EmilieEmilie M.M. RothRothRothRoth CognitiveCognitiveEngineering,Engineering, USAUSA

JordanJordan MullerMullerVolpeVolpe NationalNationalTransportationTransportationSystemsSystems Center,Center,USAUSA

ThomasThomas RaslearRaslearFederalFederal RailroadRailroadAdministrurlon,Administrurlon,USAUSA

OrganizationOrganizationStudiesStudies27(7):27(7): 967-987967-987ISSNISSN 0170-84060170-8406CopyrightCopyright ©© 20062006SAGESAGE PublicationsPublications(London,(London,ThousandThousand Oaks,Oaks,CACA && NewNew Delhi)Delhi)

www.cgosnet.orgloswww.cgosnet.orglos

SharedShared SituationSituation AwarenessAwareness asas aa ContributorContributortoto HighHigh ReliabilityReliability PerformancePerformance inin RailroadRailroadOperationsOperationsEmilieEmilie M.M. Roth,Roth, JordanJordan MulterMulter andand ThomasThomas RaslearRaslear

AbstractAbstract

CooperativeCooperative strategiesstrategies ofof individualsindividuals withinwithin aa distributeddistributed organizationorganization cancan contributecontributetoto increasedincreased efficiencyefficiency ofof operationsoperations andand safety.safety. WeWe examineexamine thesethese processesprocesses inin thethecontextcontext ofaofa particularparticular workwork domain:domain: railroadrailroad operations.operations. AnalysesAnalyses revealedrevealed aa varietyvarietyofof informalinformal cooperativecooperative strategiesstrategies thatthat railroadrailroad workersworkers havehave developeddeveloped thatthat spanspanacrossacross multiplemultiple railroad·railroad· craftscrafts includingincluding roadwayroadway workers,workers, traintrain crews.crews. andand railroadrailroaddispatchers.dispatchers. TheseThese informal,informal, proactiveproactive communicationscommunications fpsterfpster sharedshared situationsituationawarenessawareness acrossacross thethe distributeddistributed organization,organization, facilitatefacilitate work.work. andand contributecontribute toto thetheoveralloverall efficiency,efficiency, safety,safety, andand resilienceresilience toto errorerror ofraiJroadofraiJroad operations.operations. WeWe discussdiscussdesigndesign implicationsimplications forfor leveragingleveraging newnew digitaldigital technologiestechnologies andand location-findinglocation-findingsystemssystems toto moremore effectivelyeffectively supportsupport thesethese infonnalinfonnal strategies,strategies, enhanceenhance sharedshared situationsituationawareness,awareness, andand promotepromote highhigh reliabilityreliability performance.performance.

Keywords:Keywords: cognitivecognitive tasktask analysis,analysis, situationsituation awareness,awareness, railroads,railroads, teamteam cognition,cognition,cognitivecognitive fieldfield studies,studies, humanhuman reliability.reliability. distributeddistributed decisiondecision making,making, naturalisticnaturalisticdecisiondecision makingmaking

Complex.socio-technicalComplex.socio-technical systemssystems dependdepend onon thethe workwork ofofmultiplemultiple individualsindividualsdistributeddistributed inin timetime andand space.space. ExamplesExamples includeinclude militarymilitary commandcommand andandcontrol,control, spacespace shuttleshuttle operations,operations, airair traffictraffic control,control, andand railroadrailroad operations.operations.PerformancePerformance dependsdepends onon coordinatedcoordinated workwork amongamong individualsindividuals thatthat maymay notnotbebe collocated,collocated, havehave responsibilityresponsibility forfor differentdifferent subsetssubsets ofof goals,goals, differentdifferentaccessaccess toto data,data, andand differentdifferent situationsituation perspectives.perspectives. ThereThere hashas beenbeen growinggrowinginterestinterest inin understandingunderstanding thethe cognitivecognitive andand collaborativecollaborative factorsfactors thatthat enableenablesuchsuch teamsteams toto workwork effectivelyeffectively (Klein(Klein etet at.at. 2000;2000; SmithSmith etet a1.a1. 2000;2000; SalasSalasandand FioreFiore 2004).2004). InIn thisthis paperpaper wewe examineexamine distributeddistributed teamteam processesprocesses inin thethecontextcontext ofof railroadrailroad operations.operations. WeWe focusfocus particularlyparticularly onon thethe rolerole ofof informalinformalstrategiesstrategies fo'rfo'r maintainingmaintaining sharedshared situationsituation awarenessawareness amongamong roadwayroadway work­work­ers,ers, traintrain crews,crews, andand railroadrailroad dispatchersdispatchers andand enhancingenhancing overalloverall efficiencyefficiency andandsafetysafety ofof operations.operations.

001: 10.1177/0170840606065705001: 10.1177/0170840606065705

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TheThe RoleRole ofof SharedShared SituationSituation AwarenessAwareness inin SupportingSupporting DistributedDistributedTeamTeam PerformancePerformance

AnAn areaarea ofofgrowinggrowing consensusconsensus inin thethe literatureliterature onon teamworkteamwork isis thethe importanceimportanceofof sharedshared contextualcontextual knowledgeknowledge inin supportingsupporting coordinationcoordination andand facilitatingfacilitatingwork.work. EffectiveEffective performanceperformance dependsdepends onon sharedshared informationinformation aboutabout bothboth thethesituationsituation andand thethe otherother teamteam members.members. ThisThis includesincludes mutualmutual knowledgeknowledge andandbeliefsbeliefs aboutabout thethe currentcurrent situation,situation, eacheach other'sother's goals,goals, andand currentcurrent andand futurefutureactivitiesactivities andand intentions.intentions. VariousVarious labelslabels havehave beenbeen usedused toto denotedenote thisthis sharedsharedcontexhmlcontexhml knowledge,knowledge, includingincluding sharedshared mentalmental modelsmodels (Cannon-Bowers(Cannon-Bowers etet a1.a1.1993);1993); teamteam cognitioncognition (Espinosa(Espinosa etet a1.a1. 2004),2004), commoncommon groundground (Clark(Clark andandBrennanBrennan 1991;1991; KleinKlein etet a1.a1. 2000,2000, 2005);2005); sharedshared situationsituation awarenessawareness (Endsley(Endsleyetet a1.a1. 2003),2003), andand sharedshared workwork spacespace awarenessawareness (Gutwin(Gutwin andand GreenbergGreenberg 2004).2004).ThisThis sharedshared contextualcontextual knowledge,knowledge, whichwhich wewe willwill referrefer toto fromfrom herehere onon asassharedshared situationsituation awareness,awareness, allowsallows teamteam membersmembers toto efficientlyefficiently coordinatecoordinateworkwork byby enablingenabling themthem toto understandunderstand whatwhat isis goinggoing onon withwith thethe task,task, interpretinterpretwhatwhat othcrsothcrs areare doing,doing, andand anticipateanticipate whatwhat willwill happenhappen next.next. ItIt enablesenablesteamteam membersmembers toto anticipateanticipate thethe informationinformation andand supportsupport needsneeds ofof otherother teamteammembers,members, resultingresulting inin reducedreduced needneed forfor explicitexplicit communicationcommunication andand improvedimprovedactionaction coordinationcoordination (MacMillan(MacMillan etet a1.a1. 2004).2004). Conversely,Conversely, incorrectincorrect oror incom­incom­pleteplete mutualmutual assumptions,assumptions, knowledge,knowledge, oror beliefsbeliefs cancan contributecontribute toto breakdownsbreakdownsinin communicationcommunication andand coordinationcoordination (Klein(Klein etet aJ.aJ. 2000).2000).

MostMost ofof thethe researchresearch onon teamworkteamwork hashas focusedfocused onon thethe rolerole ofof sharedsharedsituationsituation awarenessawareness inin thethe abilityability ofof teamsteams toto coordinatecoordinate workwork efficiently.efficiently.ThereThere hashas beenbeen lessless attentionattention focusedfocused onon thethe contributioncontribution ofof sharedshared situationsituationawarenessawareness toto highhigh reliabilityreliability performance.performance. SharedShared situationsituation awarenessawareness cancanprovideprovide thethe foundationfoundation forfor cooperativecooperative teamteam practicespractices thatthat contributecontribute totosystemsystem resilienceresilience toto humanhuman errorerror andand unanticipatedunanticipated events,events, increasingincreasing overalloverallsafetysafety (HollnageI2004;(HollnageI2004; ReasonReason 1997;1997; RochlinRochlin etet aJ.aJ. 1987;1987; WeickWeick etet aJ.aJ. 1999;1999;WoodsWoods andand ShattuckShattuck 2000;2000; HollnagelHollnagel etet aJ.aJ. 2006).2006). ThisThis isis particularlyparticularlyimportantimportant inin safety-criticalsafety-critical workwork settingssettings suchsuch asas nuclearnuclear powerpower plants,plants, airairtraffictraffic control,control, healthcare,healthcare, andand railroadrailroad operationsoperations wherewhere en'OfSen'OfS cancan resultresult ininaa threatthreat toto thethe safetysafety ofof peoplepeople andand thethe environment.environment.

RogninRognin etet a1.a1. (2000)(2000) havehave offeredoffered aa conceptualconceptual frameworkframework thatthat articulatesarticulatesthethe rolerole ofof sharedshared contextualcontextual knowledgeknowledge inin enablingenabling teamsteams toto workwork cooper­cooper­ativelyatively toto enhanceenhance thethe elTorelTor tolerancetolerance andand overalloverall reliabilityreliability ofofcomplexcomplex socio­socio­tcelmicaltcelmical systems.systems. Ti,eTi,e elementselements ofof tl,etl,e frameworkframework areare depicteddepicted inin FigureFigure I.I.

AccordingAccording toto thethe frameworkframework presentedpresented byby RogninRognin etet al.al. (2000)(2000) teamteammembersmembers engageengage inin cooperativecooperative practicespractices thatthat contributecontribute toto resilient,resilient, highhighreliabilityreliability systems.systems. TheseThese cooperativecooperative practicespractices dependdepend on,on, andand support,support,developingdeveloping andand maintainingmaintaining sharedshared situationsituation awarenessawareness throughthrough informationinformationsharing,sharing, mutualmutual knowledge,knowledge, andand muh131muh131 awareness.awareness. SharedShared situationsituationawareness,awareness, inin turn,turn, enablesenables teamteam membersmembers toto participateparticipate inin mutualmutual 'regulation'regulationloops'loops' thatthat provideprovide thethe mechanismmechanism toto catchcatch andand correctcorrect errorserrors andand adaptadapt totodynamicallydynamically changingchanging demands.demands. ExamplesExamples include:include: thethe abilityability toto monitormonitor forforerrorserrors throughthrough peripheralperipheral modesmodes ofof perceptionperception suchsuch asas overhearingoverhearing ororoverseeingoverseeing activitiesactivities ofof others;others; andand spontaneouslyspontaneously adaptingadapting organizationalorganizational

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FigureFigure I.I.RoleRole ofof SharedSharedContc:<tContc:<t ininContributingContributing [0[0

ReliabilityReliability ofSocio­ofSocio­technicaltechnical SystemsSystemsSource:Source: adaptedadapted fromfromRogninRognin ctct 'II.'II. (2000)(2000)

Roth et al.: Shared Situation Awareness

Distributed Information

Shared Situation Awareness

Regu lation Loops

~ Global Reliability

Distributed Information

Shared Situation Awareness

Regu lation Loops

~ Global Reliability

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structurestructure toto respondrespond toto changingchanging situationsituation demandsdemands (e.g.(e.g. shiftingshifting responsi­responsi­bilitiesbilities acrossacross teamteam membersmembers toto addressaddress overloadoverload situationssituations oror toto capitalizecapitalizeonon specificspecific expertise).expertise).

InIn thisthis paper,paper, wewe examineexamine thethe processesprocesses byby whichwhich disttibuteddisttibuted teamsteams developdevelopandand maintainmaintain sharedshared situationsituation awarenessawareness andand thethe cooperativecooperative practicespractices thatthatcontributecontribute toto enhancedenhanced safetysafety inin thethe contextcontext ofofrailroadrailroad opcrations.opcrations. TheThe resultsresultsareare usedused toto expandexpand thethe theoreticaltheoretical knowledgeknowledge basebase onon thethe contributioncontribution ofofinformal,informal, cooperativecooperative practicespractices ofof distributeddistributed teamsteams toto safety,safety, andand toto pointpoint totowaysways technologytechnology cancan bebe deployeddeployed toto moremore effectivelyeffectively supportsupport sharedshared situationsituationawarenessawareness andand enhanceenhance overalloverall safety.safety.

RoadwayRoadway WorkersWorkers inin RailroadRailroad Operations:Operations: AnAn ExampleExample ofof DistributedDistributedTeamTeam PerformancePerformance

RoadwayRoadway workersworkers provideprovide anan exampleexample ofof aa highlyhighly distributeddistributed organizationorganizationthatthat dependsdepends heavilyheavily onon communicationcommunication toto coordinatecoordinate workwork andand maintainmaintain safesafeoperationsoperations amongamong individualsindividuals widelywidely distributeddistributed inin space.space. RoadwayRoadway workersworkersinspect,inspect, maintain,maintain, andand repairrepair railroadrailroad facilitiesfacilities andand equipmentequipment includingincluding track,track,signals,signals, communications,communications, andand electricelectric tractiontraction systems.systems. TheyThey maymay workwork alonealoneoror asas partpart ofof aa multi-personmulti-person groupgroup thatthat mustmust coordinatecoordinate theirtheir workwork inin orderorder totoaccomplishaccomplish aa commoncommon task.task. SomeSome jobsjobs requirerequire workingworking atat aa particularparticular locationlocationonon thethe tracktrack (e.g.(e.g. changechange aa rail,rail, troubleshoottroubleshoot aa malfunctioningmalfunctioning signal).signal). OtherOtherjobsjobs requirerequire movingmoving acrossacross track,track, forfor exampleexample toto perfol1ll1perfol1ll1 tracktrack inspection.inspection.

CommunicationCommunication playsplays aa centralcentral rolerole inin coordinatingcoordinating workwork andand establishingestablishingandand maintainingmaintaining safesafe operations.operations. RoadwayRoadway workersworkers communicatecommunicate withwithdispatchersdispatchers toto obtainobtain andand releaserelease pel1ll1issionpel1ll1ission toto workwork onon particularparticular segmentssegmentsofof tracktrack asas wellwell asas toto communicatecommunicate tracktrack problemsproblems thatthat maymay requirerequire speedspeedrestrictionsrestrictions oror takingtaking portionsportions ofof tracktrack outout ofof service.service. TheyThey alsoalso needneed totocommunicatecommunicate andand coordinatecoordinate withwith otherother roadwayroadway workersworkers andand withwith traintrain crews.crews.

BecauseBecause thethe activitiesactivities ofof roadwayroadway workersworkers areare perfonnedperfonned onon oror nearnear railroadrailroadtracks,tracks, theythey areare atat riskrisk ofof beingbeing sllUcksllUck byby aa traintrain oror otherother on-trackon-track equipment.equipment.AA particularparticular focusfocus ofof thethe studystudy waswas onon uncoveringuncovering thethe cognitivecognitive andand collab­collab­orativeorative activitiesactivities thatthat roadwayroadway workersworkers engageengage inin toto maintainmaintain safety.safety.

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TheThe railroadrailroad industryindustry isis developingdeveloping aa numbernumber ofof newnew teclmologiesteclmologies thatthat willwillaffectaffect roadwayroadway workers.workers. ThisThis includesincludes newnew formsforms ofof positivepositive traintrain controlcontrol(PTC)(PTC) thatthat areare designeddesigned toto protectprotect roadwayroadway workersworkers andand preventprevent train-to-traintrain-to-traincollisionscollisions byby providingproviding backupbackup warningswarnings and,and, ifif necessary,necessary, automaticaJlyautomaticaJly stopstoptrainstrains thatthat exceedexceed speedspeed restrictionsrestrictions oror enterenter tracktrack segmentssegments forfor whichwhich theytheyareare notnot authorized.authorized. AA second,second, related,related, technologytechnology thatthat isis emergingemerging isis portableportabledigitaldigital communicationcommunication devicesdevices intendedintended toto aJlowaJlow roadwayroadway workersworkers toto commu­commu­nicatenicate moremore reliably.reliably.

AA goalgoal ofof thethe researchresearch waswas toto understandunderstand thethe factorsfactors thatthat affectaffect roadwayroadwayworkerworker safetysafety inin today'stoday's envirorunentenvirorunent soso asas toto anticipateanticipate thethe likelylikely impactsimpacts ofofthesethese emergingemerging technologiestechnologies onon roadwayroadway workersworkers andand toto provideprovide guidanceguidanceforfor designdesign andand introductionintroduction ofof thethe technologies.technologies. ThisThis includesincludes understandingunderstandingthethe cognitivecognitive andand coJlaborativecoJlaborative activitiesactivities thatthat couldcould bebe supportedsupported moremore etTec­etTec­tivelytively throughthrough thethe introductionintroduction oftheseofthese newnew technologies.technologies. EquallyEqually importantimportantisis identifyingidentifying featuresfeatures ofof thethe existingexisting environmentenvironment thatthat contributecontribute toto effectiveeffectiveperformanceperformance andand safetysafety andand thereforetherefore shouldshould bebe preservedpreserved whenwhen deployingdeployingthesethese newnew technologies.technologies.

UsingUsing CognitiveCognitive TaskTask AnalysisAnalysis toto UncoverUncover PractitionerPractitioner StrategiesStrategies forforCopingCoping withwith CognitiveCognitive andand CollaborativeCollaborative DemandsDemands inin aa DistributedDistributedOrganizationOrganization

CognitiveCognitive tasktask analysisanalysis (CTA)(CTA) methodsmethods werewere usedused toto uncoveruncover thethe typestypes ofofcognitivecognitive andand coJlaborativecoJlaborative demandsdemands facedfaced byby roadwayroadway workersworkers andand thetheinformalinformal strategiesstrategies theythey havehave developeddeveloped forfor copingcoping withwith tasktask demandsdemands andandenhancingenhancing on-trackon-track safety.safety.

eTAeTA methodsmethods havehave growngrown outout ofof thethe needneed toto explicitlyexplicitly identifyidentify cognitivecognitiverequirementsrequirements inherentinherent inin perfonningperfonning complexcomplex workwork inin naturalisticnaturalisticenvirorunentsenvirorunents (Klein(Klein etet al.al. 1989;1989; SchraagenSchraagen etet al.al. 2000;2000; KleinKlein 2000;2000; PotterPotter etetal.al. 2000).2000). InIn performingperforming CTA,CTA, twotwo mutuaJlymutuaJly reinforcingreinforcing perspectivesperspectives areareconsidered.considered. OneOne perspectiveperspective focusesfocuses onon thethe characteristicscharacteristics ofofthethe domaindomain andandthethe cognitivecognitive andand collaborativecollaborative demandsdemands theythey impose.impose. TheThe focusfocus isis ononunderstandingunderstanding whatwhat factorsfactors contributecontribute toto makingmaking practitionerpractitioner performanceperformancechaJlenging.chaJlenging. UnderstandingUnderstanding domaindomain characteristicscharacteristics isis importantimportant bothboth becausebecauseitit providesprovides aa frameworkframework forfor interpretinginterpreting practitionerpractitioner performanceperformance andand becausebecauseitit cancan helphelp definedefine thethe requirementsrequirements forfor effectiveeffective support.support. TheThe secondsecondperspectiveperspective focusesfocuses onon howhow todaytoday '.I''.I' practitionerspractitioners respondrespond toto thethe demandsdemands ofofthethe domaindomain bothboth asas individualsindividuals andand asas cooperatingcooperating teams.teams. UnderstandingUnderstanding thetheknowledgeknowledge andand strategiesstrategies thatthat expertexpert practitionerspractitioners havehave developeddeveloped inin responseresponsetoto domaindomain demandsdemands providesprovides aa secondsecond windowwindow forfor uncoveringuncovering thethe chaJlengeschaJlengesofof thethe currentcurrent workwork environmentenvironment asas weJlweJl asas effectiveeffective strategiesstrategies forfor dealingdealingwithwith thosethose chaJlenges.chaJlenges. TheseThese strategiesstrategies cancan bebe capturedcaptured andand transmittedtransmitteddirectlydirectly toto lessless experiencedexperienced practitionerspractitioners (e.g.(e.g. throughthrough trainingtraining systems),systems), orortheythey cancan provideprovide ideasideas forfor moremore effectiveeffective supportsupport systemssystems thatthat wouldwouldeliminateeliminate thethe needneed forfor thesethese compensatingcompensating strategies.strategies.

AA varietyvariety ofof specificspecific CTACTA techniquestechniques havehave beenbeen developeddeveloped thatthat drawdraw ononbasicbasic principlesprinciples andand methodsmethods fromfrom thethe behavioralbehavioral sciencessciences (Cooke(Cooke 1994;1994;

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KleinKlein etet a1.a1. 1989;1989; MilitelloMilitello andand HuttonHutton 1998;1998; RothRoth andand PattersonPatterson 2005).2005). TheseTheseincludeinclude structuredstructured interviewinterview techniques,techniques, criticalcritical incidentincident methods,methods, andand fieldfieldstudystudy methodologies.methodologies. InIn practice,practice, multiplemultiple convergingconverging methodsmethods areare usedused asaspal1pal1 ofof anan opportunisticopportunistic bootstrapbootstrap processprocess (Potter(Potter etet a1.a1. 2000).2000).

TheThe presentpresent studystudy combinedcombined structuredstructured interviewsinterviews andand fieldfield observations.observations.TheThe studystudy attemptedattempted toto elicitelicit multiplemultiple perspectivesperspectives onon thethe challengeschallengesassociatedassociated withwith workingworking andand maintainingmaintaining safetysafety onon andand aroundaround thethe track,track, bybyinterviewinginterviewing differentdifferent typestypes ofof roadwayroadway workersworkers asas wellwell asas dispatchersdispatchers withwithwhomwhom theythey primarilyprimarily interact.interact.

MethodsMethods

InterviewsInterviews andand fieldfield observationsobservations werewere conductedconducted atat fivefive locationslocations inin thetheUnitedUnited StatesStates andand includedincluded passengerpassenger andand freightfreight railrail operations.operations. AA totaltotal ofof2626 individualsindividuals werewere observedobserved and/orand/or interviewed,interviewed, includingincluding 1313 trackmen,trackmen, whowhoareare responsibleresponsible forfor inspectioninspection andand maintenancemaintenance ofof track;track; 88 signalmen,signalmen, whowhoareare responsibleresponsible forfor inspectioninspection andand maintenancemaintenance ofof signalsignal systems;systems; andand 55dispatchers,dispatchers, whowho controlcontrol tracktrack usage.usage.

InterviewsInterviews withwith trackmentrackmen werewere conductedconducted atat threethree sites.sites. AtAt twotwo oftheofthe sitessitesinterviewsinterviews occurredoccurred whilewhile accompanyingaccompanying aa trackmantrackman onon high-railhigh-rail tracktrack carcarridesrides andand includedincluded discussiondiscussion ofofthethe demandsdemands associatedassociated withwith tracktrack inspectioninspectionandand relatedrelated documentationdocumentation tasks.tasks. TheThe interviewsinterviews coveredcovered factorsfactors thatthat impactimpactroadwayroadway workerworker safety;safety; thethe needsneeds forfor communicationcommunication andand coordinationcoordination withwithdispatchers,dispatchers, traintrain crews,crews, andand otherother roadwayroadway workers;workers; thethe challengeschallenges thatthat arise;arise;andand howhow portableportable digital-baseddigital-based communicationcommunication devicesdevices mightmight impactimpact theirtheirwork.work. ThisThis includedincluded discussiondiscussion ofof bothboth fOlmallyfOlmally prescribedprescribed comnmnicationcomnmnicationprotocols.protocols. andand informalinformal communications.communications.

InterviewsInterviews werewere conductedconducted atat twotwo additionaladditional sitessites wherewhere advancedadvanced traintraincontrolcontrol systemssystems werewere beingbeing fieldfield tested.tested. TheseThese interviewsinterviews centeredcentered onon thetheimpactimpact ofof thethe newnew traintrain controlcontrol technologiestechnologies onon roadwayroadway workers.workers. TopicsTopicscoveredcovered includedincluded newnew maintenancemaintenance demandsdemands associatedassociated withwith thethe newnew tech­tech­nologiesnologies andand thethe adequacyadequacy ofof supportsupport availableavailable forfor perfonningperfonning maintenancemaintenance(e.g.(e.g. thethe adequacyadequacy ofof manuals,manuals, training,training, availabilityavailability ofof tools).tools). TheThe interviewsinterviewsalsoalso coveredcovered factorsfactors thatthat affectedaffected roadwayroadway workerworker safetysafety andand thethe perceivedperceivedimpactimpact ofof thethe newnew traintrain controlcontrol systemssystems onon roadwayroadway workerworker safety.safety.

TheThe dispatcherdispatcher interviewsinterviews werewere conductedconducted withwith railroadrailroad dispatchersdispatchers atat aaNorthNorth EastEast dispatchdispatch centercenter toto elicitelicit dispatcherdispatcher perspectiveperspective onon thethe challengeschallengesassociatedassociated withwith communicationcommunication withwith roadwayroadway workersworkers andand howhow portableportabledigital-base!!digital-base!! comml\nicationcomml\nication devicesdevices mightmight impactimpact work.work. TheThe studystudy alsoalsoleveragedleveraged thethe resultsresults ofofaa priOlopriOlo eTAeTA thatthat specificallyspecifically focusedfocused onon demandsdemands andandactivitiesactivities ofof dispatchersdispatchers (Roth(Roth etet a1.a1. 2001).2001).

TheThe intervieweesinterviewees werewere recruitedrecruited throughthrough contactscontacts withwith railroadrailroad manage­manage­mentment andand laborlabor unionunion representatives.representatives. InterviewsInterviews werewere conductedconducted withwithindividualsindividuals oror groupsgroups ofnpofnp toto fivefive peoplepeople representingrepresenting aa singlesingle craft.craft. TypicallyTypicallytherethere werewere twotwo toto fourfour interviewersinterviewers thatthat representedrepresented differentdifferent behavioralbehavioralresearchresearch disciplinesdisciplines includingincluding humanhuman factorsfactors engineeringengineering andand humanhuman reliabilityreliability

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·analysis.·analysis. OneOne interviewerinterviewer ledled thethe interviewinterview sessionssessions usingusing aa setset ofof predefinedpredefinedinterviewinterview questions.questions. TheThe otherother interviewersinterviewers tooktook notesnotes andand askedasked occasionaloccasionalfollow-upfollow-up questions.questions. TheThe predefinedpredefined questionquestion setset primarilyprimarily servedserved asas aa 'check­'check­list'list' ofof topicstopics toto bebe covered.covered. ActualActual questionsquestions askedasked andand theirtheir orderorder variedvarieddependingdepending onon participantparticipant responses.responses. TheThe setset ofof predefinedpredefined questionsquestions arearepresentedpresented inin RothRoth andand MulterMulter (in(in preparation).preparation).

InterviewsInterviews lastedlasted approximatelyapproximately twotwo hourshours andand werewere tapetape recordedrecorded withwiththethe knowledgeknowledge andand permissionpermission ofof thethe individualsindividuals whowho werewere interviewed.interviewed.

TheThe tape-recordedtape-recorded interviewsinterviews werewere transcribedtranscribed andand analyzed,analyzed, withwith thethe goalgoalofof identifyingidentifying recurrentrecurrent themesthemes acrossacross interviewsinterviews asas wellwell asas specificspecific actualactualincidentsincidents describeddescribed byby intervieweesinterviewees thatthat illustrateillustrate thethe themes.themes.

TheThe analysisanalysis focusedfocused onon identifying:identifying: cognitivecognitive andand collaborativecollaborative demandsdemandsinin thethe currentcurrent environmentenvironment thatthat contributecontribute toto performanceperformance difficultiesdifficulties andanderrors;errors; skillsskills andand strategiesstrategies thatthat expertexpert practitionerspractitioners havehave developeddeveloped toto buildbuildandand maintainmaintain sharedshared situationsituation awareness,awareness, toto avoidavoid oror catchcatch etTors,etTors, improveimproveefficiencyefficiency andand enhanceenhance safety;safety; opportunitiesopportunities toto enhanceenhance performanceperformance and/orand/orimproveimprove safetysafety throughthrough thethe introductionintroduction ofof newnew technologies;technologies; asas wellwell asasconce111Sconce111S relatingrelating toto potentialpotential newnew problemsproblems thatthat couldcould emergeemerge withwith thetheintroductionintroduction ofof newnew technologies.technologies.

ResultsResults

InIn thisthis paperpaper wewe presentpresent resultsresults relatingrelating toto communicationcommunication amongamong thethedistributeddistributed team,team, thethe activeactive strategiesstrategies thatthat roadwayroadway workersworkers engagedengaged inin totobuildbuild andand maintainmaintain sharedshared situationsituation awareness,awareness, andand thethe informal,informal, cooperativecooperativestrategiesstrategies thatthat emerged,emerged, thatthat contributedcontributed toto highhigh reliabilityreliability andand resilienceresilience totoerror.error. BelowBelow wewe presentpresent evidenceevidence ofof thesethese informal,informal, cooperativecooperative strategiesstrategiesandand theirtheir contributioncontribution toto overalloverall systemsystem efficiencyefficiency andand safety.safety. CompleteComplete studystudyresultsresults areare documenteddocumented inin RothRoth andand MulterMulter (in(in preparation).preparation).

TheThe RoleRole ofof CommunicationCommunication inin DistributedDistributed WorkWork

CommunicationCommunication playsplays aa significantsignificant rolerole inin accomplishingaccomplishing workwork objectivesobjectives asaswellwell asas inin enablingenabling roadwayroadway workersworkers toto establishestablish andand maintainmaintain safesafe workingworkingconditions.conditions. GenerallyGenerally informationinformation isis communicatedcommunicated overover two-waytwo-way radioradio andandisis govemedgovemed byby formalformal operatingoperating rulesrules thatthat prescribeprescribe thethe formform andand contentcontent ofofthethe informationinformation toto bebe communicated.communicated. AA formalformal communicationcommunication protocolprotocol isisusedused thanequiresthanequires thethe receiverreceiver toto readread backback thethe informationinformation heard.heard. BothBoth thethesendersender andand thethe receiverreceiver areare alsoalso requiredrequired toto documentdocument thethe infonnationinfonnationexchangedexchanged (either(either byby enteringentering itit intointo aa computerizedcomputerized databasedatabase oror ontoonto aa writtenwrittenform).form). ObservationsObservations andand interviewsinterviews revealedrevealed additionaladditional informal,informal, proactiveproactivecommunicationcommunication practicespractices thatthat havehave emergedemerged thatthat serveserve toto increaseincrease efficiencyefficiencyofof railroadrailroad operationsoperations asas wellwell asas enhanceenhance overalloverall safety.safety.

FormalFormal CommunicationCommunication PrescribedPrescribed byby OperatingOperating RulesRules

RoadwayRoadway workersworkers communicatecommunicate regularlyregularly withwith railroadrailroad dispatchers.dispatchers. ForFor

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multi-personmulti-person roadwayroadway workerworker groups,groups, oneone employee,employee, thethe employeeemployee inin chargecharge(EIC)(EIC) communicatescommunicates withwith thethe dispatcherdispatcher viavia radioradio or,or, inin somesome cases,cases, cellcellphone.phone. TheThe primaryprimary reasonsreasons forfor roadwayroadway workersworkers toto contactcontact dispatchersdispatchers areare(I)(I) toto obtainobtain andand releaserelease authorityauthority toto workwork onon aa specificspecific portionportion ofof track;track; andand(2)(2) toto reportreport conditionsconditions thatthat maymay requirerequire tracktrack toto bebe takentaken outout ofof serviceservice oror totoimposeimpose speedspeed restrictions.restrictions.

FormalFormal operatingoperating rulesrules dictatedictate thethe formform andand contentcontent ofof thethe infonnationinfonnationexchangedexchanged duringduring thesethese transactions.transactions. ForFor example,example, whenwhen aa roadwayroadway workerworkercallscalls aa dispatcherdispatcher overover thethe radioradio toto requestrequest workwork authorityauthority forfor aa portionportion ofof track,track,thethe dispatcherdispatcher willwill enterenter intointo aa computerizedcomputerized databasedatabase thethe milepostsmileposts desig­desig­natingnating thethe stattstatt andand endend ofof thethe portionportion ofof tracktrack beingbeing authorizedauthorized forfor roadwayroadwayworkwork andand thethe startstart timetime (and(and sometimessometimes anan endend time)time) forfor thethe authority.authority. HeHe ororsheshe willwill thenthen readread thethe infonnationinfonnation fromfrom thethe computercomputer screenscreen toto thethe roadwayroadwayworker,worker, whowho isis requiredrequired toto enterenter thethe informationinformation byby handhand ontoonto aa paperpaperauthorizationauthorization formform andand thenthen readread thethe infonnationinfonnation backback toto thethe dispatcher.dispatcher. TheThedispatcllerdispatcller confilmsconfilms thatthat thethe infonnationinfonnation readread backback isis correct,correct, andand onlyonly thenthen isisthethe authorityauthority toto occupyoccupy andand workwork onon thatthat pOitionpOition ofof tracktrack putput inin place.place.

RoadwayRoadway workersworkers maymay alsoalso requestrequest movementmovement authorityauthority toto traveltravel acrossacross aaportionportion ofof tracktrack inin aa tracktrack carcar (e.g.(e.g. toto perfonnperfonn inspectioninspection ofof thethe track).track). IfIf theytheydetectdetect aa problemproblem inin thethe track,track, thethe roadwayroadway workerworker willwill callcall toto infonninfonn thethedispatcherdispatcher ofof thethe needneed toto issueissue aa speedspeed restrictionrestriction oror toto taketake thethe tracktrack outout ofofservice.service. TheThe dispatcherdispatcher thenthen communicatescommunicates thethe infonnationinfonnation toto traintrain crews.crews.

DispatchersDispatchers willwill alsoalso contactcontact roadwayroadway workersworkers viavia radio.radio. FormallyFormally pre­pre­scribedscribed reasonsreasons dispatchersdispatchers callcall roadwayroadway workersworkers include:include: (I)(I) toto requestrequestreleaserelease ofof track;track; (2)(2) toto alertalert themthem toto reportsreports ofof tracktrack conditionsconditions thatthat requirerequireinspectioninspection oror repair.repair.

CommunicationCommunication alsoalso occursoccurs amongamong roadwayroadway workersworkers withinwithin aa workwork groupgroupbothboth toto coordinatecoordinate workwork andand toto insureinsure thethe safetysafety ofof thethe workersworkers inin thetheworkwork group.group. OnceOnce thethe EICEIC receivesreceives authorityauthority toto placeplace tracktrack outout ofof serviceservice totoworkwork onon thethe track,track, thethe EICEIC becomesbecomes thethe 'owner''owner' ofof thatthat tracktrack andand isis respon­respon­siblesible forfor coordinatingcoordinating workwork andand maintainingmaintaining safetysafety withinwithin thatthat workwork zone.zone. AnyAnyroadwayroadway workerworker whowho wisheswishes toto perfonnperfonn workwork onon thatthat portionportion ofof tracktrack needsneedstoto obtainobtain formalformal pennissionpennission fromfrom andand coordinatecoordinate withwith thethe ErC.ErC. BeforeBefore releasingreleasingtracktrack backback toto thethe dispatcher,dispatcher, thethe ErCErC mustmust notifynotify allall affectedaffected roadwayroadway workers.workers.

TheThe EICEIC whowho isis responsibleresponsible forfor communicatingcommunicating withwith thethe dispatcherdispatcher andandobtainingobtaining andand releasingreleasing tracktrack authoritiesauthorities maymay bebe locatedlocated farfar fromfrom thethe actualactualworkwork andand mustmust keepkeep tracktrack ofof thethe locationlocation ofof workersworkers inin thethe workwork groupgroup andandthethe statusstatus ofof theirtheir workwork viavia radio.radio. CommunicationCommunication andand coordinationcoordination cancan bebepaIticularlypaIticularly challengingchallenging inin thethe casecase oflargeoflarge roadwayroadway projectsprojects thatthat maymay involveinvolvelargelarge numbersnumbers ofofworkersworkers (up(up toto 100100 workers)workers) thatthat includeinclude multiplemultiple craftscrafts andandlargelarge numbersnumbers ofofequipmentequipment (up(up toto 2020 oror 3030 piecespieces ofofequipment)equipment) workingworking ininmultiplemultiple subgroupssubgroups spreadspread outout overover aa widewide portionportion ofof track.track.

RoadwayRoadway workersworkers alsoalso communicatecommunicate withwith traintrain crews.crews. AnAn exampleexample ofofformalformal communicationcommunication requirementsrequirements betweenbetween roadwayroadway workersworkers andand traintraincrewscrews areare casescases wherewhere trainstrains requirerequire permissionpermission toto passpass throughthrough aa workwork zone.zone.InIn thosethose casescases thethe traintrain crewcrew isis requiredrequired toto contactcontact thethe EICEIC viavia radioradio toto obtainobtainapprovalapproval toto enterenter thethe workwork zone.zone.

974 OrganizationOrganization StudiesStudies 27(7)27(7)

ProactiveProactive CommunicationCommunication StrategiesStrategies thatthat FacilitateFacilitate WorkWork andand EnhanceEnhance EfficiencyEfficiency

ofof TrackTrack UsageUsage

InIn additionaddition toto fonnallyfonnally prescribedprescribed communication,communication, wewe observedobserved andand werewere toldtoldaboutabout typestypes ofof informal,informal, cooperativecooperative communicationcommunication strategiesstrategies thatthat wereweredesigneddesigned toto facilitatefacilitate thethe workwork ofof othersothers withinwithin thethe distributeddistributed system.system.RoadwayRoadway workersworkers workedworked cooperativelycooperatively withwith dispatchersdispatchers inin providingproviding thetheinformationinformation neededneeded byby dispatchersdispatchers toto makemake efficientefficient tracktrack allocationallocation decisionsdecisionsandand levellevel workload.workload. InIn turn,turn, dispatchersdispatchers workedworked cooperativelycooperatively inin facilitatingfacilitatingthethe workwork ofof roadwayroadway workers.workers.

RoadwayRoadway workersworkers activelyactively workedworked toto supportsupport dispatchersdispatchers in:in:

•• UnderstandingUnderstanding thethe workwork andand implicationsimplicationsforfor tracktrack availability.availability. TypicallyTypicallyroadwayroadway workersworkers willwill letlet thethe dispatcherdispatcher knowknow thethe kindkind ofof tracktrack workwork theytheywillwill bebe doingdoing atat thethe timetime thatthat theythey requestrequest tracktrack authority.authority. ItIt isis importantimportanttoto givegive thethe dispatcherdispatcher anan ideaidea oftheofthe naturenature ofof thethe workwork thatthat willwill bebe done,done,whetherwhether itit willwill disruptdisrupt thethe track,track, andand thethe estimatedestimated amountamount ofof timetime thetheworkwork willwill tak~tak~ to.to. complete.complete. SomeSome typestypes ofof workwork cancan bebe interweavedinterweavedaroundaround traintrain traffic.traffic. InIn thosethose casescases thethe dispatcherdispatcher knowsknows thatthat helshehelshe cancanaskask thethe roadwayroadway workerworker toto stopstop andand getget offtheoffthe tracktrack toto letlet aa traintrain through.through.OtherOther workwork disruptsdisrupts thethe tracktrack andand requiresrequires thethe workwork toto bebe completedcompletedbeforebefore trainstrains cancan passpass through.through.

•• ProiectingProiecting whenwhen tracktrack willwill becomebecome availableforavailablefor otherother uses.uses. DispatchersDispatcherswillwill sometimessometimes callcall roadwayroadway workersworkers toto checkcheck onon thethe statusstatus ofof theirtheir workworksoso asas toto bebe ableable toto anticipateanticipate whenwhen tracktrack isis likelylikely toto bebe availableavailable forforroutingrouting trains.trains. ForFor example,example, dispatchersdispatchers mightmight callcall aa tracktrack carcar toto findfind outouttheirtheir locationlocation oror determinedetermine ifif theythey havehave passedpassed aa particularparticular interlockinginterlockingsoso dlatdlat theythey cancan pplotlot theirtheir nextnext move.move.

•• OffloadingOffloading communicationcommunication demands.demands. PriorPrior toto callingcalling thethe dispatcherdispatcher totorequestrequest timetime toto workwork onon aa particularparticular portionportion ofof track,track, thethe roadwayroadway workerworkermaymay callcall trainstrains scheduledscheduled toto passpass onon thatthat tracktrack aroundaround thethe timetime ofof interestinteresttoto findfind outout wherewhere theythey areare andand whenwhen theythey areare anticipatedanticipated toto passpass thatthatportionportion ofof track.track. ThisThis isis donedone asas aa wayway ofof shiftingshifting workloadworkload offoff thethedispatcherdispatcher sincesince dispatchersdispatchers typicallytypically operateoperate underunder highhigh workloadworkloadconditionsconditions (Roth(Roth etet al.al. 2001).2001). IfIf thethe roadwayroadway workerworker learnslearns thatthat trainstrainswillwill bebe comingcoming throughthrough atat thethe timetime hehe oror sheshe waswas hopinghoping toto getget timetime ononthethe track,track, thenthen thethe roadwayroadway workerworker doesdoes notnot needneed toto contactcontact thethe dispatcherdispatcher-- eliminatingeliminating thethe needneed toto intenuptintenupt thethe dispatcherdispatcher withwith aa requestrequest thatthatcannotcannot bebe fulfilled.fulfilled. IfIf thethe roadwayroadway workerworker findsfinds outout thatthat thethe trainstrains willwillnotnot bebe passingpassing throughthrough duringduring thethe timetime windowwindow ofof interest,interest, thenthen thetheroadwayroadway workerworker cancan callcall thethe dispatcherdispatcher withwith thatthat information.information. ThisThis allowsallowsthethe dispatcherdispatcher toto knowknow thatthat therethere isis timetime availableavailable toto givegive toto thethe roadwayroadwayworker.worker. OtherwiseOtherwise thethe dispatcherdispatcher wouldwould havehave toto stopstop whatwhat hehe oror sheshe waswasdoingdoing toto findfind outout wherewhere thethe trainstrains areare andand whatwhat theirtheir intentionsintentions are,are, whichwhichwouldwould imposeimpose additionaladditional workload.workload.

DispatchersDispatchers alsoalso exhibitedexhibited activeactive cooperativecooperative strategiesstrategies thatthat facilitatedfacilitated thetheworkwork ofof roadwayroadway workersworkers andand improvedimproved overalloverall tracktrack usageusage efficiency.efficiency.ExamplesExamples wewe observedobserved oror werewere toldtold ofinc1uded:ofinc1uded:

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•• ProactivelyProactively callingcalling toto provideprovide tracktrack authority.authority. DispatchersDispatchers willwill actactproactivelyproactively toto facilitatefacilitate thethe workwork ofof roadwayroadway workersworkers andand improveimprove overalloveralltracktrack usageusage efficiency.efficiency. AsAs oneone roadwayroadway workerworker putput it,it, 'a'a goodgood dispatcherdispatcherwillwill callcall youyou andand helphelp toto makemake youryour jobjob easier'.easier'. AnAn exampleexample wewe observedobservedwaswas aa dispatcherdispatcher whowho proactivelyproactively calledcalled aa roadwayroadway workerworker toto offeroffer timetimetoto workwork onon aa segmentsegment ofof tracktrack whenwhen aa windowwindow ofof opportunityopportunity toto squeezesqueezeinin tracktrack workwork unexpectedlyunexpectedly becamebecame available.available. AnotherAnother exampleexample weweobservedobserved waswas aa casecase wherewhere multiplemultiple dispatchersdispatchers ofof adjacentadjacent territoriesterritoriescommunicatedcommunicated andand coordinatedcoordinated amongamong themselvesthemselves toto enableenable aa roadwayroadwayworkerworker onon aa tracktrack carcar toto obtainobtain permissionpermission toto enterenter aa freightfreight yardyard severalseveraldispatchdispatch territoriesterritories away.away. InIn thethe casecase inin question,question, thethe roadwayroadway workerworkercontactedcontacted thethe dispatcherdispatcher ofof thethe territoryterritory hehe waswas in,in, whowho thenthen coordinatedcoordinatedwithwith thethe adjacentadjacent CorridorCorridor dispatcherdispatcher whowho inin tumtum waswas inin contactcontact withwith thethefreightfreight yardyard dispatcher.dispatcher. ThisThis providedprovided thethe freightfreight yardyard dispatcherdispatcher withwith aa'heads'heads up'up' toto upcomingupcoming needs,needs, enablingenabling himhim toto planplan aheadahead andand accom­accom­modatemodate thethe needsneeds ofof thethe roadwayroadway workerworker onon thethe tracktrack car.car. ThisThis providesprovidesanan exampleexample ofofrailroadrailroad workersworkers anticipating,anticipating, cooperating,cooperating, andand coordinatingcoordinatingacrossacross craftscrafts toto increaseincrease operationoperation efficiency.efficiency.

TheThe aboveabove examplesexamples illustrateillustrate thethe kindskinds ofofproactiveproactive strategiesstrategies thatthat railroadrailroadworkersworkers havehave developeddeveloped thatthat enableenable individualsindividuals acrOSsacrOSs craftscrafts toto anticipate,anticipate,cooperate,cooperate, andand coordinatecoordinate soso asas toto levellevel workloadworkload andand improveimprove thethe overalloverallefficiencyefficiency ofof thethe distributeddistributed organization,organization,

ProactiveProactive StrategiesStrategies thatthat EnhanceEnhance SharedShared SituationSituation AwarenessAwareness andand SafetySafetyofof OperationsOperations

InIn orderorder toto operateoperate safelysafely andand efficiently,efficiently, dispatchers,dispatchers, traintrain crews,crews, andandroadwayroadway wo'rkerswo'rkers needneed toto maintainmaintain sharedshared situationsituation awarenessawareness ofof thethe location,location,activities,activities, andand intentionsintentions ofof trainstrains andand roadwayroadway workersworkers workingworking inin thethe samesamevicinity.vicinity. FigureFigure 22 summarizessummarizes thethe needsneeds forfor sharedshared situationsituation awarenessawareness amongamongthethe distributeddistributed team,team,

InterviewsInterviews andand observationsobservations providedprovided evidenceevidence thatthat railroadrailroad workersworkersworkedworked activelyactively toto buildbuild andand maintainmaintain awarenessawareness ofof thethe location,location, activities,activities,andand intentionsintentions ofof othersothers inin theirtheir vicinity.vicinity. InIn addition,addition, infonnalinfonnal cooperativecooperativecommunicationcommunication practicespractices havehave emergedemerged thatthat areare specificallyspecifically intendedintended totoenhanceenhance safetysafety onon thethe tracktrack byby improvingimproving sharedshared situationsituation awarenessawareness ofof thethelocationlocation andand activitiesactivities ofof roadwayroadway workersworkers andand trainstrains operatingoperating inin thethe samesamevicinity.vicinity. TheseThese informalinformal cooperativecooperative practicespractices areare summarizedsummarized inin TableTable I.I.

IndividualsIndividuals routinelyroutinely alertalert roadwayroadway workersworkers ofof unusualunusual oror unexpectedunexpectedconditionsconditions thatthat maymay posepose aa safetysafety hazardhazard toto them.them. DispatchersDispatchers oftenoften callcallroadwayroadway workersworkers toto alellalell themthem ofofaa traintrain comingcoming byby -- particularlyparticularly iftheifthe traintrainisis comingcoming throughthrough atat aa non-usualnon-usual timetime oror fromfrom anan unexpectedunexpected direction.direction. ForForexample,example, ifif aa roadwayroadway workerworker oror roadwayroadway workerworker groupgroup havehave authorityauthority totoworkwork onon aa tracktrack andand aa traintrain isis aboutabout toto bebe routedrouted throughthrough onon anan adjacentadjacent track,track,thethe dispatcherdispatcher maymay callcall toto alertalert thethe roadwayroadway workers.workers. SimilarlySimilarly ifif aa roadwayroadwayworkerworker groupgroup isis workingworking aroundaround aa tracktrack (i.e,(i.e, notnot onon thethe track),track), thethe dispatcherdispatcher

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FigureFigure 2.2.ElementsElements ofof SharedSharedSituationSituation AwarenessAwarenessthatthat ContributeContribute [0[0

SafeSafe andand EfficientEfficientOperationOperation

Organization Studies 27(7)

Dispatchers

Roadway worker- location, activltJes andintentions

Train location, activities and intentions

RoadwayWorkersTrain location, activities and intentions

Location, activities and intention of otherroadway workers

Train Crews

Roadway worlcer - location, activitiesand intentions

Location, activities and intention ofother trains

Dispatchers

Roadway worker- location, activltJes andintentions

Train location, activities and intentions

RoadwayWorkersTrain location, activities and intentions

Location, activities and intention of otherroadway workers

Train Crews

Roadway worlcer - location, activitiesand intentions

Location, activities and intention ofother trains

TableTable I.I. ..ProaetiveProaetive StrategiesStrategiesforfor BuildingBuilding SharedSharedSituationSituation AwarenessAwarenessAmongAmong DistributedDistributedRailroadRailroad WorkersWorkers

RoadwayRoadway w.orkersw.orkers monitormonitor radioradio channelschannels toto extractextract informationinformation aboutabout trainstrains inin theirtheir vicinityvicinity

DispatchersDispatchers monitormonitor communicationscommunications directeddirected atat othersothers toto maintainmaintain awarenessawareness ofof locationlocationandand activitiesactivities ofof trainstrains andand roadwayroadway workersworkers

DispatchersDispatchers callcall toto alertalert roadwayroadway workersworkers ofof trains,trains, particularlyparticularly ifif theythey areare comingcoming atat aa non­non­usualusual timetime oror fromfrom anan unexpeetedunexpeeted directiondirection

TrainTrain crewscrews callcall otherother trainstrains toto alertalert themthem ofof roadwayroadway workersworkers inin theirtheir vicinityvicinity

RoadwayRoadway workersworkers callcall otherother roadwayroadway workersworkers toto alertalert themthem ofof trainstrains headingheading inin theirtheirdirec[iondirec[ion

wouldwould callcall toto letlet themthem knowknow toto expectexpect aa traintrain hehe oror sheshe waswas sendingsending through.through.TheThe dispatcherdispatcher isis particularlyparticularly likelylikely toto callcall thethe roadwayroadway workersworkers ifif thethe traintrainisis unscheduled,unscheduled, nmningnmning atat aa differentdifferent time,time, onon aa differentdifferent tracktrack oror directiondirectionthanthan itit nonnallynonnally does,does, oror isis otherwiseotherwise unexpected.unexpected. AsAs oneone dispatcherdispatcher stated,stated,'I'I letlet themthem knowknow whatwhat mymy planplan isis soso thatthat theythey areare notnot startled.'startled.' ThisThis callcall isis notnotstrictlystrictly mandatedmandated byby operatingoperating rules.rules. ItIt isis partpart ofof thethe infonnalinfonnal redundancyredundancy'safety'safety net'net' thatthat isis providedprovided throughthrough voluntaryvoluntary cooperativecooperative activitiesactivities amongamongrailroadrailroad workers.workers.

SimilarSimilar infonnalinfonnal communicationscommunications thatthat provideprovide anan importantimportant safetysafety functionfunctionhavehave beenbeen observedobserved amongamong traintrain crews.crews. ForFor example,example, ifif aa traintrain crewcrew passespasses aaroadwayroadway workerworker groupgroup workingworking byby thethe sideside ofof thethe track,track, hehe oror sheshe maymay callcalloverover thethe radioradio toto alel1alel1 otherother trainstrains passingpassing throughthrough thethe territoryterritory ofof thethe presencepresenceofof thethe roadwayroadway workers.workers. WeWe alsoalso observedobserved casescases wherewhere roadwayroadway workersworkerstravelingtraveling onon tracktrack carscars calledcalled aa roadwayroadway workerworker groupgroup thatthat theythey hadhad passedpassedearlierearlier toto alertalert themthem toto aa traintrain headingheading theirtheir way.way.

TheseThese practicespractices areare referredreferred toto asas 'courtesies''courtesies' byby thethe roadwayroadway workers.workers.TheyThey areare notnot requiredrequired byby thethe operatingoperating rules.rules. However,However, thesethese infonnal,infonnal,cooperativecooperative practicespractices playplay anan importantimportant rolerole inin increasingincreasing thethe safetysafety ofofrailroadrailroadoperationoperation byby enhancingenhancing thethe situationsituation awarenessawareness ofofmembersmembers oftheofthe distributeddistributed

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system,system, enablingenabling roadwayroadway workersworkers toto anticipateanticipate andand prepareprepare forfor trainstrains headingheadingtheirtheir way.way. TheseThese 'courtesies''courtesies' contributecontribute toto thethe resilienceresilience oftheofthe railroadrailroad systemsystemtoto errorserrors thatthat mightmight occur.occur.

ProactiveProactive StrategiesStrategies forfor MaintainingMaintaining 'Shared'Shared SituationSituation Awareness'Awareness'

WhetherWhether workingworking atat aa fixedfixed location,location, oror travelingtraveling acrossacross track,track, certaincertaincognitivecognitive kilOwledge'kilOwledge' andand skillsskills emergedemerged asas importantimportant forfor maintainingmaintaining on­on­tracktrack safety.safety. TheseThese generallygenerally relaterelate toto thethe abilityability toto maintainmaintain broadbroad situationsituationawarenessawareness andand include:include:

•• MaintainingMaintaining awarenessawareness ofof thethe physicalphysical locationlocation wherewhere theythey areare workingworkingsoso asas toto insureinsure thatthat theythey areare workingworking atat thethe locationlocation forfor whichwhich theythey havehavebeenbeen providedprovided authority;authority;

•• MaintainingMaintaining awarenessawareness ofof trainstrains expectedexpected inin thethe vicinityvicinity (in(in bothboth timetimeandand space)space) soso asas toto avoidavoid situationssituations wherewhere aa traintrain approachesapproaches themthemwithoutwithout theirtheir awareness;awareness;

•• MaintainingMaintaining awarenessawareness ofof timetime soso asas toto insureinsure thatthat theythey dodo notnot exceedexceedtracktrack authorityauthority expirationexpiration times;times;

•• MaintainingMaintaining awarenessawareness ofof thethe locationlocation andand activitiesactivities ofof otherother roadwayroadwayworkersworkers inin aa workwork groupgroup soso asas toto insureinsure mutualmutual safety.safety.

InterviewsInterviews bothboth withwith roadwayroadway workersworkers andand dispatchersdispatchers emphasizedemphasized thetheimportanceimportance ofof buildingbuilding andand maintainingmaintaining the'the' bigbig picture'picture' withwith respectrespect toto thesethesevariousvarious elements.elements. Importantly,Importantly, manymany ofof thethe strategiesstrategies reliedrelied onon thethe abilityability totoexploitexploit thethe 'party-line''party-line' aspectaspect ofof radioradio communicationcommunication toto extractextract infonnationinfonnationaboutabout thethe activitiesactivities andand intentionsintentions ofofdistantdistant parties.parties. InIn addition,addition, asas describeddescribedbelow,below, thethe analysisanalysis alsoalso revealedrevealed thatthat dispatchersdispatchers andand roadwayroadway workersworkersengagedengaged inin significantsignificant cognitivecognitive workwork toto buildbuild andand maintainmaintain sharedshared situationsituationawarenessawareness ofof thethe locationlocation andand activitiesactivities ofof workersworkers andand trainstrains inin thethe territory.territory.

KnowingKnowing thethe TerritoryTerritory andand MaintainingMaintaining SituationSituation AwarenessAwareness ofof PhysicalPhysical LocationLocationRoadwayRoadway workersworkers andand dispatchersdispatchers emphasizedemphasized thethe importanceimportance ofof knowingknowingthethe territoryterritory andand maintainingmaintaining awarenessawareness ofof thethe physicalphysical locationlocation wherewhere thetheworkwork isis takingtaking place.place. ItIt isis importantimportant thatthat roadwayroadway workersworkers andand dispatchersdispatchershavehave aa clearclear andand accurateaccurate mutualmutual understandingunderstanding ofof wherewhere workwork isis toto taketake placeplaceandand thethe exactexact locationlocation ofof thethe limitslimits ofofauthorityauthority beingbeing givengiven toto insureinsure thatthat thetheroadwayroadway workersworkers areare properlyproperly protected.protected.

RoadwayRoadway workersworkers andand dispatchersdispatchers needneed toto bebe ableable toto communicatecommunicate locationlocationinformationinformation accuratelyaccurately toto insureinsure aa commoncommon understandingunderstanding ofof thethe locationlocationwherewhere workwork authorityauthority isis beingbeing requestedrequested andand given.given. FailuresFailures inin establishingestablishing'common'common ground'ground' understandingunderstanding withwith respectrespect toto thethe locationlocation wherewhere workworkauthoriauthori tyty isis beingbeing soughtsought andand providedprovided cancan result!result! inin communicationcommunication errorserrorsthatthat havehave potentialpotential toto impactimpact roadwayroadway workerworker safety.safety. SeveralSeveral instancesinstances werewerementionedmentioned toto usus wherewhere roadwayroadway workersworkers werewere workingworking atat aa differentdifferent locationlocationoror onon aa differentdifferent tracktrack thanthan thethe oneone forfor whichwhich theythey hadhad receivedreceived authorityauthority totoworkwork atat fromfrom thethe dispatcher.dispatcher. OneOne casecase involvedinvolved confusionconfusion betweenbetween twotwolocationslocations withwith similarsimilar geographicgeographic landmarks.landmarks. InIn thisthis instanceinstance aa roadwayroadway

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workerworker indicatedindicated hehe waswas workingworking atat oneone locationlocation whenwhen inin factfact hehe waswas workingworkingatat aa differentdifferent oneone severalseveral milesmiles away.away. BothBoth locationslocations werewere atat bridgesbridges whichwhichcreatedcreated thethe sourcesource ofof confusion.confusion. TheThe errorerror waswas caughtcaught andand correctedcorrected byby thethedispatcherdispatcher basedbased onon thethe switchswitch number.number. TheThe dispatcherdispatcher realizedrealized thatthat therethere waswasnono switchswitch withwith thatthat numbernumber atat thethe locationlocation wherewhere thethe roadwayroadway indicatedindicated hehewas.was. ThisThis exampleexample reiteratesreiterates thethe importanceimportance ofof detaileddetailed knowledgeknowledge ofof thetheterritoryterritory byby bothboth roadwayroadway workersworkers andand dispatchersdispatchers forfor establishingestablishing andandmaintainingmaintaining commoncommon groundground andand preventingpreventing communicationcommunication errors.errors. ItIthighlightshighlights thethe rolerole ofof thethe cooperativecooperative parties,parties, buildingbuilding onon theirtheir sharedshared situationsituationawarenessawareness toto serveserve aa 'regulation'regulation loop',loop', monitoringmonitoring eacheach other'sother's activitiesactivities andandcatchingcatching andand conectingconecting errors.errors.

DispatchersDispatchers mentionedmentioned thatthat whilewhile instancesinstances ofroadwayofroadway workersworkers workingworking atatthethe wrongwrong locationlocation oror onon thethe wrongwrong tracktrack areare rare,rare, theythey dodo occur.occur. DispatchersDispatchersmentionedmentioned thatthat thethe party-lineparty-line aspectaspect ofofradioradio communicationcommunication thatthat allowsallows othersotherstoto overhearoverhear conversationsconversations sometimessometimes allowedallowed dispatchersdispatchers toto catchcatch andand correctcorrectthesethese kindskinds ofof errors.errors. SeveralSeveral dispatchersdispatchers mentionedmentioned thatthat theythey likedliked toto hearhearwork-relatedwork-related conversationsconversations overover thethe radioradio becausebecause itit allowedallowed themthem toto keepkeeptracktrack ofof wherewhere roadwayroadway workersworkers werewere andand whatwhat activitiesactivities theythey werewere engagedengagedin.in. ThisThis allowedallowed themthem toto catchcatch errors,errors, suchsuch asas unintentionallyunintentionally workingworking outsideoutsidethethe limitslimits ofof authorityauthority forfor whichwhich protectionprotection waswas granted.granted.

TheThe discussiondiscussion sectionsection describesdescribes technologiestechnologies thatthat cancan bebe usedused toto fosterfostersharedshared situationsituation awarenessawareness ofofroadwayroadway workerworker location,location, reducingreducing thethe potentialpotentialforfor failuresfailures inin sharedshared situationsituation awarenessawareness ofof physicalphysical locationlocation oror problemsproblems inincommunication.communication.

MaintainingMaintaining AwarenessAwareness ofof TrainsTrains andand AnticipatingAnticipating TrainsTrains

BeingBeing hithit byby aa traintrain representsrepresents oneone oftheofthe greatestgreatest risksrisks confrontedconfronted byby roadwayroadwayworkers.workers.

AA reviewreview ofof anan FRAFRA roadwayroadway workerworker fatalityfatality datadata setset thatthat coveredcovered thetheperiodperiod fromfrom 19861986 throughthrough 20032003 revealedrevealed thatthat moremore thanthan 65%65% ofof fatalitiesfatalities werewerecausedcaused byby aa tram.tram. AA totaltotal ofof 34%34% occurredoccurred whilewhile workingworking onon thethe tracktrack ononwhichwhich thethe traintrain waswas running,running, 17%17% occurredoccurred whilewhile workingworking onon anan adjacentadjacenttrack,track, andand 16%16% occurredoccurred whilewhile walkingwalking toto oror fromfrom thethe worksite.worksite.

RoadwayRoadway workersworkers needneed toto bebe ableable toto maintainmaintain awarenessawareness ofof trainstrains inin theirtheirproximity.proximity. ThisThis includesincludes trainstrains thatthat maymay bebe travelingtraveling onon thethe tracktrack onon oror nearnearwherewhere theythey areare workingworking andand trainstrains thatthat areare travelingtraveling onon thethe adjacentadjacent track.track.

WhileWhile approachingapproaching trainstrains areare inin principleprinciple detectabledetectable byby seeingseeing themthem ororhearinghearing themthem asas theythey approach,approach, inin practicepractice ulisulis cancan bebe difficult.difficult. IfIf thethe roadwayroadwayworkersworkers areare workingworking withwith theirtheir backsbacks towardtoward thethe directiondirection ofof thethe approachingapproachingtraintrain [hey[hey maymay notnot bebe ableable toto seesee thethe train.train. IfIf theythey areare workingworking inin aa noisynoisyenvironmentenvironment (e.g.(e.g. arowldarowld noisynoisy equipment)equipment) oror areare wearingwearing protectiveprotective headgearheadgear(e.g.(e.g. inin inclementinclement weather)weather) uleyuley maymay notnot bebe ableable toto hearhear thethe approachingapproaching train.train.

InterviewsInterviews withwith roadwayroadway workersworkers andand dispatchersdispatchers indicateindicate thatthat roadwayroadwayworkersworkers activelyactively engageengage inin buildingbuilding andand maintainingmaintaining awarenessawareness ofof trainstrains inintheirtheir vicinityvicinity toto helphelp themthem predictpredict whenwhen trainstrains areare likelylikely toto approachapproach andand ininwhatwhat direction.direction. RoadwayRoadway workersworkers areare ableable toto anticipateanticipate regularlyregularly scheduledscheduledtrainstrains basedbased onon reviewreview ofof traintrain bulletins,bulletins, timetables,timetables, andand theirtheir ownown experiencesexperiences

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OLlOLl thethe territory.territory. ALlticipatingALlticipating unscheduledunscheduled trainstrains cancan bebe moremore challenging.challenging.RoadwayRoadway workersworkers havehave developeddeveloped strategiesstrategies toto helphelp themthem anticipateanticipate unsched­unsched­uleduled trains.trains. ForFor example,example, thethe EICEIC willwill routinelyroutinely monitormonitor thethe roadroad channelchannel forfortraintrain communication.communication. ThisThis allowsallows themthem toto hearhear communicationscommunications amongamonglocomotivelocomotive engineersengineers andand toto hearhear locomotivelocomotive engineersengineers callingcalling outout signalssignals asastheythey areare aboutabout toto reachreach them.them. ThisThis allowsallows thethe EICEIC toto buildbuild anan understandingunderstandingofof thethe locationslocations andand intentionsintentions ofof trainstrains inin thethe generalgeneral vicinity.vicinity. ThisThis providesprovidesanotheranother exampleexample ofof capitalizingcapitalizing onon thethe party-lineparty-line aspectaspect ofof radioradio communi­communi­cationcation toto extractextract informationinformation importantimportant toto buildingbuilding andand maintainingmaintaining broadbroadsituationsituation aw'areness.aw'areness. ..

InIn addition,addition, asas describeddescribed earlier,earlier, informal,informal, cooperativecooperative practicespractices havehave growngrownwherebywhereby othersothers (including(including dispatchers,dispatchers, traintrain crews,crews, andand otherother roadwayroadway workers)workers)willwill routinelyroutinely alertalert roadwayroadway workersworkers ofof trainstrains thatthat maymay bebe aboutabout toto reachreach themthem-- particularlyparticularly whenwhen thesethese trainstrains areare comingcoming atat anan unexpectedunexpected timetime oror fromfrom ananunexpectedunexpected direction.direction. TheseThese informal,informal, distributed,distributed, cooperativecooperative practicespractices playplayanan importaLltimportaLlt rolerole inin increasingincreasing thethe safetysafety ofof railroadrailroad operationoperation byby enhancingenhancingthethe situationsituation awarenessawareness ofofmembersmembers ofofthethe distributeddistributed system,system, enablingenabling roadwayroadwayworkersworkers toto anticipateanticipate andand prepareprepare forfor trainstrains headingheading theirtheir way.way.

MaintainingMaintaining AwarenessAwareness ofof TimeTime toto TrackTrack AuthorityAuthority ExpirationExpiration

InIn additionaddition toto maintainingmaintaining awarenessawareness ofof physicalphysical location,location, roadwayroadway workersworkersneedneed toto maintainmaintain awarenessawareness ofof timetime inin relationrelation toto timetime limitslimits ofof authoritiesauthorities totooccupyoccupy andand workwork onon track.track. RoadwayRoadway workersworkers expressedexpressed concernconcern ofof 'losing'losingtracktrack ofof time',time', failingfailing toto noticenotice thatthat thethe timetime limitlimit ofof thethe authorityauthority toto occupyoccupythethe tracktrack hashas beenbeen exceeded.exceeded. SeveralSeveral factorsfactors cancan contributecontribute toto 'losing'losing tracktrackofof time'.time'. TheThe roadwayroadway workerworker maymay bebe engrossedengrossed inin thethe work,work, oror theythey maymaybecomebecome distracteddistracted byby anotheranother activityactivity (e.g.(e.g. phoLlephoLle callcall oror aa requestrequest toto checkcheckOLlOLl aa particularparticular problem).problem). TheyThey mentionedmentioned thatthat therethere werewere policiespolicies inin placeplace totohelphelp themthem keepkeep tracktrack ofof time.time. ForFor example,example, everyevery timetime theythey passpass aa controlcontrolpointpoint theythey areare requiredrequired byby operatingoperating rulerule toto stopstop andand havehave aa jobjob briefingbriefing thatthatincludesincludes reviewingreviewing tracktrack authorityauthority andand checkingchecking thethe time.time. However,However, therethere cancanbebe variablevariable .distance.distance ·between·between controlcontrol points,points, rangingranging fromfrom 500500 feetfeet (150(150metres)metres) toto 1010 oror moremore milesmiles (16(16 Ian).Ian).

InIn thethe discussiondiscussion sectionsection wewe discussdiscuss technologicaltechnological approachesapproaches thatthat couldcould bebeusedused toto provideprovide alertsalerts whenwhen tracktrack authorizationauthorization timetime limitslimits areare aboutabout toto expire.expire.

MaintainingMaintaining AwarenessAwareness ofof OtherOther RoadwayRoadway WorkersWorkers

ALlotherALlother importantimportant cognitivecognitive demanddemand associatedassociated withwith establishingestablishing andand main­main­tainiLlgtainiLlg tracktrack safetysafety isis thethe needneed toto maintainmaintain awarenessawareness ofof thethe locationlocation andandactivitiesactivities ofof everyoneeveryone workingworking withinwithin aa givengiven roadwayroadway workerworker workwork zone.zone.TheThe EICEIC isis responsibleresponsible forfor keepingkeeping tracktrack ofof individualsindividuals workingworking inin thethe workworkzonezone thatthat hehe oror sheshe isis inin chargecharge of.of. OLleOLle ofof thethe waysways thatthat railroadrailroad workersworkersmaintainmaintain sharedshared siruatioLlsiruatioLl awarenessawareness ofof thethe locationlocation andand activitiesactivities ofof roadwayroadwayworkersworkers whowho maymay bebe widelywidely distributeddistributed geographicallygeographically isis byby takingtaking advantageadvantageofof thethe party-lineparty-line aspectaspect ofof radioradio communication.communication. ForFor example,example, oneone EICEICmentionedmentioned thatthat hehe likedliked toto havehave thethe relevantrelevant roadwayroadway workersworkers (e.g.(e.g. peoplepeople inintracktrack cars,cars, flagmen)flagmen) listenlisten inin overover thethe radioradio whenwhen hehe obtainsobtains aa tracktrack authorityauthority

980 OrganizationOrganization StudiesStudies 27(7)27(7)

fromfrom thethe dispatcher.dispatcher. ThisThis allowsallows everyoneeveryone whowho needsneeds aa copycopy ofof thethe tracktrackauthorityauthority toto hearhear andand writewrite itit downdown atat thethe samesame time.time. ThisThis eliminateseliminates thethe needneedforfor thethe roadwayroadway workersworkers toto contactcontact thethe EICEIC individuallyindividually toto receivereceive aa copycopy ofofthethe tracktrack authority.authority. ThisThis increasesincreases efficiency,efficiency, fostersfosters sharedshared situationsituation aware­aware­nessness ofof thethe locationlocation andand activitiesactivities ofof thethe roadwayroadway workers,workers, andand reducesreduces thethepotentialpotential forfor communicationcommunication error.error.

Similarly,Similarly, oneone ofof thethe dispatchersdispatchers wewe interviewedinterviewed mentionedmentioned thatthat hehe routinelyroutinelylikedliked toto listenlisten inin whenwhen thethe EICEIC gavegave pennissionpennission forfor someonesomeone (e.g.(e.g. aa tracktrack car)car)toto comecome intointo thethe workwork zone.zone. ThisThis allowedallowed himhim toto keepkeep tracktrack ofof whowho waswas givengivenpennissionpennission toto enterenter thethe workwork zonezone andand whatwhat activitiesactivities theythey werewere engagedengaged in.in.

InIn thethe discussiondiscussion sectionsection wewe describedescribe waysways thatthat thisthis positivepositive party-lineparty-lineattributeattribute ofof radioradio conununicationconununication thatthat fostersfosters sharedshared situationsituation awarenessawareness cancanbebe preservedpreserved asas communicationcommunication movesmoves toto digitaldigital conununicationconununication technologies.technologies.

LimitationsLimitations ofof VoiceVoice RadioRadio forfor CommunicationCommunication andand FosteringFostering SharedSharedSituationSituation AwarenessAwareness

TheThe studystudy revealedrevealed aa numbernumber ofof factorsfactors thatthat posepose challengeschallenges toto rapidrapid andandeffectiveeffective communication.communication. ManyMany ofof thethe communicationcommunication challengeschallenges relaterelate totopropertiesproperties ofof analoganalog radioradio technologytechnology thatthat areare wellwell knownknown andand havehave beenbeenpreviouslypreviously summarizedsummarized by'Rothby'Roth etet al.al. (200(200 I).I). TheseThese includeinclude limitationslimitations inin radioradiotransmissiontransmission range'asrange'as wellwell asas signalssignals thatthat areare subjectsubject toto disturbancesdisturbances causedcausedbyby locallocal telTaintelTain propertiesproperties (e.g.(e.g. tunnels)tunnels) andand weatherweather phenomena.phenomena. ProblemsProblemsmentionedmentioned includeinclude deaddead spotsspots wherewhere radioradio communicationcommunication doesdoes notnot reachreach andandthethe phenomenonphenomenon ofof 'skip','skip', wherewhere signalssignals maymay unexpectedlyunexpectedly carrycarry acrossacross longlongdistancesdistances resultingresulting inin unexpectedunexpected communicationcommunication traffictraffic onon aa givengiven channelchannelandand interference.interference. AnotherAnother relatedrelated probprob lemlem isis thatthat therethere isis highhigh communicationcommunicationtraffictraffic overover radioradio channels,channels, resultingresulting inin communicationcommunication beingbeing cutcut offoff andandsteppedstepped on.on. TheseThese factorsfactors combinedcombined cancan makemake itit difficultdifficult toto reachreach thethe desireddesiredpartyparty asas wellwell asas toto bebe ableable toto hearhear andand decipherdecipher thethe messagemessage beingbeing commu­commu­nicated.nicated. TheThe problemsproblems areare compoundedcompounded inin thethe casecase ofof roadwayroadway workersworkersbecausebecause theirtheir radiosradios tendtend toto generategenerate weakweak signalssignals withwith limitedlimited transmissiontransmissionrange.range. IfIf anan entityentity withwith aa moremore powerfulpowerful radioradio (i.e.(i.e. aa train)train) comescomes along,along,communicationscommunications withwith thethe dispatcherdispatcher cancan bebe lostlost oror cutcut out.out. InIn addition,addition, ififroadwayroadway workersworkers inin aa workwork groupgroup areare spreadspread outout acrossacross aa widewide territoryterritory theytheymaymay notnot bebe ableable toto reachreach eacheach otherother byby radio.radio. InIn thosethose casescases theythey oftenoften findfindthemselvesthemselves needingneeding toto relyrely onon thethe dispatcherdispatcher toto relayrelay messagesmessages betweenbetween them.them.

TheThe discussiondiscussion sectionsection examinesexamines waysways thatthat digitaldigital communicationcommunication tech­tech­nologynology cancan bebe usedused toto overcomeovercome thethe limitationslimitations ofof analoganalog radio,radio, whilewhilepreservingpreserving thethe positivcpositivc party-lineparty-line featuresfeatures thatthat contributecontribute toto sharedshared situationsituationawareness.awareness.

DiscussionDiscussion

TheThe resultsresults ofof thethe studystudy highlighthighlight thethe activeactive cognitivecognitive andand collaborativecollaborativeprocessesprocesses thatthat workersworkers engageengage inin toto developdevelop andand maintainmaintain sharedshared situationsituation

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awarenessawareness ofof eacheach other'sother's location,location, activities,activities, andand intentionsintentions acrossacross aadistributeddistributed system.system. TheseThese includedincluded activeactive strategiesstrategies forfor extractingextracting relevantrelevantinfonnationinfonnation byby 'listen'listen in'in' onon radioradio conununicationsconununications directeddirected atat others.others. TheseTheseactiveactive listeninglistening processesprocesses enabledenabled individualsindividuals inin thethe distributeddistributed organizationorganizationtoto identifyidentify informationinformation thatthat hadhad aa bearingbearing onon achievingachieving theirtheir ownown goalsgoals oror ononmaintainingmaintaining theirtheir safety.safety. ItIt alsoalso enabledenabled themthem toto recognizerecognize situationssituations wherewhereinformationinformation inin theirtheir possessionpossession waswas relevantrelevant toto thethe performanceperformance oror safetysafety ofofothers.others. WeWe werewere providedprovided aa numbernumber ofof instancesinstances wherewhere thirdthird partiespartiesoverhearingoverhearing conversationsconversations werewere instrumentalinstrumental inin preventingpreventing accidents.accidents.

TheThe resultsresults reinforcereinforce findingsfindings fromfrom otherother domainsdomains (e.g.(e.g. spacespace shuttleshuttlemissionmission control,control, airair traffictraffic control,control, aircraftaircraft carriercarrier operations)operations) regardingregarding thetheimportanceimportance ofof 'listening'listening in'in' onon sharedshared communicationcommunication channelschannels forfor supportingsupportinganticipation,anticipation, contingencycontingency planning,planning, andand catchingcatching andand recoveringrecovering fromfrom errorerror(Luff(Luffetet al.al. 1992;1992; PattersonPatterson etet al.al. 1999;1999; RochlinRochlin etet al.al. 1987;1987; SmithSmith etet al.al. 2000).2000).

WeWe alsoalso observedobserved cooperativecooperative communicationcommunication practicespractices thatthat wentwent beyondbeyondthethe requirementsrequirements ofof formalformal operatingoperating rules,rules, andand servedserved toto fosterfoster sharedsharedsituationsituation awareness,awareness, facilitatefacilitate work,work, andand enhanceenhance on-trackon-track safety.safety. InterestinglyInterestinglythesethese communicationcommunication practicespractices werewere frequentlyfrequently referredreferred toto asas 'courtesies','courtesies',highlightinghighlighting theirtheir optionaloptional naturenature andand positivepositive contribution.contribution.

TheThe resultsresults buildbuild uponupon andand extendextend thethe literatureliterature onon teamworkteamwork andand thethe roleroleofof sharedshared situationsituation awarenessawareness inin facilitatingfacilitating workwork andand enhancingenhancing safety.safety. TheyTheyprovideprovide concreteconcrete illustrationillustration ofof thethe frameworkframework developeddeveloped byby RogninRognin etet al.al.(2000).(2000). WeWe foundfound thatthat distributeddistributed railroadrailroad workersworkers activelyactively workedworked toto buildbuildandand maintainmaintain sharedshared situationsituation awareneSSawareneSS ofof thethe location,location, activities,activities, andandintentionsintentions ofof roadwayroadway workersworkers andand trainstrains inin aa givengiven vicinity.vicinity. ThisThis sharedsharedcontextualcontextual knowledgeknowledge inin turnturn contributedcontributed toto informalinformal cooperativecooperative practicespracticesthatthat enabledenabled thethe distributeddistributed teamteam toto catchcatch andand correctcorrect errorserrors withwith potentialpotentialsafetysafety consequences,consequences, asas wellwell asas levellevel workloadworkload andand improveimprove thethe overalloverallefficiencyefficiency ofof thethe distributeddistributed organization.organization. TheseThese informalinformal practicespractices provideprovideconcreteconcrete illustrationsillustrations ofof whatwhat RogninRognin etet al.al. referredreferred toto asas 'regulation'regulation loops'loops'andand contributecontribute positivelypositively toto overalloverall reliabilityreliability ofof railroadrailroad operationsoperations (see(seeFigureFigure 3).3). TheThe currentcurrent resultsresults extendextend Rognin'sRognin's frameworkframework byby highlightinghighlightingthatthat thesethese 'regulation'regulation loops'loops' areare notnot necessarilynecessarily builtbuilt intointo thethe formalformal organi­organi­zationalzational structure,structure, but,ratberbut,ratber emergeemerge asas informal,informal, proactiveproactive practicespractices intendedintendedtoto increaseincrease systemsystem reliabilityreliability andand resilienceresilience toto en·or.en·or.

TheseThese resultsresults reinforcereinforce thethe viewview thatthat informalinformal practicespractices ofof domaindomain prac­prac­titionerstitioners cancan contributecontribute substantivelysubstantively toto systemsystem resilienceresilience andand safetysafety (Hollnagel(Hollnagelelel al.al. 2006).2006). ThisThis contrastscontrasts withwith thethe moremore traditionaltraditional perspectiveperspective thatthat empha­empha­sizessizes humanshumans asas aa sourcesource ofof 'error''error' thatthat cancan degradedegrade anan otherwiseotherwise safesafe system.system.

OpportunitiesOpportunities toto FacilitateFacilitate CommunicationCommunication,, SupportSupport Performance,Performance, andandEnhanceEnhance SafelySafely viavia PortablePortable DigitalDigital CommunicationCommunication DeviceDevice

NewNew technologiestechnologies areare emergingemerging thatthat havehave thethe potentialpotential toto facilitatefacilitatecommunicationcommunication andand moremore effectivelyeffectively supportsupport thethe cognitivecognitive andand collaborativecollaborativeprocessesprocesses requiredrequired forfor maintainingmaintaining sharedshared situationsituation awarenessawareness amongamongroadwayroadway workers,workers, dispatchers,dispatchers, andand traintrain crews.crews. PortablePortable roadwayroadway workerworker

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Shared Situation AwarenessInformal Cooperative Practices

• Localion - who is in the vicinity and where are they? ..-..

• Aclivilies - what are they doing?

• Intentions - For how long? What will they do next?

• Proactively contribute 10 shared situation awareness

• Provide redundancy checks to catch errors

• Adapt task structures to facilitate work

High Reliability Performance

Shared Situation AwarenessInformal Cooperative Practices

• Localion - who is in the vicinity and where are they? ..-..

• Aclivilies - what are they doing?

• Intentions - For how long? What will they do next?

• Proactively contribute 10 shared situation awareness

• Provide redundancy checks to catch errors

• Adapt task structures to facilitate work

High Reliability Performance

FigureFigure 3.3. InformalInformal CooperativeCooperative ProcessesProcesses BuildBuild onon andand ContributeContribute toto SharedShared SituationSituation Awareness,Awareness, FosteringFostering HigherHigherReliabilityReliability PerformancePerformance andand IncreasedIncreased SafetySafety

devicesdevices couldcould bebe developeddeveloped thatthat combinecombine location-findinglocation-finding technologiestechnologies (e.g.(e.g.GPS)GPS) forfor moremore accurateaccurate locationlocation informationinformation andand digitaldigital technologiestechnologies forfor moremorereliablereliable communication.communication. lnln addition,addition, thethe devicedevice couldcould bebe integratedintegrated withwith PTePTesystemssystems toto enhanceenhance mutualmutual awarenessawareness ofof thethe locationlocation ofof trainstrains andand roadwayroadwayworkerworker groupsgroups withinwithin thethe distributeddistributed organizationorganization andand enhanceenhance overalloverall safety.safety.

TheseThese .new.new technologiestechnologies havehave thethe potentialpotential toto reducereduce thethe challengeschallengesassociatedassociated withwith analoganalog voicevoice radioradio communicationscommunications whilewhile preservingpreserving thethepositivepositive party-lineparty-line aspectsaspects ofof radio,radio, supportingsupporting cooperativecooperative strategiesstrategies andandfosteringfostering sharedshared situationsituation awarenessawareness acrossacross roadwayroadway workers,workers, traintrain crews,crews,andand dispatchersdispatchers forfor increasedincreased efficiencyefficiency andand enhancedenhanced on-trackon-track safety.safety. WhileWhile'listening'listening in'in' strategiesstrategies thatthat dependdepend onon thethe party-lineparty-line aspectaspect ofof radioradio contributecontributetoto sharedshared situationsituation awareness,awareness, theythey alsoalso imposeimpose costscosts inin temlStemlS ofof attentionattentiondemands.demands. DigitalDigital technologytechnology cancan bebe usedused toto supp0l1supp0l1 sharedshared situationsituationawareness,awareness, whilewhile reducingreducing thethe needneed toto attendattend toto irrelevantirrelevant information.information.

BelowBelow wewe describedescribe somesome ofof thethe supportsupport functionsfunctions thatthat couldcould bebe provided.provided.

EnhancingEnhancing SharedShared AwarenessAwareness ofof thethe LocationLocation ofof RoadwayRoadway WorkersWorkers andandTrainsTrains

TheThe studystudy highlightedhighlighted thethe importallceimportallce forfor roadwayroadway workersworkers toto maintainmaintain broadbroadsituationsituation awarenessawareness ofof theirtheir ownown locationlocation inin relationrelation toto thethe locationlocation ofof otherotherroadwayroadway workersworkers andand trainstrains inin thethe vicinity.vicinity. DispatchersDispatchers alsoalso needneed toto maintainmaintainbroadbroad situationsituation awarenessawareness ofof thethe locationlocation andand actiactivivi tiesties ofof roadwayroadway workersworkersandand trainstrains inin thethe territoryterritory theythey areare controlling.controlling. ThisThis isis importantimportant soso asas totofacilitatefacilitate theirtheir ownown decisiondecision makingmaking withwith respectrespect toto tracktrack allocation,allocation, asas wellwellasas toto provideprovide aa redundantredundant layerlayer ofof safetysafety forfor roadwayroadway workers.workers. Similarly,Similarly, traintraincrewscrews workwork toto maintainmaintain awarenessawareness ofof thethe locationlocation ofof roadwayroadway workersworkers inin thetheterritoryterritory theythey areare crossingcrossing soso thatthat theythey cancan blowblow theirtheir whistlewhistle toto letlet themthem knowknowtheythey areare approachingapproaching ....

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GPSGPS technology,technology, coupledcoupled withwith graphicsgraphics displaydisplay technology,technology, cancan bebe usedusedtoto createcreate displaysdisplays thatthat enableenable roadwayroadway workers,workers, dispatchers,dispatchers, andand traintrain crewscrewstoto shareshare commoncommon awarenessawareness ofof thethe locationlocation andand activitiesactivities ofof roadwayroadway workersworkersandand trainstrains inin aa givengiven vicinity.vicinity. ForFor example,example, aa graphicgraphic displaydisplay couldcould bebeprovidedprovided thatthat showsshows thethe locationlocation ofof aa roadwayroadway workerworker relativerelative toto workworkauthorityauthority limits.limits. TheThe samesame graphicgraphic displaydisplay ofof roadwayroadway workerworker locationlocationrelativerelative toto workwork authorityauthority limitslimits couldcould bebe providedprovided toto bothboth thethe roadwayroadway workerworker(on(on aa portableportable displaydisplay unit)unit) andand thethe dispatcherdispatcher (on(on aa displaydisplay inin thethe dispatchdispatchcenter)center) toto facilitatefacilitate sharedshared understandingunderstanding ofof locationlocation informationinformation beingbeingcommunicatedcommunicated andand reducereduce thethe potentialpotential forfor error.error.

SimilarlySimilarly aa graphicgraphic displaydisplay couldcould bebe developeddeveloped forfor dispatchersdispatchers toto enableenablethemthem toto keepkeep tracktrack ofof thethe locationlocation andand dispersiondispersion ofof roadwayroadway workersworkers andandequipmentequipment inin thethe territoryterritory theythey controLcontroL ItIt wouldwould similarlysimilarly bebe usefuluseful toto enableenableErCErC toto electronicallyelectronically tracktrack roadwayroadway workers,workers, otherother workwork groupsgroups oror loneloneworkersworkers protectedprotected byby theirtheir authority.authority.

PTCPTC technology,technology, coupledcoupled withwith digitaldigital commu.nication,commu.nication, couldcould bebe usedused totoenhanceenhance roadwayroadway workerworker situationsituation awarenessawareness ofof trainstrains inin thethe vicinity.vicinity. ThisThiscouldcould includeinclude providingproviding graphicgraphic displaysdisplays ofof thethe locationlocation ofof trainstrains inin thethevicinityvicinity (e.g.(e.g. onon portableportable graphicgraphic devices),devices), andand providingproviding alertsalerts toto approachingapproachingtrainstrains oror trainstrains approachingapproaching onon adjacentadjacent trackstracks thatthat areare notnot includedincluded inin workingworkinglimits.limits.

InIn additionaddition toto graphicgraphic meansmeans offosteringoffostering broadbroad situationsituation awareness,awareness, digitaldigitaltechnologytechnology cancan bebe exploitedexploited toto provideprovide activeactive alertsalerts toto directdirect attentionattention totopotentialpotential safetysafety problems.problems. AlertsAlerts cancan bebe providedprovided inin casescases wherewhere aa roadwayroadwayworkerworker (e.g.(e.g. onon aa tracktrack car)car) isis approachingapproaching thethe limitslimits ofof authorityauthority asas wellwell asasinin casescases wherewhere thethe authorityauthority limitslimits havehave beenbeen violatedviolated toto preventprevent anan unin­unin­tendedtended excursion.excursion. AlertsAlerts cancan alsoalso bebe providedprovided whenwhen thethe timetime limitslimits ofofauthorityauthority areare aboutabout toto expire.expire.

EnhancingEnhancing SharedShared SituationSituation AwarenessAwareness ofof ActivitiesActivities andand IntentionsIntentions

TheThe resultsresults ofof thethe studystudy highlightedhighlighted thethe positivepositive rolerole ofof thethe party-lineparty-line aspectaspectofof analoganalog radioradio communicationcommunication inin enablingenabling dispatchers,dispatchers, traintrain crews,crews, andandroadwayroadway workersworkers toto maintainmaintain sharedshared awarenessawareness ofof thethe activitiesactivities andand intentionsintentionsofofothersothers byby 'listening'listening in'in' toto communicationscommunications thatthat theythey werewere notnot aa directdirect partypartyto.to. ThereThere isis opportunityopportunity toto deploydeploy newnew digitaldigital technologytechnology toto moremore effectivelyeffectivelysupportsupport communicationscommunications whilewhile preservingpreserving thethe positivepositive featuresfeatures ofofanaloganalog radioradiothatthat fosterfoster sharedshared situationsituation awareness.awareness. ExamplesExamples includeinclude allowingallowing thethedispatcherdispatcher toto broadcastbroadcast messagesmessages toto multiplemultiple partiesparties simultaneouslysimultaneously toto fosterfostersharedshared situationsituation awarenessawareness ofof thethe activitiesactivities andand intentionsintentions ofof trainstrains andandroadwayroadway workersworkers inin aa givengiven vicinity.vicinity. AsAs oneone dispatcherdispatcher putput it:it: 'I'I wouldwould wantwantpeoplepeople toto knowknow whatwhat isis goinggoing onon inin thethe locationslocations theythey areare workingworking in.'in.' ThisThisbroadcastbroadcast capabilitycapability wouldwould havehave thethe effecteffect ofof reproducingreproducing thethe 'common'commonground'ground' thatthat isis fosteredfostered byby thethe party-lineparty-line featurefeature ofof radioradio communication.communication.

SimilarlySimilarly itit isis importantimportant toto enableenable roadwayroadway workersworkers toto broadcastbroadcast infor­infor­mationmation toto multiplemultiple individualsindividuals simultaneously.simultaneously. ThisThis couldcould bebe otherother roadwayroadwayworkersworkers inin thethe workwork groupgroup oror trainstrains inin thethe vicinity.vicinity.

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984 Organization Studies 27{7)

SystemsSystems thatthat provideprovide somesome ofof thesethese supportsupport functionsfunctions areare beginningbeginning totoemerge.emerge. ForFor example,example, aa handheldhandheld digitaldigital communicationcommunication devicedevice withwith inte­inte­gratedgrated GPSGPS technologytechnology designeddesigned forfor roadwayroadway workersworkers hashas beenbeen developeddevelopedandand testedtested byby MulterMulter ·and·and hishis colleaguescolleagues (MaIsch(MaIsch etet al.al. 2004;2004; MasquelierMasquelieretet al.al. 2004;2004; OriolOriol etet al.al. 2004).2004). TheThe prototypeprototype devicedevice operatesoperates onon aa cellcell phonephonewithwith integratedintegrated personalpersonal digitaldigital assistantassistant capabilitiescapabilities coupledcoupled withwith aa GPSGPSreceiver.receiver. ItIt enablesenables roadwayroadway workersworkers toto obtainobtain real-timereal-time traintrain andand telTitorytelTitorystatusstatus informationinformation asas wellwell asas requestrequest andand receivereceive workwork authorizationauthorization fromfromdispatchers.dispatchers. TheThe integratedintegrated GPSGPS technologytechnology providesprovides anan accurateaccurate meansmeans totoidentifyidentify andand communicatecommunicate roadwayroadway workerworker locationlocation infonnation.infonnation. TheThe proto­proto­typetype handheldhandheld communicationcommunication devicedevice allowsallows infonnationinfonnation toto bebe broadcastbroadcast totomultiplemultiple designateddesignated receiversreceivers andand providesprovides aa promisingpromising modelmodel forfor leveragingleveragingthethe efficiencyefficiency andand reliabilityreliability ofofdigitaldigital communicationcommunication whilewhile maintainingmaintaining thetheabilityability toto fosterfoster sharedshared situationsituation awarenessawareness thatthat characterizescharacterizes analoganalog radioradiocomlllunication.comlllunication.

ConclusionsConclusions

NewNew technologiestechnologies havehave thethe potentialpotential toto facilitatefacilitate communicationcommunication andand coordi­coordi­nationnation acrossacross distributeddistributed organizations;organizations; however,however, ifif notnot carefullycarefully designed,designed,theythey maymay dismptdismpt existingexisting strategiesstrategies forfor buildingbuilding andand maintainingmaintaining thethe commoncommongroundground thatthat isis criticalcritical toto coordinatingcoordinating workwork andand ensuringensuring safesafe operations.operations. ThisThisstudystudy contributescontributes toto ourour understandingunderstanding ofof howhow individualsindividuals inin distributeddistributedsystemssystems workwork toto developdevelop andand maintainmaintain sharedshared situationsituation awarenessawareness andand howhowsharedshared situationsituation awarenessawareness andand infonnalinfonnal cooperativecooperative strategiesstrategies combinecombine totofacilitatefacilitate workwork and·enhanceand·enhance safety.safety. ItIt pointspoints toto featuresfeatures thatthat needneed toto bebe incor­incor­poratedporated inin futurefuture systemssystems toto fosterfoster sharedshared situationsituation awarenessawareness andand increaseincreaseoveralloverall reliabilityreliability ofof distributeddistributed work.work.

EffectiveEffective supportsupport forfor distributeddistributed workwork willwill needneed mechanismsmechanisms toto enableenabledistributeddistributed partiesparties toto maintainmaintain awarenessawareness ofof thethe activitiesactivities andand plansplans ofof othersotherssoso asas toto bebe ableable toto coordinatecoordinate goals,goals, synchronizesynchronize activities,activities, preventprevent coordi­coordi­nationnation breakdowns,breakdowns, andand createcreate resilienceresilience inin thethe faceface ofof unanticipatedunanticipated eventseventsandand errorserrors (Hollnagel(Hollnagel etet al.al. 2006).2006).

AA particularparticular designdesign challengechallenge isis howhow toto preservepreserve thethe benefitsbenefits of'listeningof'listening in'in'strategiesstrategies thatthat naturallynaturally arisesarises inin thethe casecase ofof collocatedcollocated groupsgroups andand distributeddistributedgroupsgroups connectedconnected viavia audioaudio channelschannels (e.g.(e.g. voicevoice radio)radio) asas digitaldigital technologiestechnologiesareare introduced.introduced. TheThe currentcurrent workwork pointspoints toto somesome promisingpromising directions;directions; however>however>moremore researchresearch isis needed.needed. AsAs pointedpointed outout byby KleinKlein etet al.al. (2000),(2000), technologiestechnologiesthatthat suppOl1suppOl1 'listening'listening in'in' willwill needneed toto insureinsure thatthat thethe monitoringmonitoring processprocess doesdoesnotnot disruptdisrupt thethe partiesparties andand activitiesactivities beingbeing monitored.monitored. EquallyEqually important,important, thetheindividualsindividuals engagedengaged inin monitoringmonitoring needneed toto remainremain peripherallyperipherally awareaware ofofothers'others'activitiesactivities whilewhile stillstill focusingfocusing onon theirtheir ownown currentcurrent tasks.tasks.

TheThe goalgoal isis toto developdevelop systemssystems thatthat enableenable individualsindividuals inin distributeddistributed organi­organi­zationszations toto integrateintegrate moremore infOlmatioTI,infOlmatioTI, broadenbroaden considerationconsideration ofof possibilities,possibilities,andand detectdetect potentialpotential forfor sideside effectseffects andand errors.errors. TheThe ultimateultimate objectiveobjective isis totocreatecreate moremore resilientresilient systemssystems andand improveimprove safety.safety.

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NotesNotes ThisThis rescarchrescarch waswas conductcdconductcd byby thethe VolpeVolpe Center'sCenter's HumanHuman FactorsFactors DivisionDivision andand waswas fundedfundedbyby thethe FederalFederal RailroadRailroad Administration'sAdministration's OfficeOffice ofof ResearehReseareh andand Devdopment.Devdopment.

TheThe VlCWSVlCWS cxpressedcxpressed hereinherein areare thosethose ofof thethe authorsauthors andand dodo notnot necessarilynecessarily reflectreflect thethe viewsviewsofof thethe VolpeVolpe NationalNational Transpol1a[ionTranspol1a[ion SystemsSystems Cemer,Cemer, thethe FederalFederal RailroadRailroad Administration,Administration, ororthethe UnitedUnited StatesStates DepartmentDepartment ofof Transportation.Transportation.

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EmilieEmilie RothRoth EmilieEmilie RothRoth operatesoperates RothRoth CognitiveCognitive Engineering.Engineering. SheShe receivedreceived herher PhDPhD inin cognitivecognitivepsychologypsychology fromfrom thethe UniversityUniversity ofof IllinoisIllinois atat Champaign-Urbana.Champaign-Urbana. HerHer researchresearchfocusesfocuses onon thethe impactimpact ofof supportsupport systemssystems (e.g.(e.g. alarms,alarms, decisiondecision aids,aids, groupgroup viewviewdisplays)displays) onon individualindividual andand teamteam decisiondecision makingmaking inin real-worldreal-world environmentsenvironments (e.g.(e.g.militarymilitary commandcommand andand control,control, intelligenceintelligence analysis,analysis, powerpower plants,plants, surgicalsurgical teams,teams,andand railroadrailroad operations).operations). SheShe servesserves onon thethe editorialeditorial boardboard ofof thethe journalsjournals LeLe TravailTravailHumainHumain andand HumanHuman Factors.Factors.Address:Address: 8989 RawsonRawson Road,Road, Brookline,Brookline, MAMA 02445,02445, USA.USA.Email:Email: emroth@mindspring.comemroth@mindspring.com

JordanJordan Multer·Multer· '' DrDr JordanJordan MulterMulter isis thethe managermanager ofof thethe railroadrailroad humanhuman factorsfactors programprogram atat thethe VolpeVolpeNationalNational TransportationTransportation SystemsSystems Center.Center. ThisThis programprogram supportssupports FederalFederal RailroadRailroadAdministrationAdministration effortsefforts toto createcreate safersafer railrail transportationtransportation systems.systems. HeHe earnedearned hishisdoctoratedoctorate inin experimentalexperimental psychologypsychology atat thethe UniversityUniversity ofConneeticut.ofConneeticut. BesidesBesides railrailtransportation,transportation, hehe investigatedinvestigated humanhuman factorsfactors issuesissues inin aviation,aviation, marine,marine, andand highwayhighwaymodes.modes. HeHe workedworked withwith thethe FAAFAA toto improveimprove thethe designdesign ofof aeronauticalaeronautical chartscharts forforpilotspilots andand studiedstudied airair traffictraffic controllers'controllers' communicationscommunications toto learnlearn howhow toto reducereduce errors.errors.ForFor thethe CoastCoast Guard,Guard, hehe identifiedidentified factorsfactors contributingcontributing toto thethe improvedimproved designdesign ofofwaterwaywaterway navigationnavigation aids.aids.Address:Address: 5555 Broadway,Broadway, DTS-79,DTS-79, Cambridge,Cambridge, MAMA 02142,02142, USA.USA.Email:Email: multer@volpe.dotgovmulter@volpe.dotgov

ThomasThomas G.G. TomTom RaslearRaslear isis thethe seniorsenior HumanHuman FactorsFactors ProgramProgram managermanager inin thethe OfficeOffice ofof ResearchResearchRaslearRaslear andand DevelopmentDevelopment inin thethe FederalFederal RailroadRailroad AdministrationAdministration (FRA).(FRA). TheThe FRA'sFRA's HumanHuman

FactorsFactors ProgramProgram addressesaddresses issuesissues ofof fatigue,fatigue, ergonomics,ergonomics, automation,automation, accidentaccidentcausationcausation (including(including gradegrade crossings),crossings), organizationalorganizational culture,culture, andand selectionselection andandtrainingtraining inin thethe railroadrailroad industry.industry. HeHe isis aa membermember andand formerformer chairchair ofof thethe USUSDepartmentDepartment ofof Transportation'sTransportation's humanhuman factorsfactors coordinatingcoordinating committee.committee. PriorPrior totoworkingworking atat FRA,FRA, hehe conductedconducted researchresearch atat thethe WalterWalter ReedReed ArmyArmy InstituteInstitute ofof ResearchResearchinin thethe areasareas ofof behavioralbehavioral toxicology,toxicology, chronopsychology,chronopsychology, andand comparativecomparativepsychophysics.psychophysics. TomTom hashas aa PhDPhD andand ScMScM inin experimentalexperimental psychologypsychology fromfrom BrownBrownUniversity,University, andand aa BSBS fromfrom CityCity CollegeCollege ofof NewNew York.York.Address:Address: 11201120 VermontVermont Ave,Ave, NW,NW, MSMS 20,20, Washington,Washington, DCDC 2059,2059, USA,USA,Email:Email: thomas.raslear@fra.dot.govthomas.raslear@fra.dot.gov

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