seven key features for creating and sustaining commitment

Seven key features for creating and sustaining commitment

Rachel Burgess, Suzanne Turner*

Warwick Manufacturing Group, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL UK

Received 6 June 1998; received in revised form 28 January 1999; accepted 18 February 1999

Abstract

Commitment is a key factor in determining how an organisation performs. It can provide employees with the motivation andenergy necessary to overcome obstacles and achieve apparently impossible goals. Furthermore, true commitment o�ers asustainable competitive advantage because it is di�cult to imitate.

This paper examines how this commitment can be created within a project management environment, drawing upon thelessons o�ered by high commitment situations such as crisis management, religious cults, military and political associations.Seven key features of producing commitment have been identi®ed and their use within a project management environment has

been proposed via a time frame model. 7 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd and IPMA. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Commitment can be a powerful force for change.Total commitment to an idea can provide individualswith the motivation and energy required to sacri®ceeverything in the pursuit of seemingly impossiblegoals. This power has been recognised by religious,political and military organisations for centuries; andmore recently by business organisations.

A lack of employee commitment to an organisationand its goals has been identi®ed as a major constraintupon its performance, this includes its ability tochange [1]. Whilst business organisations would beunwise to expect individuals to sacri®ce everything inpursuit of its goals, the ability to harness even a frac-tion of this power could provide them with a realimpetus and focus for change.

Some companies have already experienced the ben-e®ts that a high level of commitment can bring, includ-ing Hewlett Packard and Motorola. Indeed the strongcultures found within these world class companieshave been likened to cults [2]. In addition, many com-panies will have experienced periods of high commit-

ment, such as during a crisis, and will have noticed theway in which it has provided the project with extra-ordinary momentum.

This paper aims to identify the key features whichhave proved successful in building an exceptional levelof commitment in a variety of situations and exploreshow these features may be built into a project manage-ment environment. Commitment is particularly import-ant for the management of projects because of theirtemporal nature. Their relatively short life-span andthe need to get the team working productively as soonas possible requires a great deal of e�ort. Commitmentcan provide the additional impetus that projectsrequire to get them o� to a ¯ying start.

1.1. Commitment, not compliance

Commitment is a concept that most managers arefamiliar with, but which is di�cult to describe. Littleconsensus exists with respect to the de®nition of theterm, this is partly due to the multi-disciplinary natureof the research into commitment, including contri-butions from psychologists, sociologists, anthropolo-gists and management scientists. However, there is anunderlying notion of attachment and loyalty in all thede®nitions [1] that is re¯ected by O'Reilly's de®nition

International Journal of Project Management 18 (2000) 225±233

0263-7863/00/$20.00 7 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd and IPMA. All rights reserved.

PII: S0263-7863(99 )00023 -X

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* Corresponding author. Tel.: 01926 864467.

of commitment as ``typically conceived of as an indivi-dual's psychological bond (to an organisation), includ-ing a sense of job involvement, loyalty, and a belief inthe values of the organisation'' [3].

It should be noted that commitment is not the sameas compliance, where an individual accepts the in¯u-ence of others mainly to obtain something. Compli-ance is largely based upon the notion of economicexchange, with employees seeking rewards for theircontribution to the organisation [4]. This is oftenfound within companies and can be easily mistakenfor commitment. However, commitment o�ers some-thing that compliance does not:

``The committed person brings an energy, passionand excitement that cannot be generated if you areonly compliant, even genuinely compliant. The com-mitted person doesn't play by the rules of the game.He is responsible for the game. If the rules of thegame stand in the way of achieving the vision, hewill ®nd ways to change the rules'' [5].

Etzioni [4] demonstrates this di�erence based uponthe structures of control and the use of powerresources within organisations. He identi®es threedi�erent types of power and involvement, which aresummarised below.

Power di�ers according to the means by whichmembers of the organisation comply:

. Coercive power relies upon the use of threats, orphysical sanctions or force.

. Remumerative power relies upon the manipulationof material resources, such as wages.

. Normative power relies upon the allocation and ma-nipulation of symbolic rewards, e.g., esteem or pres-tige.

Involvement is the degree of commitment by mem-bers of the organisation:

. Alienative involvement occurs where members areinvolved against their will (e.g., in prison), there is astrong negative orientation towards the organis-ation.

. Calculative involvement occurs where attachment to

the organisation is motivated by extrinsic rewards.

This normally leads to a low positive or a negative

orientation.

. Moral involvement is based upon individual's belief

in, and value placed upon, the goals of the organis-

ation. There is a high positive orientation towards

the organisation.

Fig. 1 illustrates that there are nine types of organis-

ational relationships that arise from the identi®ed

forms of power and in¯uence. However, Etzoni

suggests that there are only three associations that can

be considered congruent, as highlighted in Fig. 1:

. coercive power with alienative involvementÐre-

lationship 1;

. remunerative power with calculative involvementÐ

relationship 5;

. normative power with moral involvementÐrelation-

ship 9.

Relationship 5, in the centre of the table, is com-

monly associated with the majority of business organ-

isations. The use of power involves the manipulation

of material resources and rewards, e.g., wages; whilst

involvement is calculative and based upon the extrinsic

rewards. There will be a negative orientation or a low

positive orientation towards the organisation [1].

Commitment requires the internalisation of the

organisation's values, norms and goals to a point

where there is a strong correlation between them and

the individual's beliefs. This level of congruence builds

an intense sense of loyalty and dedication, and will

make employees both satis®ed and productive by their

involvement within the organisation.

This high positive orientation towards the organis-

ation is associated with relationship 9. The normative

powerÐrelying upon the manipulation of symbolic

rewards such as esteem and prestigeÐcombined with a

moral involvement is generally found in churches. It is

also evident in companies such as Hewlett-Packard,

who have an exceptionally strong corporate culture.

This commitment is preferable to the compliance of

relationship 5 because, once gained, it will be more

resilient and e�ective in in¯uencing employee beha-

viour. The internalisation of commitment is a much

stronger in¯uence than compliance based upon

rewards or threats. Commitment is based upon the

acceptance of inner responsibility for our behaviour

and thus is more likely to ensure consistency of atti-

tudes and behaviour than an external pressure [6]. Fur-

thermore it is di�cult to copy this type of

commitment, thus it can provide a sustainable com-

petitive edge.Fig. 1. Etzoni's typology of organisational relationships [4].

R. Burgess, S. Turner / International Journal of Project Management 18 (2000) 225±233226

1.2. The need for commitment

The desirability of commitment as a characteristic ofbest practice companies and change management hasbeen established within the management literature (see[7]). A general commitment to the organisation willreduce employee absenteeism, tardiness and sta� turn-over. Drennan [8] supports this view, suggesting thatmost managers believe that with real commitmentfrom sta� the performance of their businesses couldimprove dramatically.

Commitment is particularly important for the suc-cessful implementation of projects and strategic pro-grammes. The introduction of new technology orstrategic initiatives represents a period of discomfortand risk. Commitment can help to smooth this periodof transition by removing the delays, decision con-straints, and reversion to the old ways of working as-sociated with non-commitment or mere compliance [9±11]. Therefore commitment is an important factorboth in getting the resources required for a project andensuring that it can avoid and/or overcome the bar-riers to implementation that can arise.

1.3. The seven key features of high commitmentsituations

The literature on a variety of high commitment situ-ations has been reviewed and seven key factors forcreating and sustaining commitment have been ident-i®ed. These high commitment situations include com-panies with strong corporate cultures, crisismanagement circumstances, religious, military and pol-itical associations. The levels of commitment experi-enced in these situations were judged to be greaterthan that normally experienced within business organ-isations. Thus the identi®cation of these seven key fea-tures provides an indication of how companies canincrease the level of commitment they enjoy.

1.3.1. Individuals join of their own free willIndividuals are more likely to be truly committed to

a cause if they believe they had a choice about joiningit and did so without external coercion. ``Social scien-tists have determined that we accept inner responsibil-ity for a behaviour when we think we have chosen toperform it in the absence of strong outside pressure''[6].

This inner responsibility represents the di�erencebetween short-lived compliance and long-term commit-ment. The use of external pressure, whether in theform of rewards or threats, gives the individual areasonÐan excuseÐfor their compliance. Thus, o�er-ing employees bene®ts to participate in projects willnot generate inner responsibility for their membershipas they can justify their actions by the reward they

have gained. They perceive that they have compliedbecause of the reward, rather than because theybelieved in the cause. Indeed, large material rewardsmay even reduce or undermine our inner responsibilityfor an act, causing a subsequent reluctance to performit when the reward is no longer present [12].

However, minor rewards or the promise of rewardcan be used as an initial encouragement. An exampleof the use of minor or non-motivational rewards is theCommunist Chinese government's instigation of anessay writing competition in the aftermath of the 1989Tiannanmen Square massacre. In Beijing alone, ninestate-run newspapers sponsored competitions on thesubject of the `quelling of the counter-revolutionaryrebellion'. To reduce the emphasis upon rewards forpublic commitments, the government deliberately leftthe contest prizes unspeci®ed. This essay writingapproach was also used very successfully with Ameri-can Prisoners of War during the Korean War [6].

Thus an individual's perception that they have freelyelected to act in some way will contribute to the degreeto which they feel committed to the act. Due to ourneed to justify our actions, the lack of external rewardor threat leaves us with the conclusion that we com-plied because we agreed with what we were doing.From here the internal need to appear consistent takesover and we will try to continue to act in the samemanner [13] (see Key Feature 5).

1.3.2. The role of uncertaintyThere must be a degree of uncertainty in order to

build a new commitment and change both attitudesand behaviours. Uncertainty provides the gaps for newideas to be incorporated into our way of thinking.When we are unsure of ourselves, when the situation isunclear or ambiguous, we are most likely to look toand accept the actions of others as correct [14].

The creation of this uncertainty may be deliberateor accidental. In a crisis situation, the cause of the cri-sis will have created the required uncertainty. The cri-sis undermines employee commitment to theorganisation and its current way of working [15]. Thisproduces a void which can then be ®lled by the crisismanagement team. The uncertainty makes employeesmore open to the team's ideas and thus they should bemore committed to the proposed action plan whicho�ers an answer to the uncertainty.

Religious and military organisations use uncertaintyin order to build commitment amongst their recruits.They rely upon our uncertainty about the future, our-selves or what is `right' and provide solutions to ourquestions. This uncertainty is often constructed, par-ticularly in military and cult-style religions, with aperiod of mental abuse being used to undermine theindividual's self image. Once the recruit has been bro-ken down and made to feel worthless, they are then

R. Burgess, S. Turner / International Journal of Project Management 18 (2000) 225±233 227

o�ered salvation via membership of the organisation.The organisation gives them a new purpose and asense of belonging, just when they have become con-vinced that their life has no meaning [6].

Likewise, managers wishing to introduce changeinto a business organisation may use the small stepsdescribed in Key Feature 3 to start weakening the sta-tus quo. 3M actively encourages its employees toexplore new ideas, however risky and uncertain theymaybe. Their philosophy is that èvery idea evolvedshould have a chance to prove itself' and this is sup-ported by the approach of `make a little, sell a little'.The company tries a lot of ideas on a small scale anddevelops those that work [2]. Uncertainty is anaccepted part of the business and thus it is easier tobuild commitment to new products and ideas.

1.3.3. Start small and build upIn trying to build commitment to a new idea, one

that is possibly contrary to the current thinking, anextravagant launch is not necessarily the bestapproach. A sudden challenge to the status quo islikely to be met with instant, automatic resistance.Instead small, inconsequential requests have beenshown to be begin a `momentum of compliance' thatslowly undermines the status quo and builds a newcommitment [16].

This links back to the idea that behaviour and atti-tudes support one another. By altering an individual'sbehaviour in some small way, so their attitudes arebeing weakened and made more receptive to change.

Charitable organisations make use of this techniqueto gain commitment for their cause. Asking individualsfor their signature on a petition may appear a minoract, but it has been shown to be the ®rst step in a pro-gressively escalating commitment which leads to mon-etary donations and voluntary work for the group [16].

Thus the initial request must be one that is not per-ceived as a direct threat to the individuals' current atti-tudes, but does start them down the path towards anew set of attitudes. An extreme example is an exper-iment conducted on a beach (described in greaterdetail in Key Feature 5) which asked individuals to`watch my things' whilst the researcher went for awalk. In itself this request did not appear to be con-siderable, as individuals were unlikely to think that itwould lead to them chasing a thief. However, havingagreed to behave as a protector, the individuals atti-tude to chasing a thief was also altered and when a(staged) robbery did occur they were far more likely tointervene.

1.3.4. Joining requires an individual e�ortThe initiation ceremony is a common feature of

many high commitment associations. From the rites ofpassage of primitive tribes to the `boot camps' of the

armed services, new members must undergo terribleordeals before they are accepted as members of thegroup. William Styron, a former Marine, describes hisexperiences of training as òne of the closest things inthe free world to a concentration camp'. Yet he alsosays:

``There is no ex-Marine of my acquaintance . . .whodoes not view the training as a crucible out ofwhich he emerged in some way more resilient,simply braver and better for the wear'' [17]

.Indeed a West Point cadet was expelled in 1988

because he refused to subject newcomers to the tra-ditional hazing (initiation) rituals, which he saw asàbsurd and dehumanising' [6].

The harshness of these initiations is a vital tool forensuring the survival of the group. Aronson and Millshave shown that individuals that have had to endure agreat deal of trouble or pain to attain something tendto value it more highly than those who attain the samething with the minimum of e�ort [18]. The e�ortinvolved acts in two ways to build commitment:

1. It dissuades those who would not value the groupfrom trying to join. Therefore those entering the in-itiation process already have some level of commit-ment to the group and agreement with its values.

2. Having undergone their ordeal, individuals will per-suade themselves that their membership is worth-while and attractive, and become more committedto the group.

The advantage o�ered by making it di�cult to jointhe group has been employed many successful businessorganisations, including Proctor & Gamble, MacDo-nalds, and the American retailers Nordstrom [2]. Theseorganisations employ tough recruitment and selectionprocesses to ensure a good `®t' between employees andthe company's ideology. They also insist that allemployees, however quali®ed, start at the bottom ofthe corporate ladder and work their way up the organ-isation. Thus the e�ort required to succeed within theorganisation separates out the truly committed fromthose who just want a job.

1.3.5. Public acts of commitmentConsistency of character is generally considered to

be a good trait for individuals. Without it we may bejudged to be ®ckle, uncertain, scatterbrained or un-stable [19]. Thus individuals will try to avoid lookinginconsistent, even if it is not in their best interests.

For example, an experiment was carried out where aresearcher would set up a beach blanket and a radionear to a randomly chosen individual. After a fewminutes the researcher left their belongings to take a


walk down the beach. Once they had left, a theft wasstaged to see if the onlookers would intervene. Undernormal circumstances individuals were reluctant to getinvolved and only 20% of people tried to stop thethief. However, when the onlooker was asked to`watch my things' by the researcher before he left, thenumber willing to tackle the thief rose to 95%. Havingmade a commitment to protect the researcher's belong-ings, the individuals were compelled to intervene inorder to appear consistent, even though it meant risk-ing personal harm [20].

Whenever an individual makes a stand that is visibleto others, there arises a drive to maintain that stand inorder to look like a consistent person [21]. The use ofcompany songs, pledges and chanted slogans are crudetools in building employee commitment to the corpor-ate ideals. Although more subtle approaches are usedin many organisations, such as quality circles and writ-ten statements, the idea of getting employees to makepublic acts of commitment is still used.

1.3.6. Active involvement`Àctions speak louder than words.'' Our best evi-

dence of the beliefs of others comes from how theyact, rather what they say. This is also true of ourselves,individuals scrutinise their own behaviour to decidewhat sort of person they really are; it is a primarysource of information about our beliefs, values andattitudes [22].

This builds upon the need for individual e�ort andthe use of public acts in building commitment, dis-cussed above. Active involvement not only requires anindividual e�ort, it also often requires the individual todemonstrate their commitment in front of others.

This need for involvement has been recognised bypolitical leaders for many years, Adolf Hitler recog-nised the power of involvement and used it to greate�ect in building commitment to and belief in the Nazicause in Germany: ``Followship demands only a pas-

sive appreciation of an idea, while membershipdemands an active presentation and defence . . . '' [23]

The need for involvement also underlies the ChineseCommunist use of essay writing as a means of buildingcommitment. It was never enough for prisoners to lis-ten quietly to the pro-Communist arguments or evento agree verbally, they were always urged to write theiragreements down. Once the statement had been writtendown, the prisoners had made an active commitmentand began to feel psychological pressure to bring theirself-image into line with the written statement [6].

Thus the development of commitment involves theinterplay of both behaviour and attitudes. The processthrough which commitment is built involves self-rein-forcing cycles of attitudes and behaviours that evolveover time and strengthen each other [7]. This is illus-trated in Fig. 2.

1.3.7. Clear messages and clear lines of communicationThe high commitment situations studied have a ten-

dency to have simple and clear messages. There is verylittle ambiguity about expected behaviour and atti-tudes, you are either committed to the organisation(the solution) or are part of the problem. This can beseen in a crisis, as well as in religions and the military.These messages are also supported with the careful useof images, symbols, stories and actions. For example,heroic mythologies about employees who best rep-resent the corporate ideals are commonly used in com-panies with strong cultures, such as IBM and Proctor& Gamble. Such organisations also place a strongemphasis upon the training of employees, includingtheir initial ideological orientation [2].

To ensure that these messages remain clear and donot become compromised, clear lines of communi-cation are set up. New recruits are often assigned anexperienced `mentor' who works with them to ensuretheir socialisation. Thus new employees are continu-ously fed the company values and have a role modelto learn from. In military `boot camps' recruits look totheir sergeant for guidance: in organisations such asNordstrom a more senior employee takes the role [2].

A further technique often employed is to isolate themembers from external in¯uences, which may providealternative views, so that only one source of infor-mation exists. Thus Proctor & Gamble, MacDonaldsand IBM all have their own self-contained ùniver-sities' [2]. Here employees can be isolated and taughtthe corporate doctrine, in a similar manner to a mili-tary boot camp or religious retreat.

This isolation, coupled with the `them and us' atti-tude often portrayed in the organisations' messages,can lead to a feeling of elitism. Members are taughtthat they are part of something special, that they aresomehow better than the òutsiders'. Many organis-ations actively discourage their members socialising orFig. 2. Reciprocal in¯uences between attitudes and behaviour [7].


discussing their work with non-members, includingProctor and Gamble and IBM [2]. Not only does thisbuild the individuals' sense of self-worth, it also avoidspossible con¯icting messages from outside the organis-ation.

1.4. The application of the seven features

Having identi®ed the seven key features of highcommitment scenarios, the next stage is to identifyhow they can be applied within ®rms in order to raisetheir levels of commitment. It is not the authors' inten-tion to suggest that companies should try to build thesame levels of fanaticism that are experienced withinreligious cults or the strict obedience demanded bypolitical dictatorships. However, the examples used inthis article do provide some arresting evidence as tothe important requirements for building commitment.The inclusion of these features within a business orga-nisation's change management process can be seen inFig. 3.

It can be seen from the model that building commit-ment is a continuous process, starting before the pro-ject itself begins and requiring reinforcement even afterit has ended. Indeed commitment on one projectshould feed into the next project that individuals workon, each building upon the last.

1.4.1. Individuals join of their own free willAs shown in the Figure, members of the project

team should be volunteers, not conscripts. The use ofbribes and pressure from superiors in order to get indi-viduals to join the project will not develop commit-ment to the team or its goals; there must be at leastthe illusion of freedom.

Employees must also see non-compliance and resist-ance to the project as an alternative. The culture ofthe company should be such that individuals canexpress their discontent before and during the project,they must have the right to disagree with the projectwithout fear of reprisals. This free will must alsoinclude the ability to leave projects if they become dis-contented and to change their minds after the projecthas been completed and to become committed. Suchacts should be embraced rather than ridiculed. How-ever, due to the need for individual e�ort in buildingcommitment (see Key Feature 4), those that leave theproject team should not be allowed to rejoin.

1.4.2. The role of uncertaintyUncertainty plays an important role in laying the

foundations for change, before the project can beginemployees need to be freed from their commitment tothe past:

``Nothing stops an organisation faster than peoplewho believe that the way they worked yesterday isthe best way to work tomorrow. To succeed, notonly do your people have to change the way theyact, they've got to change the way they think aboutthe past.'' [24]

Fig. 3. Using the seven key features to build commitment in project management.


This uncertainty can come from poor ®nancialresults or customer criticisms, or it can be intentionallycreated by the management through the questioning ofthe status quo. This then begins to open up opportu-nities for change and improvement. Although uncer-tainty can be seen as unsettling, it can also be seen asan opportunity for empowerment. The questions raisedshould o�er employees the scope to participate inin¯uencing the running of the company and its future.

As the projects progress the uncertainty should les-sen as commitment to the chosen solution grows.However, as noted in the quotation, too much cer-tainty can lead to stagnation. Whilst there must becommitment, it should be commitment to an idealrather than to a way of achieving it. On a company-level, this has been described as `preserving the core,whilst stimulating progress' [2].

In the same way that a strong corporate culture cansti¯e creativity, produce groupthink, and limit diver-sity, commitment can actually hold back the company.To counteract this danger there is a need to stimulateprogress. Thus there needs to be an underlying com-mitment to the organisation and/or its ideals, but theremust also be room for new ideas. For example, thestrong ideology of the Nordstrom organisation isbalanced by operational discretion; employees have agreat deal of latitude in how they perform theirworkÐthey do not need rules and procedures, justbasic guideposts.

1.4.3. Start small and build upNew ideas should be introduced gradually in order

to allow individuals to adjust to them, starting smalland gaining momentum as they become established, asillustrated in Fig. 3. Before the project begins the foun-dations can be laid by seeking minor concessions thatthings need to change and via minor demonstrationsof bene®ts. These activities provide a `hook' whichcaptures the imagination of othersÐbuilding commit-ment and interest in the projectÐwhilst not appearingsigni®cant enough to appear threatening or to producean automatic resistance reaction.

Thus at an early stage the project needs to demon-strate `quick hit' successes to prove their worth. Thisapproach is also useful in overcoming resistance and inbuilding rapport with those who need to `buy-in' tothe change. One technique that can be used is to askresistant individuals to perform minor tasks to helpthe team, including asking for their input on theteam's ideas. Thus in the same way that the exper-iment on the beachÐwhich asked people to `watch mythings'Ðled to individuals chasing a thief, minor con-cessions can be used as ®rst steps towards building agreater commitment.

1.4.4. Joining requires an individual e�ortBeing the member of a project team should appear

attractive, being exciting, challenging and rewarding;but it should not be seen as an easy option. Individ-uals must have to invest something in the project ifthey are to be committed to its success. This e�ort tojoin may come in the form of an initiation ritual, suchas training or team-building activities, to build the elit-ism described in Fig. 3.

However there is also the danger that the elitism cre-ated amongst the project team will lead to a `them andus' situation, with the development of barriers and jea-lousy between the team and the rest of the organis-ation. Thus there is a need to balance the elitism ofbelonging to the team with the necessity to gain thecommitment of the rest of the organisation. Communi-cation of the project goals, ideas and problems is key.This communication must be two-way, with the teamactively encouraging the participation of others in theachievement of their goals.

This elitism also has repercussions after the projecthas been completed, with the need to reintegrate themembers with the rest of the organisation. Like sol-diers returning to civilian life, project team membersmay require reorientation before they return to theirline duties or join another project team.

1.4.5. Public acts of commitmentThe commitment of team members and those that

support them must be announced, both verbally andin writing. This must start with public demonstrationsof senior management commitment to the project. Thecommitment of senior executives is vital in ensuringthat the project is adequately resourced, but it will alsoact as a catalyst for the commitment of others. Thusmaking this commitment public not only obliges seniorexecutives to continue to support it in order to appearconsistent; it also makes the project appear attractiveto others because it has senior management support.

During the project, as shown in Fig. 3, team mem-bers must also demonstrate their commitment throughpublic meetings, newsletters and other forms of publicexpression. The `magic of writing things down' can beemployed, as it was by the Chinese Communists, tocapture and advertise the commitment of individuals.This commitment will be greater and more obvious ifa project is viewed as attractive and worthwhile, ratherthan as fad or ine�ective.

When a project has been completed it should not beallowed to `tail o�' or disappear into oblivion; thereshould be a de®nite ending. This event can be used forSenior Management to demonstrate their support forwhat the team has achieved (even if the project hasbeen a `failure' lessons will have been learnt). Thisshow of support will help to build commitment on


subsequent projects, as teams will know that seniormanagers will not desert them when problems arise.

Likewise written records of projects should be keptand used. This not only aids corporate learning, butalso demonstrates the value that has been placed uponthe project.

1.4.6. Active involvementThe active involvement of individuals must start

early if they are to feel that they are able to in¯uencethe outcome of the projects. The start small and buildup approach may mean that this early involvementjust asks for opinions and ideas from individuals, butas the project progresses involvement must becomegreater and broader, including as many people as poss-ible that will be a�ected by the changes. This is shownin Fig. 3 by the arrow, with an increasing scale andscope of involvement as the project progresses.

This active involvement has serious implications forthe use of consultants in company projects. Over-dependency upon consultants can lead to the loss ofindividuals' commitment, as well as the loss ofemployee knowledge. If employees perceive thechanges are being imposed upon them by outsiderswho have little understanding of the true situation, re-sistance will be signi®cant and participation minimal.Ultimately it is the employees who must use the newsystems and processes, and they must be committed tothem if they are to make them work.

Once the project has been completed, it may bepossible to continue this participation by employingteam members in line positions or new projects whichbuild upon their prior experience. Thus team membersmay join the process they have redesigned or move toanother project which is related to the work they havejust completed.

1.4.7. Clear messages and lines of communicationThe communication of expectations and ideas

should not be left to chance, they must be set out at avery early stage and be an integral part of the changeprocess. Multiple channels, all with the same messages,can be employedÐimages, symbols and stories can beparticularly e�ective. The mentor idea may also beemployed, with team members assigned the responsi-bility of socialising those who will be a�ected by thechanges.

The channels employed must be two-way, the teammust be as good at listening as they are at broadcast-ing. This must be maintained throughout the projectlife, with continuous feedback and reinforcement ofthe messages. At the end of the project there should bea learning process, with feedback and documentation,to aid corporate learning and so that the organisationcan avoid reinventing the wheel.

2. Conclusion

Whilst it is not the purpose of this paper to suggestthat business organisations should attempt to mimicthe behaviour of cults, there are some important les-sons that can be learnt from the extreme situationscited within the examples. The techniques employed bycults, military and political organisations point to im-portant psychological traits which can be used to buildcommitment. The awareness and employment of thesepsychological features can help companies to build andharness the commitment of their employees towardsthe corporate goals.

Building commitment in change and project man-agement is more than just a case of `carrots andsticks'. The energy, loyalty, resilience and competitiveadvantage o�ered by normative-moral commitmentcannot be reproduced via coercion or materialrewards. These may produce compliance, but they donot induce the internalisation of company values,norms and goals that true commitment does.

Projects must appear attractive if employees are tomake the individual e�ort to join them and advertisetheir commitment. This means that they must have thesupport of senior managers, focus, be part of a biggervision and the ability to make a real di�erence to thebusiness. Organisations need to build a reinforcingcycle of behaviour and attitudes in order to build com-mitment to both corporate and project goals.

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Rachel Burgess has recently completed

the Engineering Doctorate program at

Warwick Manufacturing Group, Uni-

versity of Warwick. Her thesis explores

the implementation of Supply Chain

Management within the aerospace

aftermarket. She now works for Amer-

ican Express, Corporate Purchasing

Card as a Client Manager within the

aerospace industry.

Suzanne Turner is currently working

as a consultant for Rossmore Dempsey

and Company. She has worked with a

variety of organisations in a range of

industries and has recently completed

her Engineering Doctorate, which was

funded by EPSRC and based at War-

wick Manufacturing Group, University

of Warwick. Her research over the last

four years and the basis for her thesis

has been centred on the human aspects

of technology introductions.


seven key features for creating and sustaining commitment

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