Aum Gung Ganapathaye NamahNamo tassa bhagavato arahato samma-sambuddhassa

Homage to The Blessed One, Accomplished and Fully EnlightenedIn the name of Allah, Most Gracious, Most Merciful

Web Surfing TrackerA Collection of Articles, Notes and References

References(September 28, 2010)

(Revised: Thursday, May 12, 2011)References Edited by

A Mad SchizophrenicWhat’s in a name? That which we call a rose

By any other name would smell as sweet.- William Shakespeare

Copyright © 2010-2020 A Mad SchizophrenicThe following educational writings are STRICTLY for academic research

purposes ONLY.Should NOT be used for commercial, political or any other purposes.

(The following notes are subject to update and revision)For free distribution only.

You may print copies of this work for free distribution.You may re-format and redistribute this work for use on computers and computer

networks, provided that you charge no fees for its distribution or use.Otherwise, all rights reserved.

8 "... Freely you received, freely give”.- Matthew 10:8 :: New American Standard Bible (NASB)

The attempt to make God just in the eyes of sinful men will always lead to error.- Pastor William L. Brown.

1 “But mark this: There will be terrible times in the last days. 2 People will be lovers of themselves, lovers of money, boastful, proud, abusive, disobedient to their parents, ungrateful, unholy, 3 without love, unforgiving, slanderous, without self-control, brutal, not lovers of the good, 4 treacherous, rash, conceited, lovers of pleasure rather than lovers of God—5 having a form of godliness but denying its power. Have nothing to do with them. 6 They are the kind who worm their way into homes and gain control over weak-willed women, who are loaded down with sins and are swayed by all kinds of evil desires, 7 always learning but never able to acknowledge the truth. 8 Just as Jannes and Jambres opposed Moses, so also these men oppose the truth--men of depraved minds, who, as far as the faith is concerned, are rejected. 9 But they will not get very far because, as in the case of those men, their folly will be clear to everyone.”

- 2 Timothy 3:1-9 :: New International Version (NIV)

The right to be left alone – the most comprehensive of rights, and the right most valued by a free people

- Justice Louis Brandeis, Olmstead v. U.S., 1928.

15 I know thy works, that thou art neither cold nor hot: I would thou wert cold or hot.16 So then because thou art lukewarm, and neither cold nor hot, I will spue thee out of my mouth.

- Revelation 3:15-16 :: King James Version (KJV)

6 As he saith also in another place, Thou art a priest for ever after the order of Melchisedec.

- Hebrews 5:6 :: King James Version (KJV)

3 Without father, without mother, without descent, having neither beginning of days, nor end of life; but made like unto the Son of God; abideth a priest continually.

- Hebrews 7:3 :: King James Version (KJV)

Therefore, I say: Know your enemy and know yourself; in a hundred battles, you will never be defeated. When you are ignorant of the enemy but know yourself, your chances of winning or losing are equal. If ignorant both of your enemy and of yourself, you are sure to be defeated in every battle.

-- Sun Tzu, The Art of War, c. 500bc

There are two ends not to be served by a wanderer. What are these two? The pursuit of desires and of the pleasure which springs from desire, which is base, common, leading to rebirth, ignoble, and unprofitable; and the pursuit of pain and hardship, which is grievous, ignoble, and unprofitable.

- The Blessed One, Lord Buddha

3 Neither let the son of the stranger, that hath joined himself to the LORD, speak, saying, The LORD hath utterly separated me from his people: neither let the eunuch say, Behold, I am a dry tree.

- Isaiah 56:3 :: King James Version (KJV)

19:12 For there are some eunuchs, which were so born from their mother's womb: and there are some eunuchs, which were made eunuchs of men: and there be eunuchs, which have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven's sake. He that is able to receive it, let him receive it.

- Matthew 19:12 :: King James Version (KJV)

21 But this kind does not go out except by prayer and fasting.- Matthew 17:21 :: Amplified Bible (AMP)

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No commercial/business/political use of the following material. Just like student notes for research purposes, the writings of the

other children of the Lord, are given as it is, with student highlights and coloring. Proper respects and due referencing are attributed to the relevant authors/publishers.

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naturally gets read/copied even if conditions are maintained. If somebody is too strict with copyright and hold on to knowledge, then it is better not to publish “openly” onto the internet or put the article under “pay to refer” scheme.

I came across the articles “freely”. So I publish them freely with added student notes and review with due referencing to the parent link, without any personal monetary gain. My purpose is only to educate other children of the Lord on certain concepts, which I believe are beneficial for “Oneness”.

ReferencesSome of the links may not be active (de-activated) due to various reasons, like removal of the concerned information from the source database. So an educational copy is also provided, along with the link. If the link is active, do cross-check/validate/confirm the educational copy of the article provided along.

1. If the link is not active, then try to procure a hard copy of the article, if possible, based on the reference citation provided, from a nearest library or where-ever, for cross-checking/validation/confirmation.

XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXEducational Copy of Some of the ReferencesFOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLYXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX----------------------------------------------------------------------Internet Connection: ‘Sreyas’, TC 25/2741, PRA No. A47, Ambuja Vilasom Road, Pulimoodu, Thiruvananthapuram 695001, Kerala, IndiaIP Address: 117.199.3.103

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XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXCategory:  Musculoskeletal System

Description:  The category musculoskeletal system consists of the study of bones, muscles, and joints, their injuries, disease conditions and treatment

Category: Musculoskeletal System

Description: The category musculoskeletal system consists of the study of bones, muscles, and joints, their injuries, disease conditions and treatmentXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX

Names of fractures

 

Colle’s fracture: Fracture of the distal end of the radius.

Smith fracture: Fracture of the proximal end of the radius.

Bartan’s fracture: Fracture of the radius.

 

Complications of fractures

 

Avascular necrosis: Death of cells due to inadequate supply of blood.

Delayed union.

Nonunion.

Joint stiffness.

 

Reflexes

            It is the reflected action or movement of the sum total of any particular automatic response indicated by the nervous system.

            Reflexes are of two types, they are:

         Tendon reflex and          Superficial reflex.

 

Tendon reflexIf the tendon is slightly stretched and is given a sharp blow, the muscle contracts briefly.

Types of tendon reflexes

            Knee jerk, biceps jerk, ankle jerk, triceps jerk, supinator jerk, jaw jerk.

The tendon reflex has been graded as 0 in which reflex is absent, 1 in which the reflex is present, 2 in which there is a brisk reflex, 3 in which there is very brisk reflex and 4 in which there is clonus {alternating contractions and relaxations} reflex.

 

Superficial reflex

            Some of the superficial reflexes are plantar reflex or Babinski’s reflex, anal reflex, scapular reflex, abdominal reflex and bulbocavernosus reflex.

 

Coordination of movement

 

Ataxia:

It is the imperfect coordination during voluntary movement.

 

Tests for coordination are:1.       Upper limb test: The patient is asked to touch the nose.

2.       Lower limb test: The patient is asked to walk in a straight line.3.       Romberg’s sign {test}: When the patient is asked to close eyes and stand he

loses his position, which means there is no coordination.4.       Gait: It is the walking pattern of the patient.  There are different types of gait

and they are         Spastic gait: Walking with stiffness.         Stamping gait: Walks by stamping.         Drunken gait: Walks like an alcoholic.         Festinant gait: Walking by bending forward and taking short steps.         Waddling gait: Walks like a duck.         High stepping gait: Walks with high steps.

 

 

Names of fractures

Colle’s fracture: Fracture of the distal end of the radius.

Smith fracture: Fracture of the proximal end of the radius.

Bartan’s fracture: Fracture of the radius.

Complications of fractures

Avascular necrosis: Death of cells due to inadequate supply of blood.

Delayed union.

Nonunion.

Joint stiffness.

Reflexes It is the reflected action or movement of the sum total of any particular automatic response indicated by the nervous system.

Reflexes are of two types, they are:

· Tendon reflex and

· Superficial reflex.

Tendon reflexIf the tendon is slightly stretched and is given a sharp blow, the muscle contracts briefly.

Types of tendon reflexes Knee jerk, biceps jerk, ankle jerk, triceps jerk, supinator jerk, jaw jerk.

The tendon reflex has been graded as 0 in which reflex is absent, 1 in which the reflex is present, 2 in which there is a brisk reflex, 3 in which there is very brisk reflex and 4 in which there is clonus {alternating contractions and relaxations} reflex.

Superficial reflex Some of the superficial reflexes are plantar reflex or Babinski’s reflex, anal reflex, scapular reflex, abdominal reflex and bulbocavernosus reflex.

Coordination of movement

Ataxia:

It is the imperfect coordination during voluntary movement.

Tests for coordination are:

1. Upper limb test: The patient is asked to touch the nose.

2. Lower limb test: The patient is asked to walk in a straight line.

3. Romberg’s sign {test}: When the patient is asked to close eyes and stand he loses his position, which means there is no coordination.

4. Gait: It is the walking pattern of the patient. There are different types of gait and they are

· Spastic gait: Walking with stiffness.

· Stamping gait: Walks by stamping.

· Drunken gait: Walks like an alcoholic.

· Festinant gait: Walking by bending forward and taking short steps.

· Waddling gait: Walks like a duck.

· High stepping gait: Walks with high steps.

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Muscles of the musculoskeletal system  

There are three types of muscle tissues and they are:                            Skeletal muscle or striated muscle or voluntary muscle.                            Smooth muscle or non-striated muscle or involuntary muscle.                            Cardiac muscle, which is seen in heart walls. 

A tendon is a non-distensible fibrous cord that joins the fleshy part of the muscle with the bone or other structures. Muscles of the Shoulder Name of the muscle Origin Action____  Deltoid Lateral third of clavicle, acromion and            Abducts, adducts,

spine of scapula flexes, extends and

rotates arm medially Supraspinatus Supraspinatus fossa of scapula Abducts arm    Infraspinatus Infraspinatus fossa Rotates arm laterally Subscapularis Subscapular fossa Rotates arm medially Teres major Dorsal surface of inferior angle of Adducts and rotates

scapula arm medially Teres minor Upper portion of lateral border of Rotates arm laterally

scapula Latissimus dorsi         Spines of T7-T12 thoracolumbar Adducts, extends and

fascia, iliac crest, ribs 9-12 rotates arm medially________________________________________________________________________

Muscles of the Arm Name of the muscle Origin Action____  Coracobrachialis         Coracoid process Flexes and adducts

Arm Biceps brachii             Long head, supraglenoid tubercle; short        Flexes arm and                                     head, coracoid process forearm, supinates

Forearm Brachialis                    Lower anterior surface of humerus Flexes forearm Triceps                        Long head, infraglenoid tubercle, lateral         Extends forearm                                    head, superior to radial groove of                                     humerus medial head inferior to radial                                     groove Anconeus                    Lateral epicondyle of humerus Extends forearm______________________________________________________________________  Muscles of the Anterior Forearm Name of the muscle Origin Action____  Pronator teres Medial epicondyle and coronoid process       Pronates forearm

of ulna Flexor carpi radialis     Medial epicondyle of humerus Flexes forearm, flexes

and abducts hand      

 Palmaris longus          Medial epicondyle of humerus Flexes hand and

forearm Flexor carpi ulnaris     Medial epicondyle, medial olecranon              Flexes and abducts                                     and posterior border of ulna hand, flexes forearm Flexor digitorum          Medial epicondyle, coronoid process,            Flexes proximal

inter-Superficialis                oblique line of radius phalangeal joints,

flexes hand and forearm

 Flexor digitorum          Anteromedial surface of ulna, Flexes distal inter-                                    interosseous membrane phalangeal joints

and hand Flexor pollicis              Anterior surface of radius, interosseous        Flexes thumbLongus                        membrane and coronoid process       Pronator quadratus     Anterior surface of distal ulna Pronates forearm______________________________________________________________________

__ Muscles of the Posterior Forearm Name of the muscle Origin Action____  Brachioradialis            Lateral supracondylar ridge of humerus         Flexes forearm Extensor carpi Lateral supracondylar ridge of humerus         Extends and abductsradialis longus hand Extensor carpi Lateral epicondyle of humerus Extends fingers andradialis brevis abducts hands Extensor digitorum      Lateral epicondyle of humerus Extends fingers and

hand Extensor digiti Common extensor tendon and Extends little fingerminimi interosseous membrane Extensor carpi Lateral epicondyle and posterior Extends and abductsulnaris surface of ulna hand Supinator Lateral epicondyle, radial collateral Supinates forearm

and annular ligaments Abductor pollicis          Interosseous membrane, middle third Abducts thumb and longus of posterior surfaces of radius and ulna         hand

 Extensor pollicis          Interosseous membrane and middle third      Extends distal longus of posterior surface of ulna phalanx of thumb and

abducts hand Extensor pollicis          Interosseous membrane and posterior          Extends proximal brevis surface of middle third radius phalanx of thumb and

abducts hand Extensor indicis          Posterior surface of ulna and Extends index finger

interosseous membrane________________________________________________________________________  Muscles of the Hand Name of the muscle Origin Action____  Abductor pollicis          Flexor retinaculum, scaphoid and                  Abducts thumbbrevis trapezium Flexor pollicis Flexor retinaculum and trapezium Flexes thumbbrevis Opponens pollicis       Flexor retinaculum and trapezium Opposes thumb to

other digits Adductor pollicis          Capitate and bases of second and third         Adducts thumb

metacarpals (oblique head); palmar surfaceof third metacarpal (transverse head)

 Palmaris brevis           Medial side of flexor retinaculum, palmar       Wrinkles skin on

aponeurois medial side of palm Abductor digiti Pisiform and tendon of flexor carpi ulnaris     Abducts little fingerminimi Flexor digiti Flexor retinaculum and hook of hamate         Flexes proximal minimi brevis phalanx of little finger Opponens digiti           Flexor retinaculum and hook of hamate         Opposes little finger Dorsal interossei         Adjacent sides of metacarpal bones Abduct fingers; flex

metacarpophalangealjoint; extend interphalangeal joints

 Palmar interossei        Medial side of second metacarpal; Adduct fingers; flex

lateral sides of fourth and fifth metacarpophalangealmetacarpals joint; extend

interphalangeal joints ________________________________________________________________________  Anterior muscles of the Thigh Name of the muscle Origin Action____  Illiacus Iliac fossa; ala of sacrum Flexes and rotates

thigh medially (withpsoas major)

 Sartorius Anterior-superior iliac spine Flexes and rotates

thigh laterally; flexesand rotates leg medially

 Rectus femoris           Anterior-inferior iliac spine; Flexes thigh; extends

posterior-superior rim of acetabulum leg Vastus medialis          Intertrochanteric line; linea aspera; Extends leg

Medial intermuscular septum            Vastus lateralis           Intertrochanteric line; greater trochanter;       Extends leg

linea aspera; gluteal tuberosity;lateral intermuscular septum

 Vastus intermedius     Upper shaft of femur; lower lateral Extends leg

intermuscular septum Quadriceps rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, Extends leg

vastus intermedius, and vastus medialis________________________________________________________________________ Medial muscles of the Thigh Name of the muscle Origin Action____  Adductor longus          Body of pubis below its crest Adducts, flexes and

rotates thigh laterally Adductor brevis           Body and inferior pubic ramus Adducts, flexes and

rotates thigh laterally Adductor magnus       Ischiopubic ramus; ischial tuberosity Adducts, flexes and

extends thigh Pectineus Pectineal line of pubis Adducts and flexes

thigh Gracilis Body and inferior pubic of ramus Adducts and flexes

thigh; flexes androtates leg medially

 Obturator externus      Margin of obturator foramen and Rotates thigh laterally

obturator membrane _______________________________________________________________________            Muscles of the Gluteal Region Name of the muscle Origin Action____  Gluteus maximus        Ilium; sacrum; coccyx; sacrotuberous           Extends and rotates

ligament thigh laterally Piriformis Pelvic surface of sacrum; sacrotuberous      Rotates thigh

ligament medially Quadratus femoris      Ischial tuberosity Rotates thigh

laterally Tensor fascia latae     anterior superior spine and adjacent abducts and

lateral surface of the ilium medially rotates thigh   Posterior Muscles of the Thigh Name of the muscle Origin Action____  Semitendinosus          Ischial tuberosity Extends thigh; flexes

and rotates leg

medially            Semimembranosus    Ischial tuberosity Extends thigh; flexes

and rotates leg

medially            Biceps femoris            Long head from ischial tuberosity; short        Extend thigh; flexes

head from tinea aspera and upper and rotates leg supracondylar line medially          

 ________________________________________________________________________ 

Anterior and Lateral Muscles of the Leg Name of the muscle Origin Action____  Tibialis anterior            Lateral tibial condyle, interosseous Dorsiflexes and

membrane inverts foot Extensor hallucis        Middle half of anterior surface of Extends big toe;longus fibula; interosseous membrane dorsiflexes and

inverts foot Extensor digitorum      Lateral tibial condyle; upper two- Extends toes;longus thirds of fibula; interosseous dorsiflexes foot

membrane Peroneus tertius         Distal one-third of fibula; Dorsiflexes and everts

interosseous membrane foot Peroneus longus         Lateral tibial condyle; head and upper            Everts and plantar

lateral side of fibula flexes foot Peroneus brevis          Lower lateral side of fibula; Everts and plantar

intermuscular septa flexes foot________________________________________________________________________    Posterior Muscles of the Leg Name of the muscle Origin Action____  Gastrocnemius Lateral and medial femoral condyles Flexes knee; plantar

flexes foot Soleus Upper fibula head; soleal line on tibia Plantar flexes foot Plantaris Lower lateral supracondylar line Flexes and rotates leg

medially Popliteus Lateral condyle of femur; popliteal Flexes and rotates leg

ligament medially Flexor hallucis Lower two-thirds of fibula; interosseous         flexes distal phalanx longus membrane; intermuscular septa of big toe 

Flexor digitorum          Middle posterior aspect of tibia flexes lateral four longus toes; plantar flexes

foot Tibialis posterior          Interosseous membrane; upper parts of        Plantar flexes and

tibia and fibula inverts foot ________________________________________________________________________

Muscles of the Foot Name of the muscle Origin Action____  Extensor digitorum      Dorsal surface of calcaneus Extends toesbrevis Extensor hallucis        Dorsal surface of calcaneus Extends big toebrevis Abductor hallucis        Medial tubercle of calcaneus Abducts big toe Flexor digitorum          Medial tubercle of calcaneus Flexes middle brevis phalanges of lateral

four toes Abductor digiti             Medial and lateral tubercles of calcaneus      Abducts little toeminimiQuadratus plantae      Medial and lateral side of calcaneus Aids in flexing toes Flexor hallucis Cuboid; third cuneiform Flexes big toebrevis Plantar interossei        Medial sides of metatarsals Adduct toes; flex

proximal and extend distal phalanges

________________________________________________________________________ Muscles of the Thoracic Wall Name of the muscle Origin Action____  External intercostals   Lower border of ribs Elevate ribs in

Inspiration Subcostalis Inner surface of lower ribs near their Elevates ribs

angles Levator costarum        Transverse processes of T7-T11 Elevate ribs 

________________________________________________________________________ Muscles of the Anterior Abdominal Wall Name of the muscle Origin Action____  External oblique          External surface of lower eight ribs Compresses

abdomen; flexestrunk; active in forcedexpiration

 Rectus abdominis       Pubic crest and pubic symphysis Depresses ribs; flexes

trunk________________________________________________________________________               Muscles of the Posterior Abdominal Wall Name of the muscle Origin Action____  Psoas major Transverse processes, intervertebral disks   Flexes thigh and trunk

and bodies of TV12-LV5 Psoas minor Bodies and intervertebral disks of TV12-        Aids in flexing of

LV1 trunk________________________________________________________________________Superficial Back Name of the muscle Origin Action____  Trapezius External occipital protuberance, superior       Adducts, rotates,

nuchal line, ligamentum nuchae, spines of    elevates, and C7-T12 depresses scapula

 Levator scapulae        Transverse processes of C1-C4 Elevates scapula Rhomboid minor         Spines of C7-T1 Adducts scapula Rhomboid major         Spines of T2-T5 Adducts scapula          Latissimus dorsi         spine of T5-T12, thoracodorsal fascia,           Adducts, extends and

iliac crest, ribs 9-12 rotates arm medially ________________________________________________________________________

  Suboccipital Muscles Name of the muscle Origin Action____  Rectus capitis Spine of axis Extends, rotatesposterior major and flexes head

laterally Obliquus capitis          Spine of axis Extends head and inferior rotates it laterally______________________________________________________________________

_ Muscles of the Neck Name of the muscle Origin Action____  Sternocleidomastoid   Manubrium sterni and medial one-third          Singly turns face                                    of clavicle toward opposite

side; together flex head, raise thorax

 Stylohyoid                    Styloid process Elevates hyoid Sternohyoid                 Manubrium sterni and medial end of Depresses hyoid                                     clavicle and larynx Sternothyroid               Manubrium sterni; first costal cartilage           Depresses thyroid

cartilage and larynx.

________________________________________________________________________

 Prevertebral Muscles Name of the muscle Origin Action____  Anterior scalene          Transverse processes of CV3-CV6 Elevates first rib;

bends neck Longus capitus           Transverse processes of CV3-CV6 Flexes and rotates

head                                    Longus colli                 Transverse processes and bodies of Flexes and

rotates                                     CV3-TV3 head Rectus capitis             Lateral mass of atlas Flexes and rotates

head

                                    ______________________________________________________________________

__  Muscles of Facial Expression Name of the muscle Origin Action____  Occipitofrontalis          Superior nuchal line; upper orbital margin      Elevates eyebrows;

wrinkles forehead         Zygomaticus minor     Zygomatic arch Elevates upper lip ______________________________________________________________________   Muscles of Mastication Name of the muscle Origin Action____  Temporalis                  Temporal fossa Elevates and retracts

mandible Medial pterygoid          Tuber of maxilla; medial surface of Protracts and

elevates                                    Lateral pterygoid plate; pyramidal mandible                                    process of palatine bone ______________________________________________________________________

__Cranial Nerves Name of the muscle Origin Action____             Trochlear Superior orbital fissure Eye movements Trigeminal Superior orbital fissure; foramen Muscles of

Rotundum and foramen ovale mastication Vagus Jugular foramen Muscles of

Movements ofPharynx, larynx andPalate

 Accessory Jugular foramen Movement of head

and shoulder ________________________________________________________________________

  Muscles of Eye Movement Name of the muscle Origin Action____  Superior rectus           Common tendinous ring Elevates eyeball Inferior oblique Floor of orbit lateral to lacrimal groove           Rotates upward and

laterally; elevatesadducted eye

 ________________________________________________________________________   Muscles of the Palate Name of the muscle Origin Action____  Palatoglossus Aponeurosis of soft palate Elevates tongue Musculus uvulae         Posterior nasal spine of palatine bone;          Elevates uvula

Palatine aponeurosis______________________________________________________________________ Muscles of the Tongue Name of the muscle Origin Action____  Styloglossus Styloid process Retracts and elevates

tongue Palatoglossus Aponeurosis of soft palate Elevates tongue ________________________________________________________________________ Muscles of the Pharynx Name of the muscle Origin Action____  Inferior constrictor       Arch of cricoid and oblique line of thyroid       Constricts lower

Cartilages pharynx Stylopharyngeus         Styloid process Elevates pharynx and

Larynx _______________________________________________________________________

Muscles of the Larynx Name of the muscle Origin Action____  Cricothyroid Arch of cricoid cartilage Tenses Transverse Posterior surface of arytenoid cartilage          Adductsarytenoid 

Aryepiglottic Apex of arytenoid cartilage Adducts

Muscles of the musculoskeletal system There are three types of muscle tissues and they are:

· Skeletal muscle or striated muscle or voluntary muscle.

· Smooth muscle or non-striated muscle or involuntary muscle.

· Cardiac muscle, which is seen in heart walls.

A tendon is a non-distensible fibrous cord that joins the fleshy part of the muscle with the bone or other structures.

Muscles of the Shoulder

Name of the muscle Origin Action____

Deltoid Lateral third of clavicle, acromion and Abducts, adducts,

spine of scapula flexes, extends and

rotates arm medially

Supraspinatus Supraspinatus fossa of scapula Abducts arm

Infraspinatus Infraspinatus fossa Rotates arm laterally

Subscapularis Subscapular fossa Rotates arm medially

Teres major Dorsal surface of inferior angle of Adducts and rotates

scapula arm medially

Teres minor Upper portion of lateral border of Rotates arm laterally

scapula

Latissimus dorsi Spines of T7-T12 thoracolumbar Adducts, extends and

fascia, iliac crest, ribs 9-12 rotates arm medially

________________________________________________________________________

Muscles of the Arm

Name of the muscle Origin Action____

Coracobrachialis Coracoid process Flexes and adducts

Arm

Biceps brachii Long head, supraglenoid tubercle; short Flexes arm and

head, coracoid process forearm, supinates

Forearm

Brachialis Lower anterior surface of humerus Flexes forearm

Triceps Long head, infraglenoid tubercle, lateral Extends forearm

head, superior to radial groove of

humerus medial head inferior to radial

groove

Anconeus Lateral epicondyle of humerus Extends forearm

______________________________________________________________________

Muscles of the Anterior Forearm

Name of the muscle Origin Action____

Pronator teres Medial epicondyle and coronoid process Pronates forearm

of ulna

Flexor carpi radialis Medial epicondyle of humerus Flexes forearm, flexes

and abducts hand

Palmaris longus Medial epicondyle of humerus Flexes hand and

forearm

Flexor carpi ulnaris Medial epicondyle, medial olecranon Flexes and abducts

and posterior border of ulna hand, flexes forearm

Flexor digitorum Medial epicondyle, coronoid process, Flexes proximal inter-

Superficialis oblique line of radius phalangeal joints,

flexes hand and

forearm

Flexor digitorum Anteromedial surface of ulna, Flexes distal inter-

interosseous membrane phalangeal joints

and hand

Flexor pollicis Anterior surface of radius, interosseous Flexes thumb

Longus membrane and coronoid process

Pronator quadratus Anterior surface of distal ulna Pronates forearm

________________________________________________________________________

Muscles of the Posterior Forearm

Name of the muscle Origin Action____

Brachioradialis Lateral supracondylar ridge of humerus Flexes forearm

Extensor carpi Lateral supracondylar ridge of humerus Extends and abducts

radialis longus hand

Extensor carpi Lateral epicondyle of humerus Extends fingers and

radialis brevis abducts hands

Extensor digitorum Lateral epicondyle of humerus Extends fingers and

hand

Extensor digiti Common extensor tendon and Extends little finger

minimi interosseous membrane

Extensor carpi Lateral epicondyle and posterior Extends and abducts

ulnaris surface of ulna hand

Supinator Lateral epicondyle, radial collateral Supinates forearm

and annular ligaments

Abductor pollicis Interosseous membrane, middle third Abducts thumb and

longus of posterior surfaces of radius and ulna hand

Extensor pollicis Interosseous membrane and middle third Extends distal

longus of posterior surface of ulna phalanx of thumb and

abducts hand

Extensor pollicis Interosseous membrane and posterior Extends proximal

brevis surface of middle third radius phalanx of thumb and

abducts hand

Extensor indicis Posterior surface of ulna and Extends index finger

interosseous membrane

________________________________________________________________________

Muscles of the Hand

Name of the muscle Origin Action____

Abductor pollicis Flexor retinaculum, scaphoid and Abducts thumb

brevis trapezium

Flexor pollicis Flexor retinaculum and trapezium Flexes thumb

brevis

Opponens pollicis Flexor retinaculum and trapezium Opposes thumb to

other digits

Adductor pollicis Capitate and bases of second and third Adducts thumb

metacarpals (oblique head); palmar surface

of third metacarpal (transverse head)

Palmaris brevis Medial side of flexor retinaculum, palmar Wrinkles skin on

aponeurois medial side of palm

Abductor digiti Pisiform and tendon of flexor carpi ulnaris Abducts little finger

minimi

Flexor digiti Flexor retinaculum and hook of hamate Flexes proximal

minimi brevis phalanx of little finger

Opponens digiti Flexor retinaculum and hook of hamate Opposes little finger

Dorsal interossei Adjacent sides of metacarpal bones Abduct fingers; flex

metacarpophalangeal

joint; extend

interphalangeal joints

Palmar interossei Medial side of second metacarpal; Adduct fingers; flex

lateral sides of fourth and fifth metacarpophalangeal

metacarpals joint; extend

interphalangeal joints

________________________________________________________________________

Anterior muscles of the Thigh

Name of the muscle Origin Action____

Illiacus Iliac fossa; ala of sacrum Flexes and rotates

thigh medially (with

psoas major)

Sartorius Anterior-superior iliac spine Flexes and rotates

thigh laterally; flexes

and rotates leg

medially

Rectus femoris Anterior-inferior iliac spine; Flexes thigh; extends

posterior-superior rim of acetabulum leg

Vastus medialis Intertrochanteric line; linea aspera; Extends leg

Medial intermuscular septum

Vastus lateralis Intertrochanteric line; greater trochanter; Extends leg

linea aspera; gluteal tuberosity;

lateral intermuscular septum

Vastus intermedius Upper shaft of femur; lower lateral Extends leg

intermuscular septum

Quadriceps rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, Extends leg

vastus intermedius, and vastus medialis

________________________________________________________________________

Medial muscles of the Thigh

Name of the muscle Origin Action____

Adductor longus Body of pubis below its crest Adducts, flexes and

rotates thigh laterally

Adductor brevis Body and inferior pubic ramus Adducts, flexes and

rotates thigh laterally

Adductor magnus Ischiopubic ramus; ischial tuberosity Adducts, flexes and

extends thigh

Pectineus Pectineal line of pubis Adducts and flexes

thigh

Gracilis Body and inferior pubic of ramus Adducts and flexes

thigh; flexes and

rotates leg medially

Obturator externus Margin of obturator foramen and Rotates thigh laterally

obturator membrane

_______________________________________________________________________

Muscles of the Gluteal Region

Name of the muscle Origin Action____

Gluteus maximus Ilium; sacrum; coccyx; sacrotuberous Extends and rotates

ligament thigh laterally

Piriformis Pelvic surface of sacrum; sacrotuberous Rotates thigh

ligament medially

Quadratus femoris Ischial tuberosity Rotates thigh

laterally

Tensor fascia latae anterior superior spine and adjacent abducts and

lateral surface of the ilium medially rotates thigh

Posterior Muscles of the Thigh

Name of the muscle Origin Action____

Semitendinosus Ischial tuberosity Extends thigh; flexes and rotates leg

medially

Semimembranosus Ischial tuberosity Extends thigh; flexes and rotates leg

medially

Biceps femoris Long head from ischial tuberosity; short Extend thigh; flexes

head from tinea aspera and upper and rotates leg

supracondylar line medially

________________________________________________________________________

Anterior and Lateral Muscles of the Leg

Name of the muscle Origin Action____

Tibialis anterior Lateral tibial condyle, interosseous Dorsiflexes and

membrane inverts foot

Extensor hallucis Middle half of anterior surface of Extends big toe;

longus fibula; interosseous membrane dorsiflexes and

inverts foot

Extensor digitorum Lateral tibial condyle; upper two- Extends toes;

longus thirds of fibula; interosseous dorsiflexes foot

membrane

Peroneus tertius Distal one-third of fibula; Dorsiflexes and everts

interosseous membrane foot

Peroneus longus Lateral tibial condyle; head and upper Everts and plantar

lateral side of fibula flexes foot

Peroneus brevis Lower lateral side of fibula; Everts and plantar

intermuscular septa flexes foot

________________________________________________________________________

Posterior Muscles of the Leg

Name of the muscle Origin Action____

Gastrocnemius Lateral and medial femoral condyles Flexes knee; plantar

flexes foot

Soleus Upper fibula head; soleal line on tibia Plantar flexes foot

Plantaris Lower lateral supracondylar line Flexes and rotates leg

medially

Popliteus Lateral condyle of femur; popliteal Flexes and rotates leg

ligament medially

Flexor hallucis Lower two-thirds of fibula; interosseous flexes distal phalanx

longus membrane; intermuscular septa of big toe

Flexor digitorum Middle posterior aspect of tibia flexes lateral four

longus toes; plantar flexes

foot

Tibialis posterior Interosseous membrane; upper parts of Plantar flexes and

tibia and fibula inverts foot

________________________________________________________________________

Muscles of the Foot

Name of the muscle Origin Action____

Extensor digitorum Dorsal surface of calcaneus Extends toes

brevis

Extensor hallucis Dorsal surface of calcaneus Extends big toe

brevis

Abductor hallucis Medial tubercle of calcaneus Abducts big toe

Flexor digitorum Medial tubercle of calcaneus Flexes middle

brevis phalanges of lateral

four toes

Abductor digiti Medial and lateral tubercles of calcaneus Abducts little toe

minimi

Quadratus plantae Medial and lateral side of calcaneus Aids in flexing toes

Flexor hallucis Cuboid; third cuneiform Flexes big toe

brevis

Plantar interossei Medial sides of metatarsals Adduct toes; flex

proximal and extend

distal phalanges

________________________________________________________________________

Muscles of the Thoracic Wall

Name of the muscle Origin Action____

External intercostals Lower border of ribs Elevate ribs in

Inspiration

Subcostalis Inner surface of lower ribs near their Elevates ribs

angles

Levator costarum Transverse processes of T7-T11 Elevate ribs

________________________________________________________________________

Muscles of the Anterior Abdominal Wall

Name of the muscle Origin Action____

External oblique External surface of lower eight ribs Compresses

abdomen; flexes

trunk; active in forced

expiration

Rectus abdominis Pubic crest and pubic symphysis Depresses ribs; flexes

trunk

________________________________________________________________________

Muscles of the Posterior Abdominal Wall

Name of the muscle Origin Action____

Psoas major Transverse processes, intervertebral disks Flexes thigh and trunk

and bodies of TV12-LV5

Psoas minor Bodies and intervertebral disks of TV12- Aids in flexing of

LV1 trunk

________________________________________________________________________

Superficial Back

Name of the muscle Origin Action____

Trapezius External occipital protuberance, superior Adducts, rotates,

nuchal line, ligamentum nuchae, spines of elevates, and

C7-T12 depresses scapula

Levator scapulae Transverse processes of C1-C4 Elevates scapula

Rhomboid minor Spines of C7-T1 Adducts scapula

Rhomboid major Spines of T2-T5 Adducts scapula

Latissimus dorsi spine of T5-T12, thoracodorsal fascia, Adducts, extends and

iliac crest, ribs 9-12 rotates arm medially

________________________________________________________________________

Suboccipital Muscles

Name of the muscle Origin Action____

Rectus capitis Spine of axis Extends, rotates

posterior major and flexes head

laterally

Obliquus capitis Spine of axis Extends head and

inferior rotates it laterally

_______________________________________________________________________

Muscles of the Neck

Name of the muscle Origin Action____

Sternocleidomastoid Manubrium sterni and medial one-third Singly turns face

of clavicle toward opposite

side; together flex

head, raise thorax

Stylohyoid Styloid process Elevates hyoid

Sternohyoid Manubrium sterni and medial end of Depresses hyoid

clavicle and larynx

Sternothyroid Manubrium sterni; first costal cartilage Depresses thyroid

cartilage and

larynx.

________________________________________________________________________

Prevertebral Muscles

Name of the muscle Origin Action____

Anterior scalene Transverse processes of CV3-CV6 Elevates first rib;

bends neck

Longus capitus Transverse processes of CV3-CV6 Flexes and rotates

head

Longus colli Transverse processes and bodies of Flexes and rotates

CV3-TV3 head

Rectus capitis Lateral mass of atlas Flexes and rotates

head

________________________________________________________________________

Muscles of Facial Expression

Name of the muscle Origin Action____

Occipitofrontalis Superior nuchal line; upper orbital margin Elevates eyebrows;

wrinkles forehead

Zygomaticus minor Zygomatic arch Elevates upper lip

______________________________________________________________________

Muscles of Mastication

Name of the muscle Origin Action____

Temporalis Temporal fossa Elevates and retracts

mandible

Medial pterygoid Tuber of maxilla; medial surface of Protracts and elevates

Lateral pterygoid plate; pyramidal mandible

process of palatine bone

________________________________________________________________________

Cranial Nerves

Name of the muscle Origin Action____

Trochlear Superior orbital fissure Eye movements

Trigeminal Superior orbital fissure; foramen Muscles of

Rotundum and foramen ovale mastication

Vagus Jugular foramen Muscles of

Movements of

Pharynx, larynx and

Palate

Accessory Jugular foramen Movement of head

and shoulder

________________________________________________________________________

Muscles of Eye Movement

Name of the muscle Origin Action____

Superior rectus Common tendinous ring Elevates eyeball

Inferior oblique Floor of orbit lateral to lacrimal groove Rotates upward and

laterally; elevates

adducted eye

________________________________________________________________________

Muscles of the Palate

Name of the muscle Origin Action____

Palatoglossus Aponeurosis of soft palate Elevates tongue

Musculus uvulae Posterior nasal spine of palatine bone; Elevates uvula

Palatine aponeurosis

______________________________________________________________________

Muscles of the Tongue

Name of the muscle Origin Action____

Styloglossus Styloid process Retracts and elevates

tongue

Palatoglossus Aponeurosis of soft palate Elevates tongue

________________________________________________________________________

Muscles of the Pharynx

Name of the muscle Origin Action____

Inferior constrictor Arch of cricoid and oblique line of thyroid Constricts lower

Cartilages pharynx

Stylopharyngeus Styloid process Elevates pharynx and

Larynx

_______________________________________________________________________

Muscles of the Larynx

Name of the muscle Origin Action____

Cricothyroid Arch of cricoid cartilage Tenses

Transverse Posterior surface of arytenoid cartilage Adducts

arytenoid

Aryepiglottic Apex of arytenoid cartilage AdductsXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX

The joints of the human body The site at which two or more bones meet together is called a joint.  Joints are of three types and they are.

         Synarthroses or fibrous joints or immovable joints.  Examples for this are bones of the skull.

         Amphiarthroses or cartilaginous joint or joints that are having, slight movement.  Examples for this are joints between the bodies of the vertebrae.

         Diarthroses or synovial joint or freely movable joint.  Examples for this are knee joint, wrist joint etc.

 Each joint cavity has synovial fluid acting as a lubricant and allowing smooth motion.  Ligament is a collection of fibrous tissue, which connects two or more bones or cartilages. The joints of the human body are:                                             Temporomandibular joint: The only movable joint of the skull.                                            Atlantoaxial joint: Joint between the atlas and the axis {1st.and 2nd vertebrae}.                                            Sternoclavicular joint: Joint between the sternum and the clavicle.                                            Acromioclavicular joint: Joint between the acromion process of the scapula and the clavicle.                                            Costovertebral joint: Joint between the vertebrae and the ribs.                                            Sternocostal joint: Joint between the sternum and the ribs.                                            Glenohumeral joint {ball and socket joint}: Joint between the glenoid cavity of the scapula and the head of the humerus, also called as shoulder joint.                                            Elbow joint [hinge joint]: Joint between the humerus, and the radius and ulna.                                            Wrist joint: The joint between the radius and ulna, and the carpals.                                            Radioulnar joint: Joint between the radius and the ulna.                                            Carpometacarpal joints: Joint between the carpals and the metacarpals.                                            Metacarpophalangeal joint: Joint between the metacarpals and the phalanges.                                            Interphalangeal joint {IP joint}: Joint between the phalanges.                                            Sacroiliac joint: Joint between the sacrum {fused bones} and the ilium of the pelvic bone.                                            Hip joint: Joint between the femur and the hipbone.                                            Knee joint: Joint between the femur, and the tibia and fibula.                                            Ankle joint: Joint between the tibia and fibula, and the tarsals.                                            Metatarsal joints: Joint between the metatarsals.                                            Metatarsophalangeal joint: Joint between the metatarsals and the phalanges.                                            Tarsals joint: Joint between the tarsals.  Movements possible by the synovial joint are:                                            Flexion or bending.                                            Extension- straightening or bending backwards.                                            Abduction-movement away from the midline of the body.                                            Adduction-movement towards the midline of the body.                                            Circumduction-combination of flexion, extension, abduction and adduction.

                                            Rotation-movement round the long axis of a bone.                                            Pronation-turning the palm of the hand down.                                            Supination-turning the palm of the hand up.                                            Inversion-turning the sole of the foot inwards.                        Eversion-turning the sole of the foot outwards.

The joints of the human body

The site at which two or more bones meet together is called a joint. Joints are of three types and they are.

· Synarthroses or fibrous joints or immovable joints. Examples for this are bones of the skull.

· Amphiarthroses or cartilaginous joint or joints that are having, slight movement. Examples for this are joints between the bodies of the vertebrae.

· Diarthroses or synovial joint or freely movable joint. Examples for this are knee joint, wrist joint etc.

Each joint cavity has synovial fluid acting as a lubricant and allowing smooth motion. Ligament is a collection of fibrous tissue, which connects two or more bones or cartilages.

The joints of the human body are:

· Temporomandibular joint: The only movable joint of the skull.

· Atlantoaxial joint: Joint between the atlas and the axis {1st.and 2nd vertebrae}.

· Sternoclavicular joint: Joint between the sternum and the clavicle.

· Acromioclavicular joint: Joint between the acromion process of the scapula and the clavicle.

· Costovertebral joint: Joint between the vertebrae and the ribs.

· Sternocostal joint: Joint between the sternum and the ribs.

· Glenohumeral joint {ball and socket joint}: Joint between the glenoid cavity of the scapula and the head of the humerus, also called as shoulder joint.

· Elbow joint [hinge joint]: Joint between the humerus, and the radius and ulna.

· Wrist joint: The joint between the radius and ulna, and the carpals.

· Radioulnar joint: Joint between the radius and the ulna.

· Carpometacarpal joints: Joint between the carpals and the metacarpals.

· Metacarpophalangeal joint: Joint between the metacarpals and the phalanges.

· Interphalangeal joint {IP joint}: Joint between the phalanges.

· Sacroiliac joint: Joint between the sacrum {fused bones} and the ilium of the pelvic bone.

· Hip joint: Joint between the femur and the hipbone.

· Knee joint: Joint between the femur, and the tibia and fibula.

· Ankle joint: Joint between the tibia and fibula, and the tarsals.

· Metatarsal joints: Joint between the metatarsals.

· Metatarsophalangeal joint: Joint between the metatarsals and the phalanges.

· Tarsals joint: Joint between the tarsals.

Movements possible by the synovial joint are:

· Flexion or bending.

· Extension- straightening or bending backwards.

· Abduction-movement away from the midline of the body.

· Adduction-movement towards the midline of the body.

· Circumduction-combination of flexion, extension, abduction and adduction.

· Rotation-movement round the long axis of a bone.

· Pronation-turning the palm of the hand down.

· Supination-turning the palm of the hand up.

· Inversion-turning the sole of the foot inwards.

Eversion-turning the sole of the foot outwards.XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX

Examination of bone and joint injuries 

 I.                          Local examination: The injured side is compared with the sound side.

                                            Inspection: Check for abnormal swelling and deformity.                                            Attitude: Position and arrangement of body and the limbs.                                            Palpation: Check for tenderness, bony irregularity, abnormal movements, crepitus etc.                                            Measurement: Longitudinal, circumferential measurement is taken.

II.                       General examination: Examining whether there is any shock.  Shock can be due to loss of good amount of blood.III.                     Special investigation:

                                            X-ray-lateral and anteroposterior view.                                            Serum examination.                                            Urine.                                            Bone scan or skeletal scanning. IV        Diagnostic testing:

                                            Hamilton ruler’s test.                                            Duga’s test.                                            Mc Murray’s test.                                            Apley’s test.                                            Drawer’s test.                                            Trendelenburg’s test.                                            Telescopic test.Fluctuation test.

Examination of bone and joint injuries

I. Local examination: The injured side is compared with the sound side.

· Inspection: Check for abnormal swelling and deformity.

· Attitude: Position and arrangement of body and the limbs.

· Palpation: Check for tenderness, bony irregularity, abnormal movements, crepitus etc.

· Measurement: Longitudinal, circumferential measurement is taken.

II. General examination: Examining whether there is any shock. Shock can be due to loss of good amount of blood.

III. Special investigation:

· X-ray-lateral and anteroposterior view.

· Serum examination.

· Urine.

· Bone scan or skeletal scanning.

IV Diagnostic testing:

· Hamilton ruler’s test.

· Duga’s test.

· Mc Murray’s test.

· Apley’s test.

· Drawer’s test.

· Trendelenburg’s test.

· Telescopic test.

Fluctuation test.XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX

Disorders of the musculoskeletal system

  

FractureFracture can occur through violence, direct violence, muscular violence or indirect violence. 

Types of fractures: It can be classified into 5 categories.                                            Simple fracture: It is internal or it is a closed fracture and there will be no external injuries.

                                            Compound fracture: It is an open fracture or it can be seen and will have external bleeding.                                            Comminuted fracture or multiple fracture: The bony fragments will be more than two it is called a comminuted fracture.                                            Pathological fracture: This occurs due to any disease.  Egs: Osteoarthritis                                            Stress fracture: This is due to prolonged exercise. 

Signs and symptoms of a fracture: Pain, swelling, loss of function, deformity, crepitus {sound is heard when there is movement} and local tenderness. 

Stage of healing                                             Stage of hematoma {blood clot}.                                            Osteoid formation {forms around}.                                            Stage of bone formation. 

Treatment                                             First aid - splint to prevent further deformity.                                            X-ray - Anterior posterior and lateral view.                                            Reduction under anesthesia  

SplintsThomas splint, Aeroplane splint, plaster cast {lower limb} with a sling. 

DrugsNSAID {Non-steroidal anti-inflammatories}, analgesics, antibiotics, sedatives.  

Congenital & Acquired deformities 

The faulty developments, which are present during the time of birth, are called as congenital deformity.  The cause can be genetic abnormality, environmental abnormality or combination of both.Acquired deformity has been classified into two groups.                                            Those in which the deformity arises at the joint.

                                            Those in which the deformity arises at the bones. 

Bunion 

            Abnormal swelling of the joint between the big toe and first metatarsal bone is called bunion.  This can occur due to trauma or injury to the feet.  Early bunion treatment involves changing footwear to accommodate for the foot.  Correction of the bunion is also done through surgery.  The most common complication of bunion surgery is that it may recur after months or years. 

Deformity at the joints 

Arthritis:

It is both inflammatory and degenerative lesions of a joint.  Clinically it is classified by pain and restriction of movement at the joint.  RROM {Restricted Range Of Motion}. 

Types of arthritis                                             Pyogenic arthritis: When the joint is affected by bacteria it is called as pyogenic arthritis and when there is pus formation it is called as suppurative arthritis.  The symptoms are pain, swelling and RROM.                                            Osteoarthritis: The wear and tear occurring in the joints is called as the osteoarthritis.  Most commonly is seen in the knee joints.  If the joint has never been put under stress, it would never become OA.                                            Tuberculosis arthritis: Arthritis caused by tubercle bacilli is called as the tuberculosis arthritis and this usually affects the spine.

                                            Rheumatoid arthritis: A chronic bacterial inflammation of the joints. 

This can effect several joints usually starts from the small joints and the cause is

unknown.

                                            Ankylosing spondylitis: This usually affects the spine, in few cases changes involve also the proximal joints of the hip and it starts from the sacroiliac joints. Dislocation and subluxation            The incomplete loss of contact between the joints is called as subluxation and the complete loss of contact between the joints is called as dislocation. 

Disorders of the spine 

Cervical spondylosis: It is a degenerative process affecting the cervical spine, C1-C7.  This degenerative change begins in the intervertebral disc.Clinical features: Pain, stiffness and RROM.  If left untreated the spondylosis can radiate out to the arms.  Treatment: Cervical collar and some exercises. 

1.         Scoliosis: It is the lateral curvature of the spine.2.         Kyphosis: Excessive posterior curvature of the spine.3.         Lordosis: Excessive anterior curvature of the spine.4.         Lumbago: It is a symptom than a disease, literally pain in the lumbar region {L1-L5}, it is felt while stopping, lifting heavy weights or sudden turn.  If it is severe it is felt during coughing.5.         Spondylolisthesis: Displacement of lumbar vertebrae body upon the segment next below.6.         Frozen shoulder: It is also called as the periarthritis of the shoulder, stiffness of the glenohumeral joint or the shoulder joint.  Symptoms are pain and RROM.7.         Tennis elbow: It is the strain of the fore arm extensor muscles or it is also called as the lateral epicondylitis.8.         Golfer’s elbow: It is also called as the medial epicondylitis and it is the strain of the fore arm flexor muscles.9.         Volkmann’s ischemic contracture {VIC}: This is the flexion deformity of the fingers and the wrist.10.       Carpal tunnel syndrome: It is the constriction of the median nerve at the wrist and it affects the women more than the men.11.       Coxa-vera: This is the shortening of the limbs and is usually seen in children and is congenital.12.       Chondromalacia patellae: Degeneration of the cartilage layer on the back of the patella {kneecap} and thus the articular surface of the patella is softened.

13.       Meniscal tear: Tear of the meniscus.  Meniscus is the ‘C’ shaped ring seen on the condyles of tibia.  There are two meniscuses the lateral and medial.  The function is lubrication..  The tear can be classified as                                            1°, which is partial, tear.                                            2°, in which half of the meniscus is torn.                                            3°, in which complete meniscus is torn.14.       Discoid lateral meniscus: A’clink’ ‘clonk’ sound is heard in the meniscus.15.       Genu varum: This is also called as bowleg and is outward bowing of the leg.16.       Genu valgum: This is also called as knock-knee and is the lateral angulation of the leg.17.       Pes cavus: It is also called as hollow foot in which the lateral arch will be more.18.       Pes planus: It is also called as flat foot in which the longitudinal arch will be reduced.19.       Ligament sprains: Injury occurring due to inversion movement.  This is classified as 1°, 2°, and 3°.  Except the 3° crepe bandage is used for healing.  In 3° sprain plaster cast is been used for healing.20.       Strain: The injury of a muscle by improper use.21.       Tendonitis: Inflammation of the tendon.22.       Bursitis: Inflammation of the bursae.23.       Tenosynovitis: Inflammation of the synovial lining of the tendon sheath.24.       Fibrositis: Inflammation of the fibrous tissue or pain on certain muscles.

Disorders of the musculoskeletal system

Fracture

Fracture can occur through violence, direct violence, muscular violence or indirect violence.

Types of fractures: It can be classified into 5 categories.

· Simple fracture: It is internal or it is a closed fracture and there will be no external injuries.

· Compound fracture: It is an open fracture or it can be seen and will have external bleeding.

· Comminuted fracture or multiple fracture: The bony fragments will be more than two it is called a comminuted fracture.

· Pathological fracture: This occurs due to any disease. Egs: Osteoarthritis

· Stress fracture: This is due to prolonged exercise.

Signs and symptoms of a fracture: Pain, swelling, loss of function, deformity, crepitus {sound is heard when there is movement} and local tenderness.

Stage of healing

· Stage of hematoma {blood clot}.

· Osteoid formation {forms around}.

· Stage of bone formation.

Treatment

· First aid - splint to prevent further deformity.

· X-ray - Anterior posterior and lateral view.

· Reduction under anesthesia

Splints

Thomas splint, Aeroplane splint, plaster cast {lower limb} with a sling.

Drugs

NSAID {Non-steroidal anti-inflammatories}, analgesics, antibiotics, sedatives.

Congenital & Acquired deformities

The faulty developments, which are present during the time of birth, are called as congenital deformity. The cause can be genetic abnormality, environmental abnormality or combination of both.

Acquired deformity has been classified into two groups.

· Those in which the deformity arises at the joint.

· Those in which the deformity arises at the bones.

Bunion

Abnormal swelling of the joint between the big toe and first metatarsal bone is called bunion. This can occur due to trauma or injury to the feet. Early bunion treatment involves changing footwear to accommodate for the foot. Correction of the bunion is also done through surgery. The most common complication of bunion surgery is that it may recur after months or years.

Deformity at the joints

Arthritis:

It is both inflammatory and degenerative lesions of a joint. Clinically it is classified by pain and restriction of movement at the joint. RROM {Restricted Range Of Motion}.

Types of arthritis

· Pyogenic arthritis: When the joint is affected by bacteria it is called as pyogenic arthritis and when there is pus formation it is called as suppurative arthritis. The symptoms are pain, swelling and RROM.

· Osteoarthritis: The wear and tear occurring in the joints is called as the osteoarthritis. Most commonly is seen in the knee joints. If the joint has never been put under stress, it would never become OA.

· Tuberculosis arthritis: Arthritis caused by tubercle bacilli is called as the tuberculosis arthritis and this usually affects the spine.

· Rheumatoid arthritis: A chronic bacterial inflammation of the joints. This can effect several joints usually starts from the small joints and the cause is unknown.

· Ankylosing spondylitis: This usually affects the spine, in few cases changes involve also the proximal joints of the hip and it starts from the sacroiliac joints.

Dislocation and subluxation The incomplete loss of contact between the joints is called as subluxation and the complete loss of contact between the joints is called as dislocation.

Disorders of the spine

Cervical spondylosis:

It is a degenerative process affecting the cervical spine, C1-C7. This degenerative change begins in the intervertebral disc.

Clinical features: Pain, stiffness and RROM. If left untreated the spondylosis can radiate out to the arms.

Treatment: Cervical collar and some exercises.

1. Scoliosis: It is the lateral curvature of the spine.

2. Kyphosis: Excessive posterior curvature of the spine.

3. Lordosis: Excessive anterior curvature of the spine.

4. Lumbago: It is a symptom than a disease, literally pain in the lumbar region {L1-L5}, it is felt while stopping, lifting heavy weights or sudden turn. If it is severe it is felt during coughing.

5. Spondylolisthesis: Displacement of lumbar vertebrae body upon the segment next below.

6. Frozen shoulder: It is also called as the periarthritis of the shoulder, stiffness of the glenohumeral joint or the shoulder joint. Symptoms are pain and RROM.

7. Tennis elbow: It is the strain of the fore arm extensor muscles or it is also called as the lateral epicondylitis.

8. Golfer’s elbow: It is also called as the medial epicondylitis and it is the strain of the fore arm flexor muscles.

9. Volkmann’s ischemic contracture {VIC}: This is the flexion deformity of the fingers and the wrist.

10. Carpal tunnel syndrome: It is the constriction of the median nerve at the wrist and it affects the women more than the men.

11. Coxa-vera: This is the shortening of the limbs and is usually seen in children and is congenital.

12. Chondromalacia patellae: Degeneration of the cartilage layer on the back of the patella {kneecap} and thus the articular surface of the patella is softened.

13. Meniscal tear: Tear of the meniscus. Meniscus is the ‘C’ shaped ring seen on the condyles of tibia. There are two meniscuses the lateral and medial. The function is lubrication.. The tear can be classified as

· 1°, which is partial, tear.

· 2°, in which half of the meniscus is torn.

· 3°, in which complete meniscus is torn.

14. Discoid lateral meniscus: A’clink’ ‘clonk’ sound is heard in the meniscus.

15. Genu varum: This is also called as bowleg and is outward bowing of the leg.

16. Genu valgum: This is also called as knock-knee and is the lateral angulation of the leg.

17. Pes cavus: It is also called as hollow foot in which the lateral arch will be more.

18. Pes planus: It is also called as flat foot in which the longitudinal arch will be reduced.

19. Ligament sprains: Injury occurring due to inversion movement. This is classified as 1°, 2°, and 3°. Except the 3° crepe bandage is used for healing. In 3° sprain plaster cast is been used for healing.

20. Strain: The injury of a muscle by improper use.

21. Tendonitis: Inflammation of the tendon.

22. Bursitis: Inflammation of the bursae.

23. Tenosynovitis: Inflammation of the synovial lining of the tendon sheath.

24. Fibrositis: Inflammation of the fibrous tissue or pain on certain muscles.XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX

Anatomy

 

Orthopedics consists of the study of the musculoskeletal system.Osteology is the study of bones.  The human skeleton supports the structures and protects the vital internal organs.  At the time of birth the human body has about 350 bones, but when the human being reaches adulthood some of the bones fuse together and the number is decreased to 206.  Bones help in storing calcium and formation of new blood cells.  The center of the bone is called the medullary cavity, which contains the bone marrow and is responsible for hematopoiesis, which is the process of formation and development of new blood cells.  There are different types of bones and they are classified as:                     Long bones.  Egs, Humerus.                     Short bones.  Egs, Clavicle, phalanges.                     Irregular bones.  Egs, Vertebrae.                     Flat bones.  Egs, Sternum.                     Sesamoid bones.  Egs, Patella.

 

  Bones have a shaft or diaphysis and two extremities or epiphysis, which have spaces for attachment of muscles and ligaments.  The articular cartilage at the end of the epiphysis provides the cushioning effect at the joints.  The layer covering the bone is called periosteum, which is a dense fibrous membrane with nerve, blood, and lymph vessels.  The bone forming cells are called the osteoblasts and is found in the periosteum.  Bones of the skeletal system are divided into two groups and are the axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton.

  

Axial skeleton The axial skeleton consists of: Skull

 

 The upper end of the vertebral column is the skull and is divided into several parts like,CraniumThe cranium consists of flat, irregular bones.  They are:                   One frontal bone-bones of the forehead, prominent ridges above the eyes are called the supraorbital margins.  Above this is the air filled cavities or the sinuses, which have openings into the nasal cavities.                   Two parietal bones-these bones forms the sides and roof of the skull.                   Two temporal bones-these bones lie one on each side of the head and the temporal bone joins with the mandible forming the temporomandibular joint, which is the only movable joint of the face.                   One occipital bone-this bone forms the back of the head.  There are two articular condyles in the bone, which helps in the articulation of the occipital bone with the atlas {first bone of the vertebral column}.  There is a groove in between the condyles and is called the foramen magnum through which the spinal chord passes.                   One sphenoid bone-this bone forms the middle portion of the skull and articulates with the temporal, parietal and frontal bones.  There is a depression in the bone and is called the hypophyseal fossa.                   One ethmoid bone-this bone occupies the anterior part of the bone of the skull.Bones of the face                    Two zygomatic bones or cheekbones.                   Maxilla or upper jaw bone-in this bones there are air cavities called the maxillary sinus present.                   Two nasal bones-these are two flat bones at the bridge of the nose.                   Two lacrimal bones-these are two small bones posterior and lateral to the nasal bones.                   One vomer-these are thin flat bones extending upward from the middle of the hard palate.                   Two palatine bones- these are L-shaped bones.                   Two turbinated bones-these bones are also called as inferior conchae.  Concha is a scroll shaped bone.                   Mandible-only movable bone in the face.  The ridge present in the bone is called the alveolar ridge.  The mandible articulates with the temporal bone to form the temporomandibular joint.  Fontanelle is a distinct membranous area where two or more bones meet.

 Vertebral column The vertebral column consists of 24 separate movable irregular bones, five fused bones called the sacrum and four fused bones called the coccyx.  24 separate bones are grouped into three and they are 7 cervical, 12 thoracic and 5 lumbar.  Two adjacent vertebrae are separated by a disk interposed between them known as the intervertebral disk. Thoracic cage: The thoracic cage consists of 1 sternum, 12 pairs of ribs and 12 thoracic vertebrae.                   Sternum: The sternum is a flat bone; manubrium is the uppermost and articulates with the clavicle at the sternoclavicular joint.  The other parts are the clavicular notch, sternal angle, body of sternum and the xiphoid process.                   Ribs: Ribs are of 12 pairs, 1st 10 pairs are attached anteriorly to the sternum by coastal cartilages some directly and some indirectly.  The last two pairs are floating ribs and have no anterior attachment.  Appendicular skeleton The appendicular skeleton consists of the shoulder girdle with the upper limbs and the pelvic girdle with the lower limbs.Shoulder girdle and the upper limbs

 

  Shoulder girdle consists of 1 clavicle and 1 scapula.  The upper limbs consist of 1 humerus, 1 radius, 1 ulna, 8 carpal bones, 5 metacarpal bones and 14 phalanges.                   Clavicle:  It is also called as the collarbone and has two ends the medial and the lateral, the medial end articulates with the upper end of the sternum forming the sternoclavicular joint.  The lateral end articulates with the acromion of the scapula forming the acromioclavicular joint.                   Scapula: It is also called as the shoulder blade and is a flat bone. There is a shallow articular surface called glenoid cavity with which the head of the humerus forms the shoulder joint.  The three processes are the spinous process, coracoid process and the acromion process.                   Humerus: The head of the humerus articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula forming the shoulder joint.  The parts of the humerus are the head of the humerus, neck of the humerus, greater trochanter, lesser trochanter {tubercle}, shaft of the humerus, deltoid tuberosity, trochlea, capitulum, coronoid fossa {groove between trochlea and the capitulum}, medial and lateral epicondyle. The distal end of the bone articulates with the ulna and radius to form the elbow joint.                   Ulna and radius: They articulate with the humerus at the elbow joint and the carpals at the wrist joint and with each other at the superior and inferior radioulnar joints.  Ulna is in the little finger side and the radius is in the thumb finger side or the lateral aspect of the arm.

                   Carpals: They are the wrist bones and they are eight in number. They are scaphoid, capitate, trapezium, trapezoid, pisiform, hamate, lunate, and triquetral.                   Metacarpals: Metacarpals are five in number.Phalanges: They are 14 in number proximal, middle and the distal.  The thumb is having only proximal and the distal.  Pelvic girdle and lower limbs  

  The pelvic girdle consists of two hipbones and one sacrum.  The hipbone consist of three fused bones the ilium, ischium and the pubis. The lower limb consists of one femur, one tibia, one fibula, tarsals, metatarsals and phalanges.

                   Ilium: The ilium consists of several parts like the anterior superior iliac spine,

anterior inferior iliac spine, posterior inferior iliac spine, posterior superior iliac spine,

sciatic notch, and the iliac crust.

                   Ischium: The ischium consists of spine of ischium, obturator foramen, ischial tuberosity, and obturator nerve.  The point at which the three bones join is the acetabulum cavity and it articulates with the head of femur forming the hip joint.  The ilium articulates with the sacrum forming the sacroiliac joint.                   Pubis: The pubis is the anterior part of the bone and it articulates with the pubis of the other hipbone at the cartilaginous joint, the symphysis pubis.                   Femur: It is the thighbone and is the longest and the strongest bone. It consists of the head of femur, neck of femur, greater trochanter, lesser trochanter, intertrochanteric line, linea aspera, popliteal surface, lateral condyle and the medial condyle.                   Tibia: It is also called as the shinbone.  The parts consist of inter condylar eminence {condyles sits on it}, tibial tuberosity, shin of tibia {sharp area} and the medial malleolus.                   Fibula: The parts consist of head of fibula, shaft of fibula and lateral malleolus.  The two condyles articulate with femur forming the knee joint and fibula articulates with the lateral condyle to form the superior tibiofibular joint.                   Patella:  It is called as the kneecap.                   Tarsals: These are also called as the anklebones, they are seven in number, one talus, one calcaneus, one navicular, three cuneiform, and one cuboid.                   Metatarsals: There are five metatarsal bones.

Phalanges: Fourteen phalanges two in the great toe and three on each of the other toes.

Anatomy

Orthopedics consists of the study of the musculoskeletal system.

Osteology is the study of bones. The human skeleton supports the structures and protects the vital internal organs. At the time of birth the human body has about 350 bones, but when the human being reaches adulthood some of the bones fuse together and the number is decreased to 206. Bones help in storing calcium and formation of new blood cells. The center of the bone is called the medullary cavity, which contains the bone marrow and is responsible for hematopoiesis, which is the process of formation and development of new blood cells. There are different types of bones and they are classified as:

· Long bones. Egs, Humerus.

· Short bones. Egs, Clavicle, phalanges.

· Irregular bones. Egs, Vertebrae.

· Flat bones. Egs, Sternum.

· Sesamoid bones. Egs, Patella.

Bones have a shaft or diaphysis and two extremities or epiphysis, which have spaces for attachment of muscles and ligaments. The articular cartilage at the end of the epiphysis provides the cushioning effect at the joints. The layer covering the bone is called periosteum, which is a dense fibrous membrane with nerve, blood, and lymph vessels. The bone forming cells are called the osteoblasts and is found in the periosteum. Bones of the skeletal system are divided into two groups and are the axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton.

Axial skeleton

The axial skeleton consists of:

Skull

The upper end of the vertebral column is the skull and is divided into several parts like,

Cranium

The cranium consists of flat, irregular bones. They are:

· One frontal bone-bones of the forehead, prominent ridges above the eyes are called the supraorbital margins. Above this is the air filled cavities or the sinuses, which have openings into the nasal cavities.

· Two parietal bones-these bones forms the sides and roof of the skull.

· Two temporal bones-these bones lie one on each side of the head and the temporal bone joins with the mandible forming the temporomandibular joint, which is the only movable joint of the face.

· One occipital bone-this bone forms the back of the head. There are two articular condyles in the bone, which helps in the articulation of the occipital bone with the atlas {first bone of the vertebral column}. There is a groove in between the condyles and is called the foramen magnum through which the spinal chord passes.

· One sphenoid bone-this bone forms the middle portion of the skull and articulates with the temporal, parietal and frontal bones. There is a depression in the bone and is called the hypophyseal fossa.

· One ethmoid bone-this bone occupies the anterior part of the bone of the skull.

Bones of the face

· Two zygomatic bones or cheekbones.

· Maxilla or upper jaw bone-in this bones there are air cavities called the maxillary sinus present.

· Two nasal bones-these are two flat bones at the bridge of the nose.

· Two lacrimal bones-these are two small bones posterior and lateral to the nasal bones.

· One vomer-these are thin flat bones extending upward from the middle of the hard palate.

· Two palatine bones- these are L-shaped bones.

· Two turbinated bones-these bones are also called as inferior conchae. Concha is a scroll shaped bone.

· Mandible-only movable bone in the face. The ridge present in the bone is called the alveolar ridge. The mandible articulates with the temporal bone to form the temporomandibular joint. Fontanelle is a distinct membranous area where two or more bones meet.

Vertebral column

The vertebral column consists of 24 separate movable irregular bones, five fused bones called the sacrum and four fused bones called the coccyx. 24 separate bones are grouped into three and they are 7 cervical, 12 thoracic and 5 lumbar. Two

adjacent vertebrae are separated by a disk interposed between them known as the intervertebral disk.

Thoracic cage:

The thoracic cage consists of 1 sternum, 12 pairs of ribs and 12 thoracic vertebrae.

· Sternum: The sternum is a flat bone; manubrium is the uppermost and articulates with the clavicle at the sternoclavicular joint. The other parts are the clavicular notch, sternal angle, body of sternum and the xiphoid process.

· Ribs: Ribs are of 12 pairs, 1st 10 pairs are attached anteriorly to the sternum by coastal cartilages some directly and some indirectly. The last two pairs are floating ribs and have no anterior attachment.

Appendicular skeleton

The appendicular skeleton consists of the shoulder girdle with the upper limbs and the pelvic girdle with the lower limbs.

Shoulder girdle and the upper limbs

Shoulder girdle consists of 1 clavicle and 1 scapula. The upper limbs consist of 1 humerus, 1 radius, 1 ulna, 8 carpal bones, 5 metacarpal bones and 14 phalanges.

· Clavicle: It is also called as the collarbone and has two ends the medial and the lateral, the medial end articulates with the upper end of the sternum forming the sternoclavicular joint. The lateral end articulates with the acromion of the scapula forming the acromioclavicular joint.

· Scapula: It is also called as the shoulder blade and is a flat bone. There is a shallow articular surface called glenoid cavity with which the head of the humerus forms the shoulder joint. The three processes are the spinous process, coracoid process and the acromion process.

· Humerus: The head of the humerus articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula forming the shoulder joint. The parts of the humerus are the head of the humerus, neck of the humerus, greater trochanter, lesser trochanter {tubercle}, shaft of the humerus, deltoid tuberosity, trochlea, capitulum, coronoid fossa {groove between trochlea and the capitulum}, medial and lateral epicondyle. The distal end of the bone articulates with the ulna and radius to form the elbow joint.

· Ulna and radius: They articulate with the humerus at the elbow joint and the carpals at the wrist joint and with each other

at the superior and inferior radioulnar joints. Ulna is in the little finger side and the radius is in the thumb finger side or the lateral aspect of the arm.

· Carpals: They are the wrist bones and they are eight in number. They are scaphoid, capitate, trapezium, trapezoid, pisiform, hamate, lunate, and triquetral.

· Metacarpals: Metacarpals are five in number.

Phalanges: They are 14 in number proximal, middle and the distal. The thumb is having only proximal and the distal.

Pelvic girdle and lower limbs

The pelvic girdle consists of two hipbones and one sacrum. The hipbone consist of three fused bones the ilium, ischium and the pubis. The lower limb consists of one femur, one tibia, one fibula, tarsals, metatarsals and phalanges.

· Ilium: The ilium consists of several parts like the anterior superior iliac spine, anterior inferior iliac spine, posterior inferior iliac spine, posterior superior iliac spine, sciatic notch, and the iliac crust.

· Ischium: The ischium consists of spine of ischium, obturator foramen, ischial tuberosity, and obturator nerve. The point at which the three bones join is the acetabulum cavity and it articulates with the head of femur forming the hip joint. The ilium articulates with the sacrum forming the sacroiliac joint.

· Pubis: The pubis is the anterior part of the bone and it articulates with the pubis of the other hipbone at the cartilaginous joint, the symphysis pubis.

· Femur: It is the thighbone and is the longest and the strongest bone. It consists of the head of femur, neck of femur, greater trochanter, lesser trochanter, intertrochanteric line, linea aspera, popliteal surface, lateral condyle and the medial condyle.

· Tibia: It is also called as the shinbone. The parts consist of inter condylar eminence {condyles sits on it}, tibial tuberosity, shin of tibia {sharp area} and the medial malleolus.

· Fibula: The parts consist of head of fibula, shaft of fibula and lateral malleolus. The two condyles articulate with femur forming the knee joint and fibula articulates with the lateral condyle to form the superior tibiofibular joint.

· Patella: It is called as the kneecap.

· Tarsals: These are also called as the anklebones, they are seven in number, one talus, one calcaneus, one navicular, three cuneiform, and one cuboid.

· Metatarsals: There are five metatarsal bones.

Phalanges: Fourteen phalanges two in the great toe and three on each of the other toes.XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX

Amputations, prosthetics and orthotics            Amputation:Amputation is a procedure where a part of limb is removed through one or more bones commonly done in lower limb.              Amputation is done due to injuries, peripheral vascular disease {diabetes}, infection, tumor, nerve injuries, and congenital abnormalities. Types of amputations            Guillotine or open amputation: In this case the skin is not closed over the amputation stem.            Closed amputation: In this case the skin is closed primarily.

Upper limb Parts of limbs removedForequarter amputation

Scapula and lateral 2/3 of the clavicle and the whole of the upper limb is removed

Shoulder disarticulation

Removal through the glenohumeral joint

Above elbow Through the arm.Elbow disarticulation Through the elbowBelow elbow Through the fore arm bonesWrist amputation Through radiocarpal jointsRay amputation Removal of the fingersKrukenberg’s Through the fore arm bones

 

.Lower limb Parts of limb removedHind quarter amputation           

The whole of the lower limb and tone side of the ilium is been removed.

Hip disarticulation Through the hipAbove knee Through the femurKnee disarticulation Through the kneeBelow knee amputation Through the tibia and fibula.Syme’s amputation Through the ankle joint.Chopart’s amputation   Through the tarsal jointsLisfranc’s amputation Through tarsometatarsal joints

  

Treatment                                 Dressing.                                Positioning and elevating.                                Exercise.                                Prosthetic fitting.

                                Gait training.

 Prosthetics: It is a unit of rehabilitation medicine dealing with the replacement of a whole or a part of missing extremity with an artificial device.  They are of two types.

                                            Cosmetics-To provide appearance.                                            Functional-To provide functions of the missing part. Examples for prosthesis are PTB [Patellar Tendon Bearing] prosthesis, Shoe fillers etc. Orthoses: Orthotics is the unit of rehabilitation, which deals with the improving function of the body by the application of a device, which aids the body part.  The device is called as an orthosis.  Some of the commonly used orthosis are AFO [Ankle Foot Orthosis], Knee orthosis etc.             Orthosis are used for immobilizing a body part, to prevent a deformity, to correct a deformity, to assist movement, to relieve weight bearing and to provide support.

Amputations, prosthetics and orthotics

Amputation:

Amputation is a procedure where a part of limb is removed through one or more bones commonly done in lower limb.

Amputation is done due to injuries, peripheral vascular disease {diabetes}, infection, tumor, nerve injuries, and congenital abnormalities.

Types of amputations Guillotine or open amputation: In this case the skin is not closed over the amputation stem.

Closed amputation: In this case the skin is closed primarily.

Upper limb Parts of limbs removed Forequarter amputation Scapula and lateral 2/3 of the clavicle and the whole of the upper limb is removed Shoulder disarticulation Removal through the glenohumeral joint Above elbow Through the arm. Elbow disarticulation Through the elbow Below elbow Through the fore arm bones Wrist amputation Through radiocarpal joints Ray amputation Removal of the fingers Krukenberg’s Through the fore arm bones

.

Lower limb Parts of limb removed

Hind quarter amputation The whole of the lower limb and tone side of the ilium is been removed. Hip disarticulation Through the hip Above knee Through the femur Knee disarticulation Through the knee Below knee amputation Through the tibia and fibula. Syme’s amputation Through the ankle joint. Chopart’s amputation Through the tarsal joints Lisfranc’s amputation Through tarsometatarsal joints

Treatment

· Dressing.

· Positioning and elevating.

· Exercise.

· Prosthetic fitting.

· Gait training.

Prosthetics:

It is a unit of rehabilitation medicine dealing with the replacement of a whole or a part of missing extremity with an artificial device. They are of two types.

· Cosmetics-To provide appearance.

· Functional-To provide functions of the missing part.

Examples for prosthesis are PTB [Patellar Tendon Bearing] prosthesis, Shoe fillers etc.

Orthoses:

Orthotics is the unit of rehabilitation, which deals with the improving function of the body by the application of a device, which aids the body part. The device is called as an orthosis. Some of the commonly used orthosis are AFO [Ankle Foot Orthosis], Knee orthosis etc.

Orthosis are used for immobilizing a body part, to prevent a deformity, to correct a deformity, to assist movement, to relieve weight bearing and to provide support.XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXCategory:  Guidelines

Description:  Hospital B Template information.

Category: Guidelines

Description: Hospital B Template information.

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Published on internet: Thursday, May 12, 2011Revised: Thursday, May 12, 2011

Information on the web site is given in good faith about a certain spiritual way of life, irrespective of any specific religion, in the belief that the information is not misused, misjudged or misunderstood. Persons using this information for whatever purpose must rely on their own skill, intelligence and judgment in its application. The webmaster does not accept any liability for harm or damage resulting from advice given in good faith on this website.

XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX“Thou belongest to That Which Is Undying, and not merely to time alone,” murmured the Sphinx, breaking its muteness at last. “Thou art eternal, and not merely of the vanishing flesh. The soul in man cannot be killed, cannot die. It waits, shroud-wrapped, in thy heart, as I waited, sand-wrapped, in thy world. Know thyself, O mortal! For there is One within thee, as in all men, that comes and stands at the bar and bears witness that there IS a God!”(Reference: Brunton, Paul. (1962) A Search in Secret Egypt. (17 th Impression) London, UK: Rider & Company. Page: 35.)

Amen