sgsl riding high - crc lemecrcleme.org.au/pubs/pubsother/fos issue 41-jun07.pdfan independent survey...

Spanish lessons say Ole (page 20)

Multi-tasking of ewes onsaltland (page 6)

in this issueOne CRC morphs into another 3SIF3 – a sharp tool for decisioinmakers ........................................ 4Multi-tasking of ewes on saltland ...................................... 6Getting into the guts of a saltyproblem ...................................... 7Poor taste is good persistence .. 9Keeping agroforestry from remnant veg gene pool .......... 11FloraSearch gets out of gaol —and takes friends with it ........ 12Aerial technology to giveSunraysia salinity picture ........ 16Seeding depth critical for warmseason perennials .................... 18Spanish lessons say Ole .......... 20CRC postgrads punching above their weight .................. 21Case for non-food crops.......... 22Salt in the city .......................... 23Saltland pastures can pay in WA........................................ 24Sorting the salt problem ........ 26

By Bruce Munday

T he Cooperative ResearchCentre for Salinity (CRCSalinity) recently

received the prestigiousnational Award for Excellence inInnovation 2007, presented byAustralia’s Chief Scientist, DrJim Peacock, on behalf of theCRC Association.

Dr Peacock commented thatthe CRC Salinity, through theSustainable Grazing on SalineLands (SGSL) project1, has takenresearch and its application tosome of the most 'unfashionable'land in Australia — land affectedby salinity.

SGSL has discovered howhundreds of thousands ofhectares, that many people had'written off', can be madeproductive in a manner that protects theenvironment from further damage and rewardslivestock producers.

Something for everyoneIn Western Australia, the research has quantified

the economic benefits of supplementing saltbushfodder crops with understorey, giving livestockproducers greater confidence in the profitability ofthese pastures, particularly as it answers some ofthe questions raised by researchers in the 1990sabout the nutritional value of saltbush. In turn,this is leading to significantly increased privateinvestment in revegetation of saline dischargeareas, improved visual amenity through theintroduction of saltland pasture systems and abetter understanding of saltland pasture plantselection and establishment.

Separate WA research has developed designprinciples for optimising the benefits to livestockfrom grazing saltbush pastures as well asinvaluable data on water use by saltbush in arange of environments.

The national newsletter of salinity R&D

ISSUE 41

June 2007

ISSN: 1444-7703

These two projects have opened up economicopportunities for more than a million hectares ofsaltbush-suitable land across southern Australia.

The research in South Australia and Victoria hasdeveloped best-bet management systems tooptimise profitability and sustainability of salineland using puccinellia- and tall wheatgrass-basedpastures. Graziers now have knowledge that willhelp them dramatically lift the productivity ofpastures that were previously regarded as ofmarginal value. This has greatly increasedproducer pride in visually enhanced saline landand improved their understanding of therelationship between biodiversity, productivityand sustainability.

In New South Wales, research hindered byextended drought conditions has been extendedfor 12 months and is determining salt and watermovement from salinised land under bothvolunteer/naturalised pasture and salt-tolerantperennial pasture.

• Continued next page >

SGSL riding high

Receiving the Award for Excellence in Innovation 2007, (fromleft) Dr D Masters (CSIRO), CRC’s Grazing Systems Program Leader;Mr A Campbell, Chair of the Board of the CRC; Mr T Staley, Chairof CRCA; Mr K Bell (AWI); Dr J Peacock, Australia’s Chief Scientist;Mr D Pethick (MLA); Dr N Edwards, SGSL research project leader(SARDI); Mr T York, farmer representative on research projectsteering committee

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1 Sustainable Grazing on Saline Lands was a sub-program of Land, Water & Wool, funded by Australian Wool Innovation and Meat

& Livestock Australia with in-kind support from, CSIRO, Land & Water Australia and key state agencies in WA, SA, Vic. and NSW.

2 focusON SALT

Each state has produced its own uniqueset of resources for landholders and theiradvisers, based on the research undertakenat both the core and producer networklevel.

Leader of the research component of theSGSL project, Dr Nick Edwards,commented that the integration of ‘core’CRC Salinity research with farmer-drivenresearch through the program’s extensiveProducer Network, served to keep SGSLresearch relevant to the end user.

“At the same time this ensured that thefarmer research had sufficient scientificrigour that the results could be confidentlyshared with other groups,” he said.

“A critical element of SGSL has been thecombination of taking the science to thepaddock, with all the SGSL/CRC researchsites located on commercial grazing ormixed farming properties, and giving thefarmer groups the chance to undertake theirown investigations in an environmentwhere they had access to information andsupport from the main research teams.”

The impactAn independent survey in December

2006 found that about 2000 landholderswere actively involved in SGSL activities.These landholders were intimately linked toall aspects of the program and so able to tapinto the knowledge that has been generatedacross the nation. This survey estimatedthat “about 1200 wool producers to datehave made some practice change as a directresult of SGSL activities”.

“At one level, a large number oflandholders with salt-affected land nowhave scientifically valid information tosupport their investment in profitablegrazing on land that was previously of littlevalue,” said Nick Edwards. “This land hasachieved even greater value in recentdrought circumstances where an everincreasing number of farmers haverecognised the benefits of integratinglivestock with their cropping enterprises.

“Economic analysis as part of the researchprogram has quantified the systemic farmbenefits that will continue to have animportant role even in non-droughtsituations. These benefits include not onlyincreased farm income and also enhancedasset value of the farm, but also a tangiblemeasure of pride in successfully managing

• From previous page

what had been difficult and unrewardingland.”

Many farmers have been encouraged bythis research to manage even the mostseverely salt-affected land. The economicrewards in these extreme conditions arelimited, but psychological rewards aregreat. The SGSL national photocompetition during 2005 demonstratedthat farmers feel justifiably proud of theirachievements which not only reflect well onthem as individuals but on Australianagriculture generally.

For further information about the SGSLinitiative, visit www.crcsalinity.com.au orwww.landwaterwool.gov.au

CONTACT Dr Nick Edwards, SARDIT: (08) 8762 9184E: [email protected]

A ll of us associated with theproduction of Focus on Salt weresaddened to learn of the sudden

and unexpected passing of Kim Mitchell.A Senior Consultant with CurrieCommunications, Kim managed thecommunications program for theNational Dryland Salinity Program(NDSP) from 2001 until June 2004. Thisincluded the production of Focus on Saltand SALT Magazine and theimplementation of the NDSP’s successfulExtended Communications Year.

Kim was a creative force for influentialcommunication, setting astronomicalstandards but inspiring all who workedwith him. He willingly shared his ideaswith his clients, including the CRC Salinity,and convinced many scientists of the greatvalue of good communication to theirresearch.

We in the CRC, the NDSP and the largersalinity network, will all miss him as a trulywonderful person and a great colleague.

Kevin Goss and Bruce Munday — CRC Salinity

Vale Kim Mitchell

Researchers and farmers in dialogue at Chris Walton's Yealering property — always astrength of SGSL

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By Kevin Goss

T he next issue of Focus on Salt willbe under new management. Whatdoes this mean?

On 30 June 2007 the CRC for Plant-basedManagement of Dryland Salinity comes to aclose and hands over much of its businessto Future Farm Industries CRC, includingFocus on Salt and its companion SALTMagazine.

Future Farm Industries (see Focus on Salt#40) is a fundamental change in strategicdirection for dryland salinity R&D and itreflects changed thinking in national policytowards salinity management.

CRC Salinity, collaborating with ProfessorDavid Pannell, has been forceful in statingwhat we have learnt from six years of R&D.Recently we reported to the NaturalResource Management Ministerial Councilthat:• current investment strategies will not

contain dryland salinity at the broadscale

• investment better targeted towardsprotection to high value natural resource,built, cultural and social assets willimprove effectiveness

• future programs should better integrateregional and other natural resourceinvestments

• future programs should require thecauses of salinity at any site to beidentified prior to investment, with anyinvestment program designed to addressthese specific causes.

In response, the Ministerial Council mayadopt new principles to guide investmentin salinity outcomes by future naturalresources management funding programs.

Importantly, FFI CRC is structured tosupport this new approach. Its FarmingSaline Landscapes program focuses on salt-affected land and high value assets atimmediate risk, developing both plant andengineering management options. Sostrong is the commitment of landholdersaffected by salinity now, in particular theSGSL Producer Network, that FFI plans to

3

collaborate with them to set up a nationalsaltland service.

FFI’s major industry programs — FutureLivestock Production, Future Cropping Systemsand New Woody Crop Industries — willdevelop Profitable Perennials™ optionswith multiple benefits including salinitymanagement. Technologies and farmingsystems will meet performance standardsfor profitability, water use, biodiversity andadaptability to climatic variability (see Focuson Salt #40). The major industry andagribusiness participants in FFI CRC will bepromoting through their programs aprofitable path to sustainable agricultureand natural resource management.

Over the coming months FFI CRC willpromote, extend and commercialiseheadline technologies generated within theCRC Salinity. This will be done under aHarvest and Delivery Plan 2007/08 developedby John Powell in the Education andExtension program, these technologiesranging from new cultivars to farmingsystems such as EverGraze and SGSL.

At this crucial time FFI management ismaking arrangements to continue thepublication of Focus on Salt and to maintainthe flow of information and active

discussion around the role of ProfitablePerennials™ in salinity management,sustainable agriculture and naturalresources management.

You can keep up to date withdevelopments on www.futurefarm.com.au.

CONTACT Kevin Goss c/o Natalie Lennon T: (08) 6488 1952E: [email protected]

focusON SALT

The national newsletter of sal inity R&D

One CRC morphs into another

On behalf of the CRC Salinity’sparticipants and their Boardrepresentatives I sincerely thank all whohave worked so hard to make this CRCsuch a success. I thank our ProgramLeaders — John Powell, Ian Nuberg,David Chittleborough, Mike Ewing,Anna Ridley, Dave Pannell, Dave Mastersand Vivienne Turner; CommunicationManager — Bruce Munday and hiscommunications team; EducationManager — Daryll Richardson; andNode Managers — Richard George,Glenn Gale, Anna Dutkiewicz, AustinBrown and Peter Regan.

Thank you

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By Bruce Munday

Most research on salinity focuseseither at the farm or thecatchment level, but there is

also a strong need for research to assistat the policy level, where things are, ifanything, even more complicated andintractable.

The CRC Salinity has included research onsalinity policy since the establishment of theCRC in 2001. However, the mostsuccessful of its policy-related projects,SIF3, was not even contemplated at thestart. It was hatched almost accidentallyhalf way through the CRC’s life.

Back in 2004, there was a lot of discussionin salinity circles about issues that weretending to make perennial plants look like afalse hope for salinity management. For astart, there was evidence that in somecatchments the required areas of perennialswere so large as to be quite unfeasible. Aswell, economic modelling showeddisappointing results for currently availableperennials, it became increasingly apparentthat in some situations perennials can haveimportant adverse impacts on freshwaterflows into rivers, and there was increasingrecognition of the role for engineering insalinity management.

Professor David Pannell and Dr AnnaRidley worked together to weigh theseissues up in relation to perennials, so thatthey could say with confidence whereperennials do have a positive role to play insalinity management. This led them todevelop the framework that is now calledSIF3.

Extension and incentive payments (smallgrants) are two of the most commonly usedtools for promoting salinity control withcurrently available perennials, yet Pannelland Ridley argue that they will beinappropriate in most cases. Extensionshould only be relied upon as the main toolin cases where the available options forland-use change are sufficiently attractive tolandholders to be adoptable on therequired scale. Given the large scale ofchange required, and the poor economicsof existing perennials when applied oversuch a scale in most locations, the mainrole for extension is as a support for otherpolicy tools.

Incentives can have a role where existingperennials (such as lucerne or commercialtrees) only need a little bit of help tobecome adoptable. For example, they maybe only slightly less profitable than the landuse they replace, so that incentivepayments can bring about significant landuse change.

In many situations the most appropriatepolicy response could be investment indevelopment of improved salinitymanagement technologies, including plant-based research and development forprofitable farming systems.

In high water-yielding catchmentspenalties or permits might be needed toactually limit establishment of perennials(such as forestry).

focusON SALT

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SIF3 – a sharp tool for decisionmakers

The great strength of SIF3 is that itintegrates current salinity researchknowledge in a framework that clearlyinforms regional environmental managersand government policy makers aboutpublic funding priorities for salinity. Anintegrated framework, bringing togetherphysical, biological, economic, social andpolicy issues, was previously lacking, and isnow proving highly valuable and influential.

Testing the frameworkAt the level of regional natural resource

management, Pannell and Ridley haveestablished a strong collaboration with theNorth Central CMA in Victoria, and SouthCoast NRM in Western Australia. Boththese regional bodies have been veryreceptive to working with the SIF3 team totry out the framework in practice.

In Victoria, where the analysis has beencompleted, North Central CMA hasrewritten its Dryland Management Plan inresponse to the recommendations fromSIF3, and is making substantial changes toits salinity investments. In future, they willbe more tightly targeted around highly-valuable, highly-threatened assets, wheregroundwaters are responsive, and land-management options are relativelyadoptable. They will use a broader range ofinterventions, not relying solely on

SIF3 helps focus decision making


Highlights

• SIF3 integrates research

knowledge to inform

environmental managers and

policy makers about funding

priorities

• SIF3 enables improved

targeting of salinity

investment.

5focusON SALT


Star in the ascendant

extension and small grants. And they willtreat dispersed assets, like agricultural land,differently from localised assets, such as awetland, with more investment intechnology development to provide a betterrange of sustainable and adoptable land-useoptions for farmers.

Interest in the use of SIF3 by other regionsis now growing rapidly, with the teammaking strong connections in New SouthWales and South Australia and with otherbodies in Western Australia and Victoria.

As well as assisting regional environmentalinvestors, SIF3 has generated someimportant messages for policy makers.

These messages have been well received bygovernment agencies in Canberra andseveral states, and recently were acceptedby the relevant peak bodies of Australiangovernments, the Natural ResourcesManagement Standing Committee and theNatural Resources Management MinisterialCouncil. The next phase of NRM programsis expected to show clear signs of influencefrom SIF3.

A common request to the team is toextend the work beyond salinity and intoother natural resource areas, such asbiodiversity, pests, and other aspects ofwater quality. Targeting multiple NRMoutcomes further increases the scale ofcomplexity, however, grant proposals havebeen prepared to allow them to do this, so

the team is looking forward to continuingthe development of their policy researchinto new areas.

Several factsheets on SIF3 are availablefrom the CRC Salinity websitewww.crcsalinity.com.au > publications >key publications

MORE INFORMATION Prof. DavidPannell, UWAT: (08) 9842 0820E: [email protected]

Dr Anna Ridley, DPI Vic.T: (02) 6030 4581E: [email protected]


David Pannell was recentlyawarded a FederationFellowship to further pursue

his research into integratingeconomics and science for land,water and biodiversity policy.

The Australian Government’sprestigious Federation Fellowshipsprovide researchers of internationalstanding an opportunity to focus ontheir groundbreaking work full-timewith a globally competitive salary andequivalent funding from the hostinstitution.

David will be establishing a Centre forEnvironmental Economics and Policyin the Faculty of Natural andAgricultural Sciences at UWA in Perth,with the aim of improvingenvironmental policy programs forland, water and biodiversityconservation.

Using the resources of the Fellowship,and hopefully other proposals in thepipeline, he will tackle a range of issues thatshould contribute to this end, including:• consolidating the work on the Salinity

Investment Framework III (SIF3)• analysing the balance of investment

between on-ground works that produce

changes in the short term, versustechnology development that takeslonger to pay off but does so on a largerscale

• analysing the relative importance of (a)choosing which environmental assets toprotect, (b) choosing which policymechanisms to use to protect them, and

(c) the detailed operation of the policymechanism that is used. In practice, (b)gets little attention, but David believesthat it will prove to be as important asthe others•understanding more about the way

that policies influence landholder behaviour

• understanding more about the ways that policy program design influences the behaviour of environmental management organisations

• adapting the SIF3 approach beyond salinity to address new environment issues

•new bioeconomic models for those issues.

Other environmental economicsresearch in the School of Agriculturaland Resource Economics at UWA (e.g.experimental economics, non-marketvaluation) will be brought under the

umbrella of the new Centre, linkingstrongly to policy processes, and providingnew opportunities for post-graduatestudents.

CONTACT Prof. David Pannell, UWAT: (08) 9842 0820E: [email protected]

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By Georgina Wilson

T he female of the species isgood at multi-tasking, weare told. And it seems

sheep are little different fromhumans: ewes can juggle a high-salt diet during pregnancy whilesuccessfully maintaining a foetus!

This finding has come from CRCSalinity postgraduate researcherSerina Digby, at The University ofAdelaide.

“Most research to date hasfocused on non-pregnant sheepgrazing saltbush to fill the summer-autumn feed gap in southernAustralia,” Serina commented.“This time coincides with latepregnancy for autumn- or winter-lambing ewes, and feeding saltbushmay reduce the amount and cost ofsupplementary feed required.”

Pregnancy is a salt-retainingphysiological state so would beexpected to increase the challengesfor ewes as high salt intake requiresan increase in mechanisms to excrete salt.

Serina said the effect of high dietary salton the foetus had been studied in rodents,but less so in sheep. To mimic theconcentration of salt in saltbush-basedpastures in summer and autumn, eweswere fed a diet of 13 per cent sodiumchloride. This decreased their aldosteroneconcentration (a corticosteroid hormonethat stimulates absorption of sodium by thekidneys and so regulates water and saltbalance) and increased their waterconsumption.

But no effect from the high-salt diet wasseen on pregnancy rates, lamb birthweights, lamb survival or milk composition(fat and protein percentages).

What of the lambs?Comparing the lambs dropped with a

control group was the next step. S-lambs(high-salt diet during pregnancy) and C-lambs (controls) were exposed to short-and long-term preference testing todetermine possible differences in voluntaryselection for salt. No significant differencewas found.

focusON SALT

Multi-tasking of ewes on saltland

The lambs were subjected to salt‘challenges’ (oral dose of 40 g NaClin 25% w/v solution) from three to10 months and their water intake,urinary output, sodium excretionand hormone concentrationsmeasured and compared withcounterparts given an equal volumeof water without salt.

Results suggested lowerresponsiveness to aldosterone andan altered thirst threshold (seeFigure 1). When the supply oraccess to fresh water was limited, S-lambs appeared to cope better andexcrete the salt load faster than thecontrols.

However when lambs were treatedwith two consecutive saltchallenges, the rate of sodiumexcretion increased after the seconddose, but all animals were able toexcrete 95% of the administereddose within 23 hours. A finalexperiment when animals weregiven salty water (1.5% NaCl) fortwo days showed consistent results

and no difference in Na excretion betweenC- and S-lambs — as though their systemshad adjusted by then.

An interesting finding was a markedlylower voluntary feed intake in S-lambs thanC-lambs, suggesting an impact of themother’s salt intake during pregnancy onappetite regulation in the offspring. Thisresult is similar to findings by fellowstudent Megan Chadwick in continuingresearch.

Serina said “These results are very excitingin terms of foetal programming andepigenetics.

“However further work is warranted toestablish the practical implications ofperformance for the adult offspring, on saysaltbush, and whether offspring born todams fed high salt during pregnancy areconsistently associated with a lowervoluntary feed intake.

“But if a farmer needs to put his pregnantewes onto saltbush, do not worry. Thosegirls will cope with the high salt content!”

CONTACT Serina Digby, The University of AdelaideT: (08) 8303 7643E: [email protected]

Serina Digby measuring ewe’s blood pressure ‘the old way’— holding the arterial catheter vertically and measuring theheight from the heart to the point at which the blood stopsflowing and pulses in the catheter

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Figure 1. Voluntary water intake was lower in S-lambs immediately following a singlesalt ‘challenge’ (i.e. oral ingestion of salt). By 4-6 hours, this difference had disappeared

7focusON SALT


Getting into the guts of a

salty problem

Human health experts may warnagainst eating excess salt, butmore salt and saltbush for sheep

could help in managing dryland salinity.Winner of the CRC Association Emerging

Scientist Award, Di Mayberry, a PhD studentfrom The University of Western Australia,CSIRO Livestock Industries and the CRCSalinity, is throwing her energies intomaking digestion of saltbush by sheep moreefficient.

Di was announced as national winnerduring the CRCA Conference in Perth afterfinalists had presented the results of theirresearch to a conference audience.

“On salt-affected land, saltbush (Atriplex)species are among the most productivenatural pastures for livestock,” sheexplained.

They are also planted in agricultural areasas an important tool in revegetation and asa source of fodder that can be superior tothe dried annual herbage available insummer and autumn.

Saltbush is known to be rich in protein,minerals, fibre and vitamins, but it has beenwell established that sheep grazing saltbushalone tend to lose weight — possibly due totheir high salt intake.

“My research is investigating how salt andsaltbush affect the micro-organisms in thesheep’s gut (the rumen) and the amount ofenergy produced,” Di said. “This shouldhelp us to work out why sheep don’t growwell on saltbush alone.”

“Sheep stomachs act as fermentationchambers that digest very fibrous feed thathumans and many other animals couldnever handle.

“In a preliminary experiment, we foundthat in vitro methane production in rumenfluid from sheep fed old man saltbush(Atriplex nummularia) was about four timeshigher than in rumen fluid from sheep fedstraw or a mixed oatenhay and lupin ration.This increase in methane generation,considered to be a major inefficiency inruminant production, corresponded to anincrease in the salt content of the feed andthe salinity of the rumen fluid.”

Saltbush and the rumenDi then tested whether in vivo methane

production is higher in sheep fed saltbushcompared to sheep fed a traditional forage,and then if any increase in methaneproduction was due to the high level of saltin saltbush.

The results show that consumption of oldman saltbush does reduce the efficiency ofrumen fermentation in sheep by increasingthe amount of methane produced. However,methane production did not increase forsheep fed a non-saltbush diet supplementedwith salt (see Table 1).

The reduction in rumen efficiency is clearlynot due to the high concentration of salt insaltbush, but may instead be due to theeffects of secondary plant compounds onrumen microbial populations. Theassociated loss of ingested energy may helpto explain poor animal production fromsaltbush pastures, and Di is currentlyinvestigating the use of an energysupplement to improve rumen fermentation.

“By understanding the changes infermentation that cut efficiency, we shouldbe able to determine how to restore normalfunction,” she said. “This could be assimple as feeding small amounts of asupplementary feed such as barley. Ifsuccessful, sheep could feast on saltbush totheir hearts’ content with farmers knowingthey will continue to grow and not loseweight.”

CONTACT Dianne MayberryT: 0414 097 365E: [email protected]

Table 1. Effect of diet and rumen salinity on methane production

DietPellet + salt Saltbush

Salt content of feed (%) 0 10 20 16Electrical conductivity of rumen fluid (mS/cm) 11.4 15.7 18.3 15.3Methane production (L/d/kg feed digested) 31.6 34.4 30.9 44.8

Di with another friend

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Di Mayberry with Mr Tony Staley (l) andDr Jim Peacock

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A CRC

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focusON SALT

Senior management team for FFI CRC

Name ResponsibilityKevin Goss Executive Director and CEO DesignateA/Prof. Mike Ewing Acting General Manager ResearchMark Stickells Company Secretary and Acting Chief Operating OfficerJohn Powell Acting GM, Commercialisation and UtilisationDr Joe Jacobs Program Leader, Future Livestock ProductionAli Bowman PL, Future Cropping SystemsMike Bennell PL, New Woody Crop IndustriesDr Ed Barrett-Lennard PL, Farming Saline LandscapesKen Wallace PL, Biodiversity and WaterProf. Dave Pannell PL, Economic Social and Policy AnalysesScott Glyde PL, Education and Training

The FFI CRC has established aninterim website to keepstakeholders up to date withdevelopments in the new CRC:www.futurefarmcrc.com.au/.

F or the fifth year in a row the CRCSalinity has provided the winner ofthe AW Howard Memorial Research

Fellowship. The 2007 recipient of theaward is Margaret (Maggie) Raeside(Charles Sturt University) who is basedat the DPI Victoria research station atHamilton, working with the EverGrazeproject.

Maggie’s research aims to determine theeffect of grazing interval and nitrogenfertiliser on the persistence, productivityand density of summer-active tall fescue.This pasture species has the potential toprovide a valuable, high quality source offorage over spring, summer and autumn,when other pasture species may becomeunavailable. It also provides a viablemethod of reducing deep drainage due toits summer-activity and tolerance ofwaterlogging. While extensively used innorth America and New Zealand, limitedinformation is available on managementstrategies for tall fescue in western Victoria.

The fellowship provides a top-up stipendof $5000 per year for up to three years to anoutstanding student in agricultural science,natural resource management, agriculturaleconomics or social science relating to thedevelopment, management and use ofpastures.

Maggie’s success in 2007 follows CRCstudents Richard Bennett (2006), NatashaTeakle (2005), Alison Southwell (2004) andLindsay Bell (2003) as previous recipientsof this prestigious award.

For further details of the AW HowardMemorial Research Fellowship visitwww.sardi.sa.gov.au > Our Organisation >Links > AW Howard Memorial Trust >Research Fellowships.

Maggie Raeside at EverGraze trial site

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Maggie makes it five

straight for students

T he 2nd International SalinityForum continues to shape as anexciting event, with an incredible

array of international speakersconfirmed, reflecting both the breadthand depth of topics to be covered.

The theme of the Forum — Salinity, Waterand Society — Global issues, local actionsuggests that this is no ordinary conferencesimply about salinity. It promotes theintegral link between salinity and otherresource and environmental issues ofconcern to individuals, communities,industries and governments worldwide.Water and climate are two such issues. Thetheme also suggests the integral linkbetween understanding universal processesand principles as well as local ones, andtranslating this understanding intoappropriate responses, or actions, where itcounts.

Professor Roland Robertson, a leadingcommentator on globalisation fromAberdeen University, will join Professor

Salinity goes globalWill Steffen, one of Australia’s mostprominent climate change researchers, toset the Forum in a context like no othersalinity event hitherto seen in Australia.

Other international speakers includeProfessor Warren Wood (MichiganUniversity), Dr Karen Vilholth(International Water Research Institute,Denmark), Dr Narwaz MohammedBhutta (Pakistan), Dr Faisal Taha (UnitedArab Emirates) and Brian Wynne (UnitedKingdom). Together these speakers covertopics as broad as the hydrogeology ofsalinity over millennia to the challenges ofmanaging salinity in developing countriesto valuing both lay and expert knowledgein managing the environment. Any one ofthese speakers would be worth the entryprice alone. And the list of Australianspeakers is no less impressive!

Please visit the Forum’s website:www.internationallsalinityforum.org tosee the latest details about theprogramme, speakers, field trips andregistration.

9focusON SALT


Poor taste is good persistence

“However, studies have identified theCullen genus as containing valuable forageplants.”

Cullen australasicum is a member of theFabaceae family and is known under thecommon names of tall verbine, native scurf-pea and native verbine and is one of 32 species within the Cullen genus. It isendemic to Australia and widely distributedthroughout all mainland states exceptWestern Australian and Victoria where it isfound in a few isolated populations.

Cullen australasicum is an erect woody forbthat develops multiple branches from thebase and from the leaf axils. Leaves grow toabout 120 millimetres long. As the plantsmature they develop woody stems up to 15 mm in diameter.

Where it fits in the system“Given the widespread distribution of

Cullen, it seems the plant has a high level ofdrought tolerance,” Dr Dear said.

“Its relatively low palatability comparedwith introduced species is actually anadvantage in extensive grazing systems asthis enables it to persist under set stocking,while still remaining a good source of feedduring dry periods.

“Our studies suggest Cullen may notcontribute significantly to the diet of sheepdue to low palatability, but based onobservations it may be a useful feed sourcefor cattle. However, the relatively lowpalatability to sheep could be an advantage

By Matt Crosbie

T he extent of dryland and riversalinity is highlighting the need fora grazing- and drought-tolerant

perennial legume for the 300–500 mmrainfall belt across southern Australia.

While lucerne is moderately droughttolerant, lucerne stands are quickly thinnedout unless they are carefully managedunder rotational grazing systems.

Unfortunately, these systems are notpractical in the more extensive agriculturalregions where subdivision is limited and setstocking is the most common grazingmanagement.

Researcher with CRC Salinity based atWagga Wagga, Dr Brian Dear, believesnative species may offer an alternativeoption, particularly in terms of high levelsof drought resistance.

“Australia has several genera of nativeherbaceous perennial legumes includingSwainsonia, Glycine, Cullen, Lotus andKennedia but none has been successfullydeveloped as a cultivated pasture plant,” Dr Dear said.

“Although well adapted to the lownutrient status of Australian soils, they havegenerally been regarded as unresponsive tofertiliser and frequently contain toxins thataffect animal healthy or reduce palatability.

DM

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0Winter Spring

Year 2

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Year 3Summer

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Autumn Winter Spring

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C. australasicum SA4966M. sativa cv. SceptreL. corniculatus GoldieNot measured due to drought and DM was below 100 kg/ha

N/M

Seasonal herbage production (2003-2004) of Cullen australasicum, Medicago sativa andLotus corniculatus

Highlights

• Native species may offer high

levels of drought resistance

• Low palatability to sheep

could be an advantage

enhancing persistence under

set stocking

• The main case for Cullen in

the pasture would be as a

perennial to provide

groundcover, increase water

use and reduce deep

drainage.


10

maintain andenhance our highquality laboratoriesand their focus onindustry problems, aswell as agriculturaleducation and trainingat tertiary level.

Written in a readablestyle to suit studentsof history, socialsciences andagriculture, Australian

Agriculture (www.publish.csiro.au) will alsoappeal to professionals in the industry andthose with a general interest in Australiansociology and history.

focusON SALT

The author notes thatthere are significant plusesand minuses in thebiofuels/food equation. IfAustralian agriculture is tofulfil its future potential,farmers and graziers willhave to maintain theircapacity for adopting newpractices from around theworld and for managingthe vagaries of globalmarkets.

Australian science must continue toprovide world class research applied toindustry issues, particularly climate changebut also the many other emergingchallenges to Australian agriculture.

Dr Henzell airs his concern thatgovernments must be strongly urged to

Internationally renowned Australianagricultural research leader, Dr TedHenzell, argues in his new book,

Australian Agriculture: Its History andChallenges, that Australia’s success inagriculture has been due to the smart useof science and technology, and goodagricultural education.

Notwithstanding considerable gains inagricultural production, farmers’ andgraziers’ terms of trade have decreased sincethe 1950s, largely as a result of a fall in therelative importance of food and fibre inworld economies. The future of agriculturein Australia, he claims, will be intimatelylinked to energy issues, given thatagriculture is both energy dependent andalso a potential source of energy throughbiofuels (see also page 22).

Energy and research — keys

to the future

with Cullen providing a useful tool forcontrolling weed species in low-inputsystems where the use of herbicides is notan option and for enhancing persistence ofthe species in extensive grazing systems.

“The major rationale for including Cullenin the pasture would be as a perennial plantto provide groundcover, increase water useand reduce deep drainage, although itcould also be a last resort feed in droughtyears when the availability of more palatableforage is low.

“Suitable companion species couldinclude grasses such as wallaby grass(Austrodanthonia caespitosa) whose naturaldistribution overlaps that of Cullenaustralasicum.

“The target environments would includethe low rainfall 400 mm wheatbelts wherecropping is infrequent or where land isbeing retired from cropping.

“For a species to become a successfullycultivated pasture plant, seed must bereadily harvested, processed and availableat a commercially acceptable cost.Preliminary observations at the AdelaideGenetic Resource Centre where Cullenaccessions have been grown in nurseryrows suggests that seed retention

characteristics should enable the species tobe mechanically harvested.

“The weed potential appears to be verylow, with our studies demonstrating nopropensity to spread outside theboundaries of the experimental plots sownover a four year period. Flowers and seed

are consumed by sheep and native fauna,thereby decreasing the size of the seedpool,” said Dr Dear.

CONTACT Dr Brian Dear, NSW DPIT: (02) 6938 1856E: [email protected]


Three-year old plants of Cullen australasicum at Wagga Wagga, June 2006 following six months of drought. The plants were periodically mown or grazed by sheep.

Phot

o: B

Dear

investigated, CRC Salinity researcherMargaret Byrne recommends isolationdistances of at least 1.5 km betweenagroforestry plantings and nativepopulations.

“Using germplasm with flowering timesthat don’t overlap with those of naturalpopulations or harvesting trees planted foragroforestry before pollen productioncommences are unlikely to provesuccessful.

“The most reliable short-term practice tolimit the dispersal of pollen will be toisolate agroforestry crops from small naturalpopulations by distance or by barrier orguard rows of alternative species tosurround crops and reduce the physicalmovement of pollen and ‘trap’ pollinators,”said Dr Byrne.

The results of the work are being used todevelop risk management protocols thatensure the environmentally sustainable useof eucalypts and acacia for agroforestrythroughout southern Australia.

CONTACT Dr Margaret Byrne,DECWA T: (08) 9334 0503E: [email protected]

By Jo Curkpatrick

W ith extensive planting ofnative species in agriculturallandscapes in both

rehabilitation and restoration programs,it is important to understand the flow ofgenes with the dispersal of pollen.

In the CRC Salinity’s Biodiversity program,researchers have found that the pollen ofyandee or York gum (Eucalyptus loxophleba)and golden leaf wattle (Acacia saligna) haddispersed up to 2 kilometres from thesource trees.

According to CRC Salinity researcher JaneSampson the extensive pollen dispersalobserved in these species could mean asignificant risk of genetic contamination ofremnant populations.

“Eucalypts are the dominant species inmany ecosystems in Australia and the mostwidely planted broad-leaf tree genusglobally, so there is concern about thetransfer of genes from plantations to nativepopulations.

“We have examined the patterns ofmating and pollen dispersal between aplantation and native remnant of twosubspecies of E. loxophleba, which occurs intree and mallee forms.

11

“We found the majority of outcrossedpollen came from outside the remnantstands with up to 50 per cent coming fromthe plantation up to 2 km away,” said Dr Sampson.

Postgraduate colleague Melissa Millar hasbeen examining the role of gene flow andmating systems in the cohesion ordifferentiation of plant populations.

“The pollen of A. saligna was alsofound to migrate large distances froma planted stand and swamp the lessfecund natural subspecies (see Figure1). So the planting of one subspecieswithin the natural range of anothercould lead to genetic contaminationof natural remnant populations ifpollen dispersal is extensive and thesubspecies are inter-fertile.

“A risk management framework isneeded to ensure agroforestryprograms can be developed toachieve rehabilitation outcomeswithout negative impacts on remnantpatches of biodiversity,” Ms Millarsuggested.

While the effects of inter-subspecieshybridisation in A. saligna remainunknown until they are further

focusON SALT


Keeping agroforestry from the

remnant vegetation gene pool

E. loxophleba subsp. lissophloia — the mallee form

Phot

o: M

Byr

ne

Figure 1. Study site where extensive gene flowwas detected from a planted stand of A. salignasubsp. saligna (white circles) to remnant standsof subsp. lindleyii (green circles); blue lines: AvonRiver

12

By Bruce Munday

T owards the end of April this yearthe SA Murray-Darling Basin NRMGroup, Ranges to River (R2R),

visited the CRC Salinity’s experimentalresearch site at Monarto, about 70kilometres east of Adelaide.

This 49 hectare site was established in2006 to progress the work alreadyunderway at Murray Bridge, but soon to beovertaken by development work at thenearby Mobilong Prison.

The potential role of native perennials inAustralian agriculture was highlighted tomembers of the R2R Group. Two daysbefore the opening rains of the season, butalmost nine months since the last effectiverain, the Monarto site looked like an oasis.

Building on species selection work wellprogressed at Murray Bridge, FloraSearch isnow getting closer to the ‘best of the best’as it trials prospective native species.

With its relocation, the research has beenextended to explore the impact of soilconstraints on plant performance, and alsothe potential of some of these plants toperform in grazing systems being developedin the CRC’s Enrich project (see Focus onSalt #34).

Grazing shrubs has long been a feature ofAustralia’s pastoral zones, but there is nowan impetus to integrate woody perennialsinto ‘inside country’ grazing systems.Factors prompting this initiative include theopportunity to:• reduce the extreme seasonality of

traditional grazing pastures• make better use of available soil moisture,

so reducing the risk of salinity• cope with acid soils and reduce soil

erosion• increase resilience in the face of climate

variability• increase biodiversity.

Enrich is taking a unique approach to this,focusing less on the properties of individualspecies, but on the complementaryproperties of mixtures of plants andevaluating them against multiple criteria(see Figure 1).

The early FloraSearch work has shown thatsome woody perennials have higher thanexpected biomass, growth rates andnutritive properties, immediately pointingto likely candidates for Enrich.

Enrich Project Leader, Dr Dean Revell(CSIRO Livestock Industries) comments,“Many of the desirable attributes of theseplants will appear to be quite marginal, butwhen they are brought together in a systemthey can be significant. Even the ability ofsaltbush roots to break through soil barriers(see Some soils make it tough below) couldamount to a long-term benefit that mightotherwise be overlooked.”

The significance of soil constraints hasbeen brought into sharper relief by recentdrought conditions where any limitation on

focusON SALT

a plant’s ability to extract soil moisture hasbeen a liability.

FloraSearch zooms in on winnersThe scale of perennial plant cover needed

to control salinity is so large that it is simplynot feasible to rely solely on revegetation forbiodiversity to restore hydrologicalequilibrium in the landscape.

A more realistic approach to addressgroundwater recharge and salinity would be

New forage systems incorporating shrubs

Design principles for profitable grazing systems based on functional mixtures of plants

(shrubs, herbaceous, annuals, perennials)

Economic & social assessment of scope and potential impact of shrub-based system

Nutritional traits of new and existing shrub options; better methods; complementarity between species; impact on animals

Assessing plants for compounds that improve rumen microbial function and gut health

Field evaluation of new shrub options; responses to defoliation; performance in mixtures

Exploiting learnt and innate grazing behaviour of livestock for improved animal performance and health

Figure 1. Enrich project structure

Saltbush after nine months of drought at the FloraSearch site at Monarto INSET: DavidMcKenna before planting 20,700 saltbush seedlings

Phot

o: D

McK

enna

INSE

T: M

Tuc

ker


FloraSearch gets out of gaol —and takes friends with it

13focusON SALT


to develop a mosaic of land uses. Thesemight include commercial tree crops drivenby large-scale industrial markets,agricultural systems utilising woody andherbaceous perennial crops, and plantingfor biodiversity resources. New agroforestrydesigns might include short-cycle woodycrops based on belts or plantations ofcoppice and phase crops suited to localhydrological systems.

The FloraSearch project (initiated by theJoint Venture Agroforestry Program — JVAP— and supported by the CRC Salinity) hasscreened Australian native flora forcandidates that might be developed to taketheir place in such systems, supplyingcommercially viable and ecologicallysustainable industries. This in turn involvesselecting and developing new crop speciesto supply feedstock for large-scale marketsincluding wood products, renewable energyand fodder.

FloraSearch is now narrowing down theselections from the earlier phase of theproject and subjecting the short-listeddozen species for each region to moreintensive evaluation.

Following the earlier identification ofprospective species, selection of superiorgermplasm has been based firstly on themost suitable provenances. From withinthese provenances the research team, led byMike Bennell and Trevor Hobbs (DWLBC),is selecting the best plants based on a rangeof desirable attributes which are now beingfield tested for their agronomicperformance.

During 2006 the FloraSearch researchteam commenced provenance evaluationsand coppicing experiments for 23,400 treesand mallees, and provenance and breedingtrials for 20,700 saltbushes.

Research into oil mallee systems toproduce eucalyptus oil, wood fibreproducts, charcoal and bioenergy isparticularly active in the wheat-sheep zoneof Western Australia. The researchers atMonarto are now also looking closely atnew enterprises based on multiple

opportunities suchas biofuels, carbonsequestration andfodder systems (seeFigure 2). Thesehave been givenimpetus fromrecent evidenceindicating climatechange and willbecome even morefavourable if carbontrading is widelyembraced. Theviability of thesenew crops dependsthe balancebetween suitablemarkets, plantation growth rates andproduct yields for each industry type.

Much of the current research is involvedin identifying the potential extent of newindustries and more accurately predictingproduct yields from woody biomass crops.“Assessing productivity rates and laboratorytesting of plant attributes is very timeconsuming and expensive,” according toresearch leader Trevor Hobbs. “Togetherwith partners in WA and CSIRO we are

currently investigating and developing morerapid assessment techniques that includedefining allometric relationships betweensimple plant measurements and productyields, and near-infrared spectrometry toevaluate the nutritional values of saltbushand other fodder species.”

FloraSearch is now extending this ground-based research with spatial models ofproduction systems, industrial supplychains, environmental benefits andeconomic returns. This work will help toprioritise the potential location of newbiomass industries and evaluate the likelycommercial returns from developing newbroad-scale woody crops in southernAustralia.

Some soils make it toughA fundamental component of the CRC’s

research involves understanding themechanisms of water use in nativeecosystems, as this will help select plantsand design farming systems that are welladapted to the Australian environment.

As southern Australia emerges from severedrought conditions it is tempting to ponderjust why native vegetation in the SA Malleehas generally looked remarkably freshthroughout, despite harsh soils and a harshclimate.

Trevor Hobbs, leads FloraSearch research on plant selection andsystems modelling

Phot

o: D

McK

enna

Figure 2. Spatial systems modelling allowsFloraSearch to evaluate the potential ofnew regional industries such as bioenergyin the upper South East SA



14 focusON SALT

the acacia (see Figure 3). Perhapssurprisingly, the saltbush has shown asignificant preference for non-ripping.Consistent with this result, the researchershave found that the saltbush roots tend tobe more prevalent in the soil interface layer(see Figure 4) suggesting that it is betteradapted to this environment.

This work is still in its early days, and onewould expect that seasonal conditionscould vary considerably from year to year.Nonetheless, these preliminary resultssuggest firstly that there is no benefit (andperhaps a detriment) from ripping whenestablishing saltbush on these soils.

Secondly, there is evidence that saltbushmight prove to be a useful pioneerplant for these soils on account ofits ability to create macropores inthe soil for other plants to exploitlater in a rotation.

SOILS CONTACT Dr AnnieMcNeill, The University of AdelaideT: (08) 8303 7879E: [email protected]

FLORASEARCH CONTACTTrevor Hobbs, SA DWLBC T: (08) 8303 9766E: [email protected]

3.53.02.52.01.51.00.5

0

Bio

mas

s (g

/pla

nt) Leaf

Stem

R URSB Euc Ac

R UR R UR

Figure 3. Biomass at 10 weeks after planting

1000900800700600500400300200100

0

ESB

0–10 10–20 20–30 30–40Ro

ot

den

sity

dis

trib

uti

on

(cm

/cm

3 )

Figure 4. Root density distribution

Soil profile at Monarto site

T he SA Murray-Darling NaturalResources Management Board isstructured around four sub-

regional Groups which effectivelyprovide a link between the Board’sstrategic plan and action on the ground.

The Ranges to River Group covers theEastern Mount Lofty Ranges and theMurray Plains, stretching from SwanReach to the Murray Mouth. In April, twodays before ‘the drought broke (!?)’, thegroup visited the CRC Salinity’s researchsite at Monarto.

“The NRM Board always likes to ensurethat investment decisions are based ongood science,” said Monique Aucote-White, a member of the R2R Group. “Butnot all the answers are known, so we areinterested in research, particularly when itis in our own backyard.

“The FloraSearch project is interestingbecause it seems like the sort of thing —comprehensively searching for ‘useful’native plants — that perhaps should havebeen done years ago. However, the taskwas probably so huge that no singleresearch team could really contemplate it.

“Seeing how well these plants weregrowing in one of the harshest years onrecord — 97 mm of rainfall recorded fromAugust to February — was prettyimpressive and a reminder of just how wellthey are suited to our conditions.

Research and the end-user

“The selection of the toughest and mostproductive from among the tough isbringing this work to an interesting stage.

“The Enrich project looks to be highlyrelevant research building on bothFloraSearch and the hostile soils work.Enrich seems to be thinking outside thesquare and exploring really novel grazingsystems with multiple benefits, but with thepotential to utilise an elite set of plants.

“If these plants find their way into grazingsystems and contribute to droughtproofing, carbon sequestration and erosioncontrol, this research will have made a verysignificant impact on the way we farm.”

Monique Aucote-White applying thetaste-test to fruit salad bush (Pterocaulonsphacelatum)

Phot

o: B

Mun

day

Phot

o: D

Chi

ttle

boro

ugh

CRC researchers at The University ofAdelaide are investigating just how youngtrees and shrubs (Acacia retinodes,Eucalyptus occidentalis and Atriplexnummularia) in their establishment phaseaccess resources such as water andnutrients and how they allocate resourcessuch as carbon to shoots and roots.

The research site at Monarto on the SAMurray Plains has a soil profile with a welldefined interface between a medium clayand a dense massive clay with pH 9 atabout 20 cm depth, presenting a potentialphysical and possibly a chemical barrier toplant roots.

Ripping, to break up a hard pan or disturbsome other physical barrier, is often usedwhen planting trees or shrubs on a paddockscale. The Adelaide team planted seedlingsin August and have measured dry mass,plant height, leaf area, root mass and rootlength for two different treatments — thecontrol unripped (UR) and site ripped (R).

In an extremely dry year the saltbush hasgenerally out-performed the eucalypt and

Enrich establishment beats

the odds

15focusON SALT


By Jo Curkpatrick

E nrich is a research projecttesting native shrubs for theirgrazing potential in mixed

forage systems designed forAustralia’s harsh climate, whiledelivering land managementoutcomes such as improved wateruse and reduced soil erosion.Grazing potential is being assessedbroadly by looking at edible biomassand nutritive value as well as theeffects on animal health, especiallyon rumen micro-organisms and gutparasites.

As CRC Salinity Project Leader, DrDean Revell, explains, “We know that someof these species, including the salt bushes(Atriplex spp.), some wattles (Acacia spp.)and emu bushes (Eremophila spp.) haveforage potential.

“But we need to know which particularspecies to plant, in what combinations,where on the farm and how to graze them.

“We are making a start by testing asignificant range of native species underfield conditions,” Dr Revell said.

At Monarto the Enrich project has around14,000 shrubs representing more than 70species which will be assessed for theirforage potential.

“Germination was a bit of trial and error aswe didn’t have much information on thisfor many of the species, but we stillmanaged to raise a large number of thespecies from seed,” said CRC Salinityresearcher Jason Emms (SARDI).

Because of the drought and a shortwindow of opportunity the seedlings wentinto the ground quite late, in August andSeptember 2006, just six months aftersourcing of the seed began. With no springrain Jason lay 20 km of dripper line to savethe research site.

“We were hand watering off the back of aute and using a water truck before the

drippers went down.”Watering continued until Christmas

and the site is now looking “excellent,fantastic” according to Jason withlosses kept to about 5 per cent.

Measurements have begun for shrubperformance, including ediblebiomass, growth form, hairiness andthe presence of detrimental spines.

In a national effort researchers arealso sampling leaves from the Monarto

site to measure nutritive value (atCSIRO Perth) and bioactiveproperties such as those that helprumen efficiency, have an effect ondigestion, reduce methaneproduction from rumen microbial

fermentation (at UWA), or reduce internalparasites (at CSIRO Brisbane).

Another site at Badgingarra in WA hasbeen established with seven shrub species,perennial grasses and annual pasturespecies to look at grazing behaviour andways to modify it.

The Enrich project is jointly funded by theCRC Salinity, JVAP, MLA and AWI.

CONTACT Dean Revell, CSIROLivestock IndustriesT: (08) 9333 6492E: [email protected]

Jason Emms at the Monarto site with the shrubCullen australasicum

Phot

o: G

Tay

lor

T he recent drought (that appears tohave broken in the eastern states)represents a unique opportunity to

highlight some of the ‘success cases’where farmers have survived and mightwell emerge as winners, particularly ifthey have been able to maintain or evenenhance livestock numbers. Earlier thisyear there were significant ‘out of season’rainfall events in all states and thesecould prove to be great opportunities forfarmers with perennials.

The CRC Salinity and the FFI CRC areboth keen to capture the lessons that mightbe learned from this drought, particularlythe role played by perennials in farmers’

ability to cope with and recover from theseconditions.

It is 25 years since the previous drought ofsuch widespread proportions, butpredictions of climate change suggest that itmight not be 25 years before the next. The‘story’ that emerges from this drought canillustrate the importance of the currentresearch and of that proposed for the FFICRC.

The CRC Salinity is undertaking a nationalcampaign, focusing on the agricultural andfarming regions within the 350–750 mmrainfall zones of WA, SA, Vic. and NSW,that captures the role of perennials inhelping farmers survive and recover fromthe drought.

The campaign will be based oninformation gathered over several monthsacross the four states and will be packagedand delivered for optimal impact. The keymessages will be:1.Perennials already play an important role

in successful farming systems,particularly in terms of reducing riskassociated with drought and helping tospeed recovery.

2.Moving (more) into perennials is a criticalbusiness decision requiring carefulfinancial planning, technical advice andre-thinking farm enterprises to capture allthe benefits.

3.Research is needed to enable morefarmers to embrace perennials.

Emerging victorious – how did we do it?

16

By Greg Lawrence

Anew high-resolution, three-dimensional insight into salinegroundwater variability, salt

stores and floodplain processes in theSunraysia Region of the River Murray isone step closer following the completionof an airborne geophysical survey overthe area (see Figure 1). The survey wasflown as part of new development andimplementation of salinity managementinitiatives to enhance the understandingof the region’s floodplain hydrogeology.

Carried out by CRC LEME in September2006, the Sunraysia Airborne Electromagnetic(AEM) project targeted the region as part ofa broader project initiated by the SunraysiaSalt Interception Integration andOptimisation Steering Committee,Goulburn-Murray Water and the MalleeCatchment Management Authority. Thesurvey was also supported by the LowerMurray Darling Catchment ManagementAuthority and the New South WalesDepartment of Natural Resources, withadditional funding through the Murray-Darling Basin Commission and theAustralian Government’s National ActionPlan for Salinity and Water Quality.

Data from the survey will support high-priority projects in the region, including thedevelopment of a Sunraysia DisposalStrategy, a refurbishment plan for the ageingand underperforming Mildura-Merbein SaltInterception Scheme, the design of apotential scheme in the Red Cliffs Area andsupporting technical investigations lookingat flood plain processes around King'sBillabong. The AEM survey was extendedinto NSW to include Gol Gol Lake andsurrounding swamp area, and theMourquong Disposal Basin, to examine thelinks between these systems and salinityinflow into the River Murray.

The most noticeable aspect of the project,especially for Mildura and Burongaresidents, was the use of a torpedo-shaped,high-tech electromagnetic sensor thatmeasured and recorded variations in theelectrical conductivity of the ground below.

Fitzpatrick said the airborne data wereacquired every 3–5 m along projected flightlines.

“The EM system's measured response is afunction of frequency, with the higher

Aerial technology to give

Sunraysia a clearer salinity picture

focusON SALT

Known as theRESOLVE HelicopterE l e c t r o m a g n e t i c(HEM) System, itconsists of a six-f r e q u e n c yelectromagnetic (EM)coil set making up aseries of transmittersand receivers mountedin a 9 metre long kevlartube or ‘bird’, which issuspended below thehelicopter. As it flies30 m above thesurface, the bird's sixdifferent frequency coilcombinations pick upinduced ground EMresponses generatedfrom its EMtransmissions. Overthe River Murrayfloodplains, variationsin the induced response measured by theEM system are directly related to variationsin soil and groundwater salinity (see Figure2). LEME geophysicist Dr Andrew

Figure 2. Conductivity depth slice of 4–6 metres below surface level from the RESOLVE survey

Figure 1. Sunraysia AEM survey locality map

17

frequencies helping to detect near surfaceconductors that could represent clay-richfloodplain materials or salt stored in nearsurface sediments. Decreasing thefrequency increases the depth ofpenetration,” Dr Fitzpatrick said.

“This allows us to look at groundwatersalinity in adjacent highland areas and theinteractions between irrigation andfloodplain salinisation.”

In addition to the acquisition of dataacross the entire floodplain, severaltransects were flown along stretches of theriver. The transects have helped inassessing the viability of using HEMsystems to map salt loss and gain alongstretches of the river and to provide insightinto which parts of the groundwater-floodplain system are significantcontributors to river salt loads.

The rapid acquisition of airborne EM datamakes these systems more suited toproviding snapshots in time of a river-floodplain environment during events, suchas flooding. Along the River Murray, thismay assist our understanding of how saltstored in floodplain settings is mobilised onsuch occasions.

While the RESOLVE is not newtechnology, the project has used, for thefirst time, an altitude sensor systemconsisting of a boom mounted at rightangles to the bird housing. Two GlobalPositioning Systems (GPS) mounted at bothends of the boom supply accurate altitude

information to assist in the recovery ofhigh-quality near surface electricalconductivity data.

"The raw data collected by the EM systemneeds to be calibrated and corrected forsurvey artefacts and levelling before it canbe used to create accurate conductivitymodels to help understand floodplainprocesses," Dr Fitzpatrick said.

This conductivity information acquiredfrom the airborne system is now beingvalidated from drilling in the river andacross the floodplain. Analysis of materialscollected from the drilling will be used tointerpret the responses observed in thedata.

For further information about this project,contact the Project Leader, Dr Tim Munday:[email protected]

focusON SALT


G eochemical and mineralogicalanalyses of salt efflorescencesalong drains in a sub-coastal,

interdune landscape near TilleySwamp in the upper south-east ofSouth Australia, have provided awindow into the seasonal geochemicalprocesses occurring within the drain.

The Tilley Swamp drains were dug tohelp manage the projected increase inland subjected to dryland salinity andflooding by intercepting both salinegroundwater and fresher surface water.Joint research by LEME and CSIRO Landand Water has shown that saltefflorescences provide an indication ofthe complex biogeochemical conditionsand transformations occurring in andaround the drains.

Salt efflorescence analyses revealed theminerals contain high levels of sodium,sulfate and calcium ions with pedogeniceugsterite identified for the first time inAustralia. These soluble minerals playimportant roles in the transient storage ofcomponents (Na, Ca, Mg, Ba, Sr, Cl, Br, I

Insight into acid drain geochemistry

and SO4). They can detach soil duringcrystal growth, degrade drain walls,dissolve during rain and contribute toformation of saline monosulfidic blackooze in drains.

Salt mineral formation most likely tookplace through the oxidation of pyrite tosulfuric acid, which dissolved the moresoluble soil constituents such as calciteinto the lower parts of the drain, and bycapillarity and evaporation in the upperpart of the drain surface. As such, theseminerals are indicators of soil, water andredox processes operating in specificlandscapes. The biogeochemicalprocesses in the drains provide goodmineralogical and soil indicators thatcan be used to help understand andmanage the drainage system.

An in-depth evaluation on the soils ofTilley Swamp can be found in Open FileReport 195, from www.crcleme.org.au/Pubs/OFRSindex.html

CONTACTE: [email protected]

In-river coring along the River Murray usedto validate the airborne EM survey data

Phot

o: T

Kol

pin

A helicopter gets ready to drag the RESLOVEBird off for another day of data acquisition

Phot

o: T

Kol

pin

18

By Georgina Wilson

New CRC Salinity research isindicating that sowing depthcould be a major factor in

performance of different warm season(sub-tropical) grasses.

A key finding is that a single depth of 5–10 millimetres appears suitable for thosespecies studied.

A new project Reliable establishment of non-traditional perennial pasture species, fundedwith partners including MLA, AWI andSGSL, aims to develop robust and reliableestablishment packages for a range ofperennial pastures.

Many farmers have found that paddockssown to a mix of three, four or five warmseason perennial species have small areaswith excellent establishment, but low andhighly variable plant density over most ofthe paddock. Pasture composition oftenbears little resemblance to what was sownbecause most of the paddock is dominatedby one or two species.

To test the effect of seeding depth, a smallplot field trial was conducted on a sandysoil at South Perth under irrigationcomparing Gatton panic, KatamboraRhodes grass, signal grass, Whittet kikuyu,Splenda setaria and the perennial legume,Miles lotononis.

Germination was compared at six depths(surface without pressing, 5, 10, 15, 20 and30 mm), two sowing times (21 August and25 September 2006) and was replicatedfour times with 100 seeds per row (288 plots total).

Depth was precisely controlled using awooden dowel; seed was hand-sown; andslots filled to the surface with red sand.Seedlings were counted weekly for fourweeks.

ResultsLarge differences were found between

species. Figure 1 shows the relativegermination at different depths for eachspecies, while the absolute values probablyreflect differences in seed quality.

Small-seeded species such as Rhodesgrass had excellent establishment at 5 mmbut major reductions with deeper sowing.There was a significant reduction at 10 mm,with negligible germination at 15 mm. On

the other hand,larger-seeded speciessuch as signal grasswere able toestablish fromdeeper sowings;signal grass showedlittle differencebetween 5 and 30mm.

The optimal depthfor kikuyu was 5mm, but it hadreasonable germi-nation at 20–30 mmshowing sometolerance in seeding

depth. Gatton panic had high germinationat 5-10 mm with a major reduction at 15 mm or deeper.

Miles lotononis, which has a tiny seed (a tenth of subclover), also showed goodgermination at 5–10 mm.

Seed of all species sown on the surfacefailed to establish (although seed was notpressed or rolled to 1–2 mm which wouldoccur if broadcast and then rolled).

Time of sowing did not have a significanteffect on seedling numbers however it hada highly significant impact on productionwith the earlier time leading to greaterbiomass except for setaria.

CONTACT Ron Yates, DAFWAT: (08) 9368 3665 E: [email protected]

Seeding depth critical for warmseason perennials

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Sowing depth (mm)

Tota

l mea

n no

. of

seed

lings

010

20

30

90

100

0

5% LSDs

5 10 15 20 30

80

70

60

50

40

Gatton panicRhodes

KikuyuSignal

SetariaL.bainesii

Figure 1. Mean number of seedlings at six sowing depths (mean of two sowing dates)

Depth was precisely controlled by a wooden dowel INSET: Plots displaying superiorgermination of panic seedlings when sown (from the left) at 5 mm, 15 mm and 30 mmdepths

Phot

os:

R Ya

tes &

P S

canl

on (i

nset

)

Highlights

• 5–10 mm appears suitable

sowing depth for these

species

• No germination of broadcast

seed without pressing.

T he Department of PrimaryIndustries Victoria monitors watertable trends at 330 bores located

in salinity priority areas within the NorthEast CMA region. Most of these boresare at 5–25 metres depth and drilled intoshallow groundwater systems.

During 2000 there was a general riseacross most of these 330 bores that wasfollowed by a level or falling trend for theperiod 2001–2003. Then in 2004–2005there was a rising trend, followed by asignificant fall during 2006 that hascontinued until April 2007.

These general trends (to which there wereexceptions) can be largely matched withboth seasonal and annual rainfall.

Figure 1 shows the trend at Bore 11017located in the foothills a few kilometressouth of Springhurst on the eastern side ofthe Hume Freeway. It is 51 m in depth andthe electrical conductivity of the water isabout 9 decisiemens per metre.

The sub-catchment in which it is locatedhas both recharge and saline dischargeareas that have had considerablerevegetation work completed since 1987.This has consisted of shelterbelts on 7 percent of the paddock in which the dischargearea is located, 14% of the paddock at mid-

19

slope and 28% of the paddock that is upperslope up until the year 2000, with furthertree planting since then.

In general the water table trend of anyparticular monitoring bore will beinfluenced by local geology, topography,rainfall, soil characteristics, vegetation typesand cover as well as its location within asub-catchment. Also the trend will beinfluenced by whether the bore is drilledinto a local, intermediate or regionalgroundwater system.

Ian Gamble (DPI at Wangaratta)comments that it is difficult to determinethe relative contributions of revegetationworks and the lower annual rainfall that hasoccurred in the last few years on the fallingwater table trend in Bore 11017. Howeverit is highly likely that these revegetationworks have made a contribution to thiswater table trend.

CONTACT Ian Gamble, DPI VictoriaT: (03) 5723 8671 E: [email protected]

focusON SALT


Water table trends — rainfall,

reveg. or both?

-1.0

0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Date

Dep

th t

o gr

ound

wat

erfr

om n

atur

al s

urfa

ce (m

)

Jan 87

Jan 89

Jan 91

Jan 93

Jan 95

Jan 97

Jan 99

Jan 01

Jan 03

Jan 05

Jan 07

Bore 11017

Figure 1: Hydrograph for Bore 11017

W ell over 120 Perth studentswere among the crowd thatvisited the CRC Salinity’s

display at the Expo run with the CRCAssociation annual conference inPerth in May. Inviting students to theExpo was an excellent initiative — notonly because it gave the students aninsight into scientific research and therole of CRCs, but also because theypredictably infused the event withplenty of energy.

CRC Salinity’s eye-catching display,orchestrated by Georgina Wilson and LizWheeler, featured a competition to

correctly identify five perennial plantsto win an iPod, computer animationsof salinisation and recovery processes,and examples of salt tolerance of threeplant types linked to samples of saltyand non-salty licorice (with a spittingbucket for those who couldn’t swallowdouble salted Dutch licorice/saltbush).

One sometimes wonders whatconference displays achieve, but theCRC’s highly interactive ‘event’ was agreat success judging by the activeinvolvement of the visitors and thenumber of return visitors (not just tohave a second go at the competition!).

Expo beat-up

Feeding the salt habit

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o: B

Mun

day

20 focusON SALT

By Georgina Wilson

Experience of saltbush breeding inEurope is being harnessed by theCRC Salinity as it looks to

developing superior saltbush types forAustralian conditions.

In April the CRC sponsored a two-weekvisit to Western Australia by ProfessorEnrique Correal from Murcia in Spain whenhe came to work with Dr Daniel Real(DAFWA) and visited field sites, metresearchers and presented seminars. Thishas energised the Australian breedingprogram, now getting underway.

Professor Correal recalled moving to theharsh climate of southern Spain, unsuitablefor successful annual pastures, and seekingout perennial alternatives such assaltbushes and legumes which had deeptaproots enabling them to engage limitedwater supplies and be prepared for growthwhen rains came.

“Both annual and perennial plants areefficient in different environmentalconditions, but the shorter the growingseason the less production available fromannuals,” he said.

Successful farm systems needed to bediverse and include at least a minimum ofdeep-rooted plants to use water andprevent erosion from run-off. Wildlife alsoneeded woody species for shelter.Perennials provided a feed bank, enhancedthe landscape, and some even hadmedicinal properties.

Professor Correal began saltbush breedingabout 15 years ago after contactinginternational specialists in the United Statesand the late Clive Malcolm in WA.

Working on Atriplex halimus, aMediterranean saltbush adapted to drysaline environments, he decided morediversity was needed and collected plantsfrom 10 countries. “No single natural planthas everything good,” he suggested. “Anddiversity within a species is important —we need waterlogging and salinity toleranceplus palatability.

“In very dry years it is more expensive tobring in fodder for stock than just providesupplements. Plants such as saltbush arethere when needed although they are not abalanced ration.”

No species have yet been releasedcommercially in the Mediterranean basin asno company is prepared to do it. “You arebetter prepared than us because pasturesare not considered important in theMediterranean,” he added.

Moving forward

Dr Ed Barrett-Lennard, Farming SalineLandscapes Program Leader in the FutureFarm Industries CRC, said ProfessorCorreal had helped Australian saltbushresearchers to “cut to the chase”. Breedingtrials with old man saltbush (Atriplexnummularia) began at Tammin in WA onsaline and non-saline sites, with other sitesat Condobolin in NSW and at Monarto inSouth Australia (see page 12) during 2006.

Spanish lessons say Ole

Phot

o: G

Wils

on

Daniel Real and Enrique Correal admiring ‘superior’ saltbush

Diploid, tetraploid and octoploid forms hadbeen found in Atriplex, making it verydifficult to breed true to type. “Inoctoploids, there is a huge amount ofpossible segregation with eight possiblealleles per locus,” Dr Barrett-Lennard said.“We may find it more practical to work witha diploid species such as A. halimus,although it is untested here in Australia.

“Another alternative is cloning throughcuttings such as Eyres Green Giant.

“We need to source material selected for asmall number of attributes such as leaf size,internode distance and biomass production— and decide palatability by sheeppreference. Then cut the selections to thebest 10 per cent and do more detailedscanning to winnow out the winners.”

Dr Barrett-Lennard suggested that a futureideal stand might contain 10 to 20 differentclones each with different traits, able to findtheir niches and be less subject to diseasethan a single form. Getting to this pointwould take time, but the energy andpassion were ready to go.

CONTACT Daniel Real, DAFWAT: (08) 9368 3879E: [email protected]

Highlights

• Successful farm systems

need to be diverse

• In dry years, fodder is more

expensive than supplements

• Breeding trials are underway

in three states.

21

boasts a 100 per cent strike rate foremployment of graduates within theirdiscipline area.

The CRC is also delighted with theachievements of its students competing forother awards. Each of the five A. HowardMemorial Fellowships that have beenawarded has been to a member of thepostgraduate education program (see page8) and of course we are celebrating thesuccess of Di Mayberry in the recent CRCAssociation Award for Emerging Scientists(see page 7 and Focus on Salt #35).

Recruiting for the next intake ofpostgraduate researchers in the FutureFarm Industries CRC commences inSeptember 2007.

CONTACT Daryll Richardson, CRC Salinity Education OfficerT: (07) 5446 6094E: [email protected]

focusON SALT


CRC postgrads punching

above their weight

By Daryll Richardson

T he CRC Salinity’s postgraduateresearch program has made anoutstanding contribution to the

research output of the CRC. More than 70 students participated in the

postgraduate education program coveringtopics ranging through perennial plant andanimal production systems, economics,rural sociology, biodiversity, soil science,remote sensing and ecosystemfunctionality.

To date 25 of our postgrads have receivedtheir PhDs with a further 45 to submit theirtheses within the next 12–18 months.

The CRC is delighted that the attritionrate among its postgrads is exceptionallylow and attributes much of this to thestrong and relevant support offered to thesestudents, particularly through itsprofessional development program foremerging scientists. This designed toprovide opportunities to develop industrylinkages, establish support structureswithin the postgraduate group, and gainaccess to additional funds that allow themto showcase CRC work.

Overall the CRC’s postgrads have givenover 100 oral and poster presentations atconferences in all Australian states as well asChina, Europe, the United States andSouth America. Clearly our students punchwell above their weight.

The CRC is proud of its postgrads whofeature regularly and prominently in Focuson Salt, as well as in newspapers and theelectronic media where they have earnedhigh praise for the rigour and sophisticationof their research and their articulatedelivery. This issue of Focus on Salt has afeature article on research conducted at TheUniversity of Adelaide by Serina Digby (seepage 6), and further stories related to recentsuccesses by two of our students.

Where are they now?There are many great success stories from

among our postgrads and to mention a fewis to characterise the whole student cohort.

Anna Dutkiewicz, who also featured in

Focus on Salt #40 with her work onmapping lucerne pastures at a catchmentscale, has gone on to become Senior ProjectOfficer NRM (Salinity) for the DWLBC inSouth Australia and SA Node Manager forthe CRC. Commenting on the CRCpostgraduate education program Annarecently said: “The level of support Ireceived during my PhD was outstanding,and we CRC students were the envy of allthe other PhD researchers we workedwith”.

Lindsay Bell (whose research focused onDorycnium spp., see Focus on Salt #37) isnow a Research Officer with CSIRO inToowoomba, Perry Dolling (lucerne, seeFocus on Salt #38) is a research officer withDAFWA at Katanning, and AlisonSouthwell (native pastures, see Focus on Salt#31, 35) and Graeme Doole (profitabilityand sustainability of phase farming in WA)are university lecturers. The program

Claire Farrell — ‘Best Poster’ award atthe 2004 PUR$L Conference

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o: D

Rich

ards

on

Perry Dolling, research scientist, DAFWA

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Rich

ards

on

Jeff Hoffmann, farmer, Milbrulong, NSW

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Rich

ards

on

Graeme Doole — lecturer inAgricultural Resource Economics, UWA

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Rich

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on

22 focusON SALT

This article is an abridged version of amore substantial opinion piece by JohnBartle, WA Department of Environmentand Conservation and CRC Salinity. Thefull article with comprehensive referencescan be found on the CRC’s online forumat www.crcsalinity.com.au > forum.

Abalanced overview of projectionsfor the future of agriculturesuggests that there is potential to

divert a significant amount ofagricultural land in Australia into non-food crops.

Looking forward into the new century theFood and Agriculture Organisation (FAO)predicts that global population growth ratewill continue to decline to 1.1% by 2015,0.7% by 2030 and 0.3% by 2050. Globalpopulation will reach 8.9 billion by 2050and peak at 9.2 billion in 2075, takingabout double the time to add the next 3 billion increment as it took to add theprevious 3 billion.

So growth in demand for food is decliningand may disappear or reverse within acouple of generations. Producing a supplyof food for the additional 3 billion, overdouble the time period as for the last 3 billion, and from the existing area ofagricultural land, appears to provide only amodest challenge to the science ofagriculture. Indeed a global surplus of landfor food production may emerge well beforethe peak population.

Implications for Australian agricultureThis scenario seems to present

considerable risk to Australian farmers. Itwill tighten global competition incommodity food markets and decline in theterms of trade will accelerate. This wouldinflict particular pain on Australian farmersbecause our comparatively poor agriculturalenvironment will mean that we cannotbenefit from the advances in agriculturalproductivity to the same extent as ourcompetitors. This suggests a need forradical change by Australian farmers duringthe next couple of decades.

Within this global context Australianfarmers have the potential to becomesubstantial producers of industrial andbioenergy feedstocks. However, thispotential is poorly recognised even thoughthere are important national issues at stakeincluding: • large scale economic diversification of

agriculture to provide some respite for

farmers from persistent decline in theterms of trade in food products

• introduction of a range of perennialwoody crops that would complementconventional annual crops and bringbetter environmental performance toagricultural systems

• agricultural systems with considerablepotential for carbon sequestration andreduced carbon emissions

• creation of a new class of processingindustries that incorporate integratedharvest and processing to fully utilisefeedstocks through multiple productindustries (e.g. a single harvest of wholecrop biomass with the wood fractiongoing to higher value manufacturedproducts and the leaf and twig residue forbioenergy)

• new woody crops all require local valueadding for viable export products thuslocking in regional economicdevelopment

• regional and national energy security.The risk is that Australian farmers might

be tempted to settle for a brief period ofimproved grain prices driven by the rapidescalation in grain ethanol production. Inthis pursuit they may miss the parallelopportunity to be building a more viablelong term component to their bioenergyoptions. The problem is grain does nothave a very attractive energy ratio, i.e. theratio of energy content in the grain toenergy input to growing that grain. Thisratio is less than 10 for grains whereas Wu

The case for non-food crops

et al (see Focus on Salt #37 and erratum in#38) showed that for a perennial woodycrop like mallee the ratio was greater than40.

As the competition in energy marketsintensifies the advantage of the systemproducing four times the energy productfor the same energy cost will be irresistible.The only impediment is that thetechnologies for conversion of woodybiomass (consisting of cellulose,hemicellulose and lignin, commonly calledligno-cellulosic or just cellulosic biomass)to biofuels are not yet commercially wellestablished. But the momentum isgathering rapidly. Too large an investmentin grain ethanol may be short sighted! In itsreview of biofuels options Single VisionGrains Australia strongly supported ‘secondgeneration’ cellulosic ethanol developmentin the medium term.

The opportunity for Australian farmers isthat given their propensity for rapidadoption of new technology they couldbecome world leaders in developing newwoody crops, in the new sustainableagricultural systems incorporating thesecrops and in the industries that processthem. The new Future Farm IndustriesCRC will have a program dedicated tofacilitating the emergence of these newnon-food crops and industries.

CONTACT John Bartle, DECWA T: (08) 9334 0321E: [email protected]

Biomass processing plants like this demonstration one at Narrogin in WA could become afeature of the Australian wheatbelt in coming decades. The biomass would come fromwoody crops selected to produce a range of higher value products as well as bioenergy.See the recent public announcement from Verve Energy on the Narrogin plant atwww.verveenergy.com.au

Salt in the City1

By Bruce Munday

T he Urban Salt 2007Conference provideda perspective on

salinity management thatmany of us working withdryland salinity don’tnormally encounter. Thequestions and commentsfrom town planners,developers, engineers,architects and landscaperscontrast with those weexpect from farmers andnatural resource managers.

The Western Sydney SalinityWorking Party has earned areputation as a leader in urban salinity andthis conference was certainly the place to befor anyone interested in these issues.

The conference provided an excellentopportunity to increase understanding ofall the issues — from the green-fieldsplanning to the post-development stage —relating to urban salinity across localgovernment, state government agencies,and the building and construction industry.There was also the opportunity fornetworking across the whole range ofsectors.

Proceedings of the Urban Salt Conferenceare available at www.wsroc.com.au >Urban Salt 2007 Conference

Got salt damp – don’t give up yetReaders who are familiar with the Local

Government Salinity Initiative series ofbooklets will appreciate the finalpublication (No. 12) Repairing andMaintaining Salinity Affected Houses,launched at the conference.

This booklet lives up to the high standardof its predecessors, providing an overviewof issues to consider when planning for therepair and maintenance of a salt-affectedhouse.

Anyone who has a house where salt andwater have caused the chemical or physicalbreakdown of building materials will be

aware that there are manytreatments advertised, most ofthem very expensive anddisruptive. But it is difficult tofind objective evidence to supportthe claims made for some of thesetreatments. The booklet will helphome owners make informedchoices about the works to beundertaken and their likelyeffectiveness.

All booklets in this impressiveseries are available fromwww.shop.nsw.gov.au > Natural ResourceManagement > Salinity.

Growing turf on enemy territoryReaders interested in plant-based

management of salinity would haveappreciated a paper by Dr Don Loch and DrRachel Poulter (DPIF, Qld), adding toresults reported to the the 10th PUR$LConference in 2005.

In Redland Shire in southern Queensland,the salinity issue is dealing with compactedmarine sediments (mainly mud) dumped tocreate foreshore parkland from canaldevelopments. These sites — too acid andsalty for most plants — typically consist ofbare saline scalds interspersed by unthriftygrass.

The authors tackled this problem in athree-year project supported by

Horticulture Australia Ltdentitled Amenity Grasses for SaltAffected Parks in CoastalAustralia. They selected anadapted turf grass through fieldand glasshouse experiments,and then implemented anintegrated program of bestpractices for establishment andmanagement.

Since February 2004, RedlandShire Council has invested morethan $500k in successfullyestablishing seashore paspalum(Paspalum vaginatum) on

p r e v i o u s l y‘impossible’ parkareas. Soilm a n a g e m e n tpractices to relievecompaction andreduce salinity levelsinclude annual slicingor coring inconjunction withgypsum/do lomi t eamendment and lighttopdressing withsandy loam topsoil,regular leaching

irrigation to flush salts below the root zone,and irrigation scheduling to maximiseinfiltration and minimise run-off.

A second phase will extend this workacross a wider range of urban salinity hazardareas in southern Qld and NSW. Anexpanded range of salt-tolerant turf grasses(including Distichlis spicata, Sporobolusvirginicus, Zoysia matrella, each withpotentially different adaptation and usesand based on the results of hydroponicscreening experiments) will be trialledunder different climatic and soil conditions,and for different uses. The major focus,however, will be on investigating the costand effectiveness of alternativeestablishment methods, and developingsustainable long-term managementpractices to maximise the ability of eachgrass to survive and grow under a particularset of salinity and use parameters.

23focusON SALT


1 This title borrowed from a conference paper presented by Kate Nagato, West Gippsland CMA

Queen’s Esplanade park before (INSET) and after laying seashorepaspalum sod

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h

24

By Georgina Wilson

F inancial analysis of 21 sites inWestern Australia indicates thatrevegetating saltland with salt-

tolerant pastures has good prospects ofprofitability but that establishment costsvary enormously.

The analysis was done by Department ofAgriculture and Food (DAFWA) senioreconomist Allan Herbert on producernetwork sites established under theSustainable Grazing on Saline Lands (SGSL)program from 2002 to 2005.

In medium to high rainfall districtsaverage costs of $300/ha plus $65/ha forfencing/water supplies had a good chanceof cost recovery within 10 years byproviding at least 1000 sheep grazing daysper hectare per year valued at 10 cents perday (50 cents for cattle). But low rainfalldistricts had higher risks and needed tocontain costs without compromisingsuccess, producing 400–800 sheep grazingd/ha/yr.

Mr Herbert said establishment wasstrongly affected by infrastructure costs andadvised farmers to minimise the capitalcosts of fencing and water.

Twelve of the studies demonstrated apayback period of less than 10 years ifinfrastructure costs were included, and 16were ‘profitable’ if infrastructure wasexcluded. The demonstration nature of thesites meant these costs were higher thancommercial practice.

Average cost of establishment was$324/ha (without infrastructure) and$510/ha (with) shown in Table 1 butinfrastructure costs are site-specific.

Highest risk of failure and low profitabilityoccurred in the low rainfall areas,whereas inthe medium to high rainfall districts there is

a greater selection of suitable pasturespecies and potential for high grazingproduction.

All the case studies were on small sitesand generally aimed at bridging the autumnfeed gap. It was assumed the animals werealready on hand and did not need to bepurchased specially.

The 21 studies from 69 SGSL sites in WAwere selected on the basis of sufficientinformation for analysis. Seven sites werefrom low rainfall areas (<400 mm), 11medium (400–600 mm) and three highrainfall sites (>600 mm).

Getting startedMr Herbert said any site, low or high

rainfall, mildly or highly saline, needed tobe considered on its merits. Farmerswanting to establish new pastures onsaltland would be wise to obtain good

agronomic advice, and new entrants shouldconcentrate on their ‘softer’ sites in the firstinstance — to obtain experience with ahigher chance of success.

Establishment costs are magnified byfailure. Not only is there a doubling ofcosts when re-establishment is attempted,but another year’s delay in receiving anyreturns. While no-one can forecastweather, farmers should give new saltlandpasture every chance by planting as early aspossible into good moisture once soiltemperatures are satisfactory — and havean exit strategy if conditions are notsuitable.

An issue with partial failures (for example,poor saltbush establishment) is thatsubsequent weed control is difficult, and

focusON SALT

Saltland pastures can pay in WA

Mark Jefferies (in tractor) and Arjen Ryder (DAFWA) seeding an SGSL trial

Phot

o: J

Har

dy


Table 1. Summary of 21 SGSL farmer case studies

Result Including costs of infrastructure Excluding costs of infrastructureAverage Range Average Range

Establishment cost $510/ha $156–$1,383/ha $324/ha $77 – $787/ha

Payback period* 12 inside 10 years 4 – >20 yrs 16 inside 10 years 2 – >20 yrs

Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR)* 1.25 0.13 – 6.19 1.64 0.22 – 6.19

Internal Rate of Return (IRR)** 6% (14 sites) <-10 – +37% 8% (19 sites) <-10 – +37%

Net Present Value (NPV)** +$3,315 -$9,237 – +$54,761 +$6,177 -$6,214 – +$54,761

Project area 26 ha 4 – 49 ha 26 ha 4 – 49 ha

* Payback period and BCR do not account for any lost production from a ‘do nothing’ approach. These indicators assume there is no lost opportunity. It simulates a stand-alone investment comparing possible future returns with investment in the initial establishment.

** IRR and NPV are calculated from a true WITH vs WITHOUT infrastructure perspective. NPV is obviously related to size of project.

25focusON SALT


Simple tool fights multi-million

dollar salinity problem

treatments (for example, grazing) formature plants are held up while newplantings consolidate. In many cases itmight be best to ignore the survivors andstart all over again.

Direct seeding of saltbush is cheaper thanseedlings but should be assessed forpossible success on a site-by-site basis.Seedlings were significantly more successfulover the dry 2002–05 period.

Keeping goingOne way of overcoming the need for

additional infrastructure is to use wholepaddocks and thereby use existing fencesand water.

Most farmers were attempting to establisha mixture of species — perennials/annuals,grasses/legumes, shrubs/creepers. Onmore hostile sites where understoreysurvival and persistence are doubtful, a casecan be made for establishing ‘plantation’saltbush then bringing the required hay orgrain supplement in so livestock can makemaximum use of it.

While most sites were aimed atsupplementary feed replacement inautumn, a few were grazed at other times.In the analysis, a grazing day at any time ofthe year attracted the same value (10 centsfor sheep, 50 cents for cattle). However, weknow the value of feed is a lot less in spring(for example) when there is plenty ofalternative feed available than in autumnwhen supplies are generally tight.

SGSL farmers wanted to trial a range ofdifferent treatments — some of which wemight now consider inappropriate. But it isby attempting different things that greater

wisdom is gained. Success should bemeasured in terms of the experience gainedrather than the result itself, he suggested.

Just because an analysis for saltlandpastures indicates profitability does notmean that a farmer should make theinvestment. It would be wise to assess theinvestment against a range of others bothon and off the farm. The same amount ofmoney required to establish saltlandpasture could be used in alternatives (forexample, extra nitrogen fertiliser on crop,children’s education, better credentialedram, etc).

Equally, if project analysis indicates lack ofprofitability, there may be other legitimatereasons for proceeding. Many people havecommented that ‘economics’ is notnecessarily the main motivator. Theaesthetic and environmental benefits haveequal or higher importance.

CONTACT Allan Herbert, DAFWA

T: (08) 9368 3680E: [email protected]: www.agric.wa.gov.au > ResourceManagement Technical Report 317

Asoil water extractor, developedby the South Australian Researchand Development Institute

(SARDI) to manage a multi-million dollarsalinity problem, will be marketed world-wide.

The Australian horticulture industry willbe first in line to benefit from the newdevice that places effective salinitymanagement within the reach of allgrowers. If left unchecked, salinity damagecould cost the $2 billion Riverland andSunraysia horticulture industries alone$100M a year.

The soil water extractor was developedwhen SARDI scientists recognised thatmodern irrigation practices were resultingin the build up of salt in the roots of plants.This caused leaf tip burn, yield loss andeventually the death of the plant. Theplants are often damaged before thesymptoms present.

Dr Tapas Biswas, who developed the tool,said “Irrigators are continually striving toincrease irrigation efficiency, leading to theemergence of salinity related problems.This simple, portable and easy to use deviceis a breakthrough for growers. It allowsthem to measure the salinity of wateranywhere on their property, and adjust theirirrigation management accordingly to avoidthe build up of salts in the root zone.

“The Sentek SoluSAMPLER™ drawsmoisture from the surrounding soil andstores it in the inert ceramic cup awaitingcollection and analysis. The water samplescan be easily checked using an EC orsalinity meter. If growers want to go furtherand check nutrient levels, water samplescollected can be analysed at the laboratory.Growers here for example are now usingrecycled water on their vines, which mightmean they could reduce their use offertiliser.”

For further information visitwww.sentek.com.au

SARDI Scientist, Dr Tapas Biswas with 'allyou need' to manage salt and nutrientmovement in the root zone — the SARDIsoil water extractor, a hand held EC orsalinity meter and a syringe.

Phot

o: S

ARDI


Highlights

• Huge range in establishment

costs

• Higher likelihood of success

and profitability in medium-

high rainfall areas

• Assess investment in saltland

against other options.

26 focusON SALT

Researchers at theAdelaide node of theAustralian Centre for

Plant Functional Genomics(ACPFG) have recruited a newtool — known as fluorescently-activated cell sorting, or FACS— in their quest to decipherplant responses to salinitystress. FACS technology isenabling researchers to zoomin on specific cell types ofplants and see how theyfunction to minimise thedamage caused by highsalinity. The study aims to mapbiologically significant salinity responsesto the specific cell types in which theyoccur, as well as compare how monocots,such as wheat and barley, compare todicots, like soybean, in their salinityresponse.

The fluorescence required for cell sortingcan be generated by tagging cells withfluorescent antibodies or, more easily,having the cells produce a fluorescentprotein themselves. Large collections ofthese green fluorescent protein (GFP)expressing plants, called enhancer traplines, have been generated by ACPFGresearchers in the only two plant specieswith entirely sequenced genomes —Arabidopsis thaliana and rice (see Figure 1).

FACS technology has long been used inmedical studies to isolate cell types ofinterest such as cancerous cells and stemcells. Sorting of plant cells, however, tookmuch longer to develop because of the rigidwall that surrounds plant cells and theirvariable size. Dr Alexander Johnson, of theSalt Focus Group, recently grew upthousands of rice and Arabidopsis plantswith GFP expression in specific cell typesand isolated those cells using the FACSsystem.

“Under saline and control (non-salinised)conditions we grew plants that have GFPfluorescence in specific cell types of theroot system,” says Dr Johnson. “The rootswere digested with fungal enzymes torelease spherical protoplasts (see Figure 2),

and a FACSmachine was usedto analyse thef l u o r e s c e n c echaracteristics ofeach protoplastunder UV laserlight. In less thanan hour, tens ofthousands off l u o r e s c e n tprotoplasts werecollected for furtheranalysis.”

Collecting thef l u o r e s c e n tprotoplasts is onlyhalf the story.M e s s e n g e rribonucleic acid(mRNA), which allorganisms use todirect theproduction of their

proteins, was then extracted fromthe GFP positive protoplasts andhybridised to ‘gene chips’,which enable researchers toprecisely analyse which genes areturned on or off in an mRNAsample. Because the mRNA isderived from a single cell type ofthe plant root, the FACSapproach offers a rare glimpseinto the genetic activities of thatcell type in response to salinity.

The first cell type to be sortedusing this technique was fromthe stele, which lies in the centreof the root.

“If you imagine a root cross-section as adart board, the stele lies at the bulls-eye.These cells surround the xylem vesselsthrough which water passes on its way upto the plant shoot, and play an importantrole in regulating the amount of salt gettinginto the xylem water stream,” says Dr.Johnson.

“Our initial results reveal several groups oftranscription factors and transporterproteins in both Arabidopsis and rice thatare regulated in similar patterns in responseto salinity. However, we also foundsignificant differences between the twospecies, such as a prominent role forpotassium regulation in Arabidopsis inresponse to salinity that was not observedin rice.”

Having already yielded exciting data aboutcell function in the stele of monocots anddicots, research is now turning towards celltypes in the outer half of the root. “We areaiming to profile the epidermal cells of theplant root in response to salinity. Thesecells line the outside of the root and are indirect contact with saline water. We expectthat their responses to salinity will be quitedifferent from those of the stele,” says DrJohnson. “As we develop a clear picture ofhow these cell types differ in salinityresponses, we can begin using thatknowledge to build more salt-tolerantcrops.”

Funding for this work comes from theARC Discovery Project scheme, ACPFGand The University of Adelaide.

CONTACT: Dr A Johnson, ACPFG

T: (08) 8303 7160E: [email protected]

Sorting out the salt problem

Alex Johnson running the FACS machine at Flinders Medical Centre

Figure 1: A rice root showing bright fluorescence specifically inthe endodermis, an important cell type involved in water uptakeand transport of solutes such as sodium. INSET: Figure 2: Riceprotoplasts derived from root tissues. The lower protoplast,expressing the green fluorescent protein, can be collected byfluorescently activated cell sorting.

Phot

o: A

CPFG

Phot

os: A

John

son

27


Durum research paying off

in bread wheat

By Bruce Munday

Salt tolerance genes used in durumwheat breeding have surprisedCSIRO plant breeders with their

effectiveness in bread wheat.Research led by Dr Rana Munns (CSIRO

Plant Industry), and supported by GrainsResearch and Development Corporation,has been looking closely at the mechanismsof salt tolerance in wheat, with the long-term aim of breeding wheats tolerant ofhighly saline soils.

In particular they have been working withdurum wheat, which attracts a premiumprice but is even less salt tolerant thanbread wheat.

“Following a search of an internationalwheat collection, two unique genes for saltexclusion, known as Nax1 and Nax2, wereisolated from an unusual durum wheatderived from the wheat ancestor Triticummonococcum,” says Dr Munns. “Usingthese new genes, we were able to breeddurum wheat lines as tolerant of salt asbread wheats. These lines are now inadvanced field testing.”

Taking the project further, the teamdecided to see if the Nax1 and Nax2 genes,normally not present, would improve thesalt tolerance of bread wheat.

“We crosseddurum lines withthe Nax genes andbread wheat lines,and used CSIRO-developed molecularmarkers to select forplants thatcontained one orboth Nax genes,”says Dr Munns.

“Nax1 decreasedthe leaf Na+

concentration by 50per cent, Nax2 by30%, and bothgenes together by60% (see Figure 1).The combined effectwas surprising as Nax2 is very similar to asalt tolerance gene already present in breadwheat. We really didn’t expect to get sucheffective exclusion.”

The results indicate that both Nax geneshave the potential to improve the yield ofbread wheat on saline soil and this willshortly be put to the test in the field. Thisextra tolerance could be particularly usefulwhere salinity and waterlogging occur

together. Waterlogging magnifies theimpact of salinity stress and greater salttolerance could allow the plant to surviveperiods of waterlogging. Again, fieldevaluation will be a critical in testing thispossibility.

CONTACT: Dr Rana Munns, CSIRO


focusON SALT

Technical Officer, Carol Blake, crossinggenes for salt tolerance from durumwheat into bread wheat

250

200

150

100

50

0

Westonia (10d in 150mM NaCl)

Nax1, Nax2 Nax1 Nax2

Leaf

Na+ c

on

cen

trat

ion

(µ

mo

lgD

W-1

)W

estonia

w7306

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w5991

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Figure 1: Bread wheats containing the Nax1 and Nax2 genesexcluded more salt from their leaves than the standard breadwheat Westonia

The CRC Salinity congratulates DrRana Munns who was recently elected aFellow of the Australian Academy ofScience. Rana is a key researcher in twoimportant CRC Salinity projects:Developing salt-tolerant crops andDeveloping new saline pastures.

Rana’s citation from the AAS includedthe following:

“Rana Munns, Chief Research Scientistwith CSIRO Plant Industry in Canberra,ìleads a research team on the genetic andphysiological basis of salt tolerance inwheat.

“She is recognised internationally forher insights into the fundamentalprinciples of crop adaptation to salinity,and for applications of these insights.“She characterised the critical plant

Rana now a Fellow

processes involved in tolerance ofsalinity, and showed what distinguishessalinity stress from drought stress. Thiswork produced a highly sensitivetechnique for identifying salt-tolerantplants, and discovery of important genesfor salt tolerance. Dr Munns’ researchhas focussed on mechanisms of stresstolerance in plants, in particular onadaptations to drought and salinity stressin wheat and barley.

“Recently she discovered novel genesin an ancestral wheat that control theuptake of sodium and prevent itaccumulating in leaves. These genes arebeing transferred to durum wheat andbread wheat cultivars, with the aim ofimproving grain yield in saline soil.”

Phot

o: C

SIRO

28

P lantation forestry is an increasinglyimportant land use in Australia,where industry and state and

Australian governments have allcommitted to establish new plantationsacross large areas of land currently usedfor agriculture.

There are sound environmental andeconomic arguments in support ofplantation development. However, a reportpublished recently by the eWater CRC,Afforestation in a Catchment Context -Understanding the Impacts on Water Yield andSalinity by L. Zhang, R. Vertessy, G. Walker,M. Gilfedder and P. Hairsine (CSIRO Landand Water), outlines the potentialhydrologic impact of afforestation oncatchment water yield and salinity.

In 2004 the Australian National AuditOffice, reviewing the National Action Plan(NAP) for Salinity and Water Quality,reported:

“…the NAP goal is ambitious andtechnically challenging given the scale anddiversity of the salinity and water qualityproblem and the range of private andpublic interests involved.”

and“…there remain substantial technical and

information challenges that need to be

addressed as part of the ongoingmanagement of risks. In particular,the challenges in targeting costeffective action and the limitedavailability of commerciallyattractive treatment options forregions are key risks that requirecareful management.”

Plantation forestry in Australiahas expanded rapidly over thepast decade and has signalled anintention to expand further. Inmost instances this will representa change in land use that couldimpact on catchment water quality andquantity and on dryland salinity.

The report outlines what science hasrevealed about these impacts and how itinforms future planning decisions. Much ofthe science referred to relates specifically tothe Murray-Darling Basin because thehydrology of the Basin has been moreintensively studied than that of most otherregions in Australia. While many of thegeneral principles described relate toprocesses and outcomes that will bebroadly applicable elsewhere in Australia,the report recognises that no twocatchments or years are exactly the sameand in some cases the differences are morerelevant than the similarities.

This report is focussed entirely onhydrological impacts of afforestation, butstresses that in making planning decisionswith respect to plantation forestry,governments and regional bodies mustalways take account of the full suite ofenvironmental, social and economicimpacts.

This publication is a valuable complementto the CRC Salinity’s recently releasedProspects Statement: Integrated Forestry onFarmland (see Focus on Salt #40).

CONTACT: Meg White, eWater CRC

T: (03) 8344 9226W: www.ewatercrc.com.au

focusON SALT

water balance of eucalypts near Wellington.Data will be used to test growth and wateruse predictions from the forest growthmodel 3-PG.

Growth, water use and salinity impacts fordiscrete areas of the upper-Corangamite(Victoria) and mid-Murrumbidgee (nearWagga Wagga) regions will be predictedusing various catchment hydrologicmodels, also aiming to link with interests ofthe CRC’s EverGraze project.

The team is also working with JohnFinlayson (NSW DPI) on farm economicanalyses incorporating trees. One of theproject aims is to develop region-specificguidelines for best use of trees on farms.

CONTACT: Dr Nico Marcar, Ensis


Evaluating trees on farms intensively

Quantifying the economic andenvironmental benefits of trees onfarms for salinity management in

higher rainfall (550–750 mm) salt-sourcecatchments is a CRC Salinity project ledby researcher Dr Nico Marcar (Ensis) incollaboration from NSW DPI (CraigBarton). The project is investigatingattractive options for farmers that willfacilitate investment in trees foreconomic and enhanced salinityoutcomes.

The team has instrumented a site nearWagga Wagga to determine the impact thatthree five-year old eucalypt species arehaving on the use of groundwater andsurface flows, and another site nearGunnedah to determine the impact ofthree-year old E. camaldulensis belts onwater interception down a hillslope. Inaddition, they are studying water use and Nico encouraging a eucalypt on saltland

Phot

o: N

Mar

car

Afforestation and catchments

Saline groundwater, diverted fromthe River Murray by saltinterception schemes (SIS), may

soon form the basis of a significantinland aquaculture industry in the SARiverland.

SARDI scientists are assessing thefeasibility of farming estuarine and oceanicfish using some of the 30 million litres ofsaline groundwater from theWoolpunda/Waikereie SIS. About 30 ML ofsaline groundwater is pumped away fromthe river each day and into the StockyardPlains Disposal Basin about 12 kilometressouth-west of Waikerie.

“This system at the Waikerie Inland SalineAquaculture Centre (WISAC) is the first ofits type in Australia and turns previouslyuseless saline water into a valuableresource,” says program leader WayneHutchinson.

“A major advantage of this system is theconstant warm temperature of the water,which is between 20 and 22°C, whichstimulates better growth of the fish thanwould be possible in the sea.”

The three-year $2.06 M inland salineaquaculture project is jointly funded by theAustralian and South AustralianGovernments through the National ActionPlan for Salinity and Water Quality andbrokered through the Centre for NaturalResource Management. It aims to attractprivate sector investment in commercialaquaculture parks, aligned with thelocation of SIS schemes along the RiverMurray.

Initial research has focussed on themulloway. More than 15,000 mulloway ofvarying sizes are growing at the research siteat any one time as researchers monitor fishand system performance and water qualityconditions, such as salinity, dissolvedoxygen and temperature, to identifyrequirements for optimum growth rates.

An exciting new discovery at WISAC isthe apparent suitability of yellowtailkingfish to inland saline aquaculture.

“Mulloway are an estuarine fish and arenaturally more suited to this type ofaquaculture, but yellowtail kingfish are a

29

fully oceanic species. In our preliminaryshort-term trials, we expected they wouldnot survive in the low salinity SISgroundwater which, while salty, is not thesame composition as sea water. To oursurprise, they have survived quite well.”

The next step is to determine the growthrates and food conversion ratio of yellowtailkingfish. If these prove acceptable, it opensnew opportunities for commercialisation.

CONTACT: Wayne Hutchinson, SARDI


focusON SALT


Salty water — great for fish?

Former SARDI scientists Dr Tim Flowers (l) and Wayne Hutchinson with mullowayfingerlings destined for the WISAC

Phot

o: B

Kow

ald

Salt interception schemes arehelping to keep about 500,000tonnes of salt out of the River

Murray each year, according to the BasinSalinity Management Strategy AnnualImplementation Report 2005–06.

Together with improved irrigationefficiency and the impact of the drought,these schemes have contributed to arecorded salinity at Morgan in SouthAustralia (the Basin’s salinity target site) of484 EC or less for 95 per cent of the time.

The report found that the Strategy’sgovernance and reporting arrangements,which depend on a coordinated and co-operative approach between governments,improved significantly in 2005–06. Thisculminated in the application of improveddata sets to thoroughly re-assess the salinitycosts and benefits to the river of land usechange and water use.

A challenge for the future will be anexpected rise in salinity levels following thenext significant wet period that includes alarge flooding event. More water movingthrough the rivers and underground will re-mobilise salt so that river salinity willre-emerge as a management issue (see Focuson Salt #40).

A companion Report of the IndependentAudit Group — Salinity commended salinitymanagement activities such as: • restoring the rate of implementation of the

Strategy• improved governance and reporting

processes which support salinitymanagement

• the impressive achievements by regionalgroups in implementing on-groundworks.

Both reports are available atwww.mdbc.gov.au/salinity.

Big tick for salt interception

30

T he concept of perennial pastureson Western Australian farms wascompletely foreign to most people

in 1997 when project manager Dr MikeEwing suggested a research project to theDepartment of Agriculture’s MeatProgram.

A decade later, when the advantages ofperennials for both the environment andproductivity are widely accepted, andfollowing extra funding from the GRDC,the result is a comprehensive publicationsummarising knowledge to date.

Department of Agriculture and FoodBulletin 4690 Perennial pastures for WesternAustralia has been compiled by GeoffMoore, Paul Sanford and Tim Wiley, withcontributions from a battalion of perennialsexperts from WA and interstate.

Chapters cover general management andthe main perennials groups includingherbaceous legumes, temperate grasses,sub-tropical grasses, herbs, native pastures,fodder shrubs and saltland pastures.

Mike Ewing, now Deputy CEO of CRCSalinity, said particular interest in 1997 wasin the medium rainfall areas, whereperennials were seen as irrelevant by many.

“It is great to see this important resourcenow available, but there is still a long way togo in providing information for the lowrainfall areas also,” he noted.

The new bulletin totals 248 pages andincludes full colour photographs of eachspecies. Publication was supported byGRDC, CLIMA, SCRIPT and CRC Salinityand it costs $33 (including GST) plus$5.50 postage and handling.

CONTACT: Jo Brown


Perennial pasturesfor WA

focusON SALT

Tarcutta, Tumut, Wagga Wagga and YassCouncils.

The project is funded by the Australianand State Government’s National ActionPlan for Salinity and Water Quality and theState Salinity Enhancement Strategy.

More than 100 bores have been installedacross the catchment and they will bemonitored monthly for the first 12 monthsand then quarterly after that.

This project provides valuable informationon groundwater and assists councils in

12 towns investigatedfor urban salinity

T he Murrumbidgee CatchmentManagement Authority’s (CMA)Local Government Urban Salinity

Action project is investing $2.5 millioninto investigating urban salinity andidentifying management actions neededto alleviate the effects of salinity onurban infrastructure in twelveMurrumbidgee townships.

The Murrumbidgee CMA is buildingprogressive partnerships to tackle salinitywith Adelong, Cootamundra, Griffith,Henty, Junee, Narrandera, Queanbeyan,

their planning and management strategiesfor urban salinity.

On-ground works are focusing onremediation of recharge and salinised sites,an extensive bore monitoring network,training and ongoing planning of theurban water cycle, all managed by thecouncils in partnership with theMurrumbidgee CMA.

For more information about the projectcontact the Murrumbidgee CMA on (02) 6932 3232 or visit the websitewww.murrumbidgee.cma.nsw..gov.au.

Lucernegoes to court

A court case which coulddecide the fate of RoundupReady lucerne in the United

States is set to resume. More than a month after a federal

judge ordered a temporary injunctionto prevent US farmers from plantingMonsanto's Roundup Ready lucerne(alfalfa), arguments are set to start inthe case to determine whether thegenetically modified crop should bereturned to the marketplace.

The US Centre for Food Safetybrought the case against the USDepartment of Agriculture because ofquestions about the approval processfor the lucerne.

The concern is that unintentionalcross-pollination could cause theuncontrolled spread of the GM cropinto conventional lucerne fields.

While the US Government works onan environmental study of the cropand its potential spread throughpollination, Monsanto will be allowedto present its arguments in an attemptto allow farmers to plant RoundupReady lucerne again.

I n 2001, the National Land & WaterResources Audit (NLWRA)highlighted the need for nationally

consistent assessments of drylandsalinity throughout Australia. As a result,a set of salinity indicators and protocolswas developed to assist in evaluatingchanges in land salinity under theNational Monitoring & EvaluationFramework. These indicators are:

1. depth to groundwater2. groundwater salinity3. baseflow salinity4. location, size and intensity of salt-

affected areas.

The salinity indicators and protocols aredesigned for use by regional NaturalResource Management (NRM)organisations and have been endorsed bythe NLWRA Advisory Council.

The Australian Government’s AustralianSalinity Information Project (ASIP)organised trials of these salinity indicatorsin all six states to assess their use,application and appropriateness. One ofthe key objectives of ASIP is to identify a setof nationally consistent information

31

products using these indicators, which willsupport standardised national assessmentsof salinity in Australia.

The six State Indicator Trial reports,summarised by the Bureau of RuralSciences, find that:• there is considerable variability in the

availability and currency of salinity databoth within and between jurisdictions

• some indicators were of limitedapplication and some are not universallyapplicable

• there is variability in the capacity andinfrastructure required to support thepractical application of the indicators

• contextual information is needed tosupport the indicators.

Salinity handbookIn response to the results of the state

trials, a Salinity Monitoring and ReportingGuidelines handbook is being developed tosupport the salinity indicator protocols.Whilst other monitoring and reportingframeworks exist, it is necessary to producea reference handbook that is tailored tothese specific indicators and supports easeof use by the regional NRM organisations.

This handbook will assist regional NRMorganisations to select appropriateindicators for their particular needs andguide the production of nationallyconsistent information products andreports.

Natural resource booklet for salinityThe National Coordinating Committee for

Salinity is coordinating a project to assessthe availability, currency and status ofsalinity data in Australia. Theaccompanying Status of Natural ResourceInformation booklet will identify datasetsand information relevant to salinity atregional, state and national scales. This willalso identify the contextual data required tosupport the salinity indicators, help assessthe feasibility of implementing theseindicators in designated areas, and illustrateany requirements for nationally consistentmonitoring and reporting.

The booklet for salinity is part of a seriesof 12 reports which addresses the themesunder the NLWRA’s Matters for target.

CONTACT: Peter Baker, BRS


focusON SALT


Salinity indicators and

protocols

T he raised bed system toreduce salinity andwaterlogging, thus

increasing yields, has beenproving its effectiveness inPakistan under an ACIAR(Australian Centre forInternational AgriculturalResearch) project led by the CRCSalinity’s Greg Hamilton.

The project has involved fiveirrigated crops since November2004, in which the yields frommaize sown on raised bedsincreased by 40-50 per cent andwheat yields by 10-20%.

Importantly, both crops also required lessirrigation.

The project team has measured improvedinfiltration, higher organic matter andhigher total nitrogen content at EC around400 mS/m. Distribution of salt in the soilprofile had also become more uniform withless accumulating at the surface. Importedmachinery had allowed about 50 farmers togrow maize on raised beds over the threeyears and about 30 farmers to grow wheat.

The adoption strategy will now bereviewed using cluster groups of farmersand the Australian-designed seeder refinedfor Pakistani conditions.

Raise those beds

Renovating raised beds in Pakistan

Phot

o: G

Ham

ilton

32 focusON SALT

CRC Salinity Contacts:

CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICERKevin GossT: (08) 6488 2555E: [email protected]

WA NODE MANAGERDr Richard GeorgeT: (08) 9780 6296E: [email protected]

SA NODE MANAGERDr Anna DutkiewiczT: (08) 8303 9735E: [email protected]

VICTORIAN NODE MANAGERAustin BrownT: (03) 9742 8728E: [email protected]

NSW NODE MANAGERPeter J. ReganT: (02) 6391 3185E: [email protected]

COMMUNICATIONS MANAGER & SADr Bruce MundayT: (08) 8538 7075E: [email protected]

WA COMMUNICATIONSGeorgina WilsonT: (08) 6488 7353E: [email protected]

VICTORIAN COMMUNICATIONSJo CurkpatrickT: (03) 5334 5500E: [email protected]

NSW COMMUNICATIONSMatt CrosbieT: (02) 6922 8523E: [email protected]

WEBSITECraig FeutrillT: (08) 8303 6707E: [email protected]

HEAD OFFICET: (08) 6488 8559E: [email protected]

CRC LEME Contacts:

CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICERDr Steve RogersT: (08) 6436 8699E: [email protected]

COMMUNICATIONS OFFICERGregory LawrenceT: (08) 6436 8786E: [email protected]

HEAD OFFICET: (08) 6436 8695E: [email protected]

About Focus on SaltFocus on Salt is published by the CRC for Plant-based Management of DrylandSalinity (CRC Salinity) in collaboration with the CRC for Landscape Environmentsand Mineral Exploration (CRC LEME).

CRC Salinity core partners are Charles Sturt University (CSU); CommonwealthScientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO); Department of Agricultureand Food WA (DAFWA); Department of Environment and Conservation WA(DECWA); Departments of Primary Industries (DPI) and Sustainability & Environment(DSE), Victoria; NSW Department of Primary Industries (NSW DPI); Departments ofPrimary Industry and Resources (PIRSA) and Water, Land and BiodiversityConservation (DWLBC), SA; The University of Western Australia (UWA); TheUniversity of Adelaide (UA).

CRC Salinity supporting partners are Australian Conservation Foundation (ACF);Australian Wool Innovation Limited (AWI); Office of Science and Innovation, WA(OSI); Grains Research & Development Corporation (GRDC); Land & Water Australia(LWA); Meat & Livestock Australia (MLA); Murray-Darling Basin Commission (MDBC);National Farmers' Federation (NFF); Rural Industries Research and DevelopmentCorporation (RIRDC); Landmark AWB.

For information about CRC Salinity visit www.crcsalinity.com.au.

CRC LEME is an unincorporated joint venture that brings together groups from TheAustralian National University; CSIRO Exploration and Mining and CSIRO Land andWater; Curtin University of Technology; Geoscience Australia; Minerals Council ofAustralia; NSW Department of Primary Industries; Primary Industries and ResourcesSA; The University of Adelaide.

For information about CRC LEME visit www.crcleme.org.au.

The information contained in this newsletter has been published in good faith byCRC Salinity and CRC LEME to assist public knowledge and discussion and to helpimprove sustainable management of land, water and vegetation. Neither CRCSalinity, CRC LEME nor the partners in the CRCs endorse or recommend anyproducts identified by tradename, nor is any warranty implied by these CRCs andtheir partners about information presented in Focus on Salt. Readers should contactthe authors or contacts provided and conduct their own enquiries before makinguse of the information in Focus on Salt.

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