention. But Zhu Yingtai defied the objec-tions of her parents and did not care about the social rules of her time.She changed impossiblility into possibility by using a stratagem,namely the stratagem of metamorphosis (no. 21 in the catalogue of


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28arro von Sengerthe 36 stratagems). She dressed up as boy, left her parents' house andentered a boys' school which she attended during 3 years. Using a stra-tagem, Zhu Yingtai realized something that we call today a humanright, the right of education.

2) The daughter of Zhao Gao (A) was according to the plot ofthe popular Peking opera, Beauty Defies Tyranny, promised by herfather to the uncapable and distasteful successor of the first emperor ofChina. Of course, she did not want to marry him. But according to thenormal development of reality, she could not escape her miserabledestiny. In order to change her gloomy fate, she used a stratagem,namely no. 27 in the catalogue of the 36 stratagems: "Feigning mad-ness but keeping the balance". When her future husband met her in thestate of madness, he was so disgusted that he decided to cancel themarriage.

3) Under the Qing dynasty, any direct critique of the politicalsituation would have meant suicide. This impossibility of mani-festing dissent was the reality. The famous writer Gong Zizhen (

()(1792-1841) changed this reality by using stratagem no. 26:"Pointing at the mulberry but cursing the locust tree". He wrote an es-say on the Hospice of the Sick Plum Trees. 1 4 His description of theintentionally deformed plum trees, too many to be housed and curedin that hospice, was a hidden critique of the oppressive rule of theQing dynasty.

4) A modern example: According to the reality of the early 1990sin the People's Republic of China, no dissent from the Chinese gov-ernment could be published in any mainland newspaper. One Chinesestudent in the USA used stratagem no. 1 to change this reality. Hepublished a poem on the lantern festival 1 5 in the overseas edition ofthe Renm in Ribao. In his poem, there was hidden the phrase "When LiPeng quits, the people will be relieved."

As one can see, stratagems could and can be used as extraordinary,unusual ways to change reality, even for the sake of human rights.

14. Bing M ei Guan Ji ` : . g n a .15. Zhu Haihong Yuanxiao" 7Z enmin Ribao Haiwaiban /s .Kk ^ : : M-N , Peking, 20 March 1991, p. 2.

senger the idea of change

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