sheep goat 4

PART- IV SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

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SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

Bakht Baidar Khan Arshad Iqbal

Muhammad Iqbal Mustafa

Department of Livestock Management University of Agriculture Faisalabad

2003


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FOREWORD The past more than half a century is a witness to the fact that except a few, no serious attempts have been made to write books even on a few of the so many wide open aspects of the field of animal sciences. Among other factors that keep the animal science sector lagging behind, utter lack of relevant books of local origin is probably the most important. The dearth of documented information concerning various species of our farm animals adversely affects the learning potential of our students, who have been reported to complain about the non-availability of professional books written in Pakistan. I personally feel that as animal scientists we cannot exonerate ourselves of this responsibility. Of course, not all of us would have the aptitude to write books. However, those who opt to take up this tiresome and time-consuming job, their efforts must be appreciated. We must not forget that beginnings are always small. It is really encouraging to learn that sheep and goats being the victims of a long neglect, have attracted the attention of experienced animal scientists and teachers of long standing to write a book on them. A look into the contents of the book ‘Sheep and Goat Production’, makes me believe that it would adequately serve the purpose for which it has been produced. Its made-easy format would be rather more helpful to the students, field workers and progressive farmers. A collection of over 650 questions along with their answers should more than suffice to cover the discussion on important topics in relation to sheep and goat production.

Sajjad Zaheer Malik Director General (Ext.)

L & DD Dept., Punjab

PREFACE Innumerable publications on sheep and goat farming/production are there in the world market. More than 98% of them are of foreign origin and are thus either not available here or their prices are beyond the means of a common man. The book under discussion has not been produced to burden the market with another such publication rather it has been brought out employing a novice format to meet the requirements of beginners who venture to plan a small ruminant enterprise, but are found confronted with a series of questions. Answers to many of such questions are already embodied in this ‘easy to read and understand’ book. In addition, feasibilities in respect of keeping sheep and goats (pertaining to one breed of each spp.) have been outlined herein to facilitate the solution of their input: output dilemma. Another section of society most pertinent to books is professional students community. It often happens that even at the end of an academic session/semester, many students in a class, would not know what type of questions, relevant to a course, may be asked in the Exam. This book, for sure, would create an awareness in them as to the type of Exam. questions and as to the manner of answering them. Among other features of the book are: the discussion on behaviour and welfare of small ruminants and clues on the application of biotechnology in animals. A comprehensive review on terminology related to various aspects of small ruminants is also a part of this book. Most of the answers to the questions included in this book have been picked up as such from various sources of literature listed under references at the end. We feel highly obliged in sharing the fruit of hardwork of those so many authors/editors. Under the circumstances it does not seem possible for us to individually convey to them our grateful thanks, but indeed we remain indebted to all of them. No book will ever be complete and this one is no exception since knowledge about sheep and goats is increasing so rapidly that no book can be an absolute ultimate. We feel no hesitation to mention here that at places details of a few most sophisticated techniques used abroad in small ruminant production have been intentionally avoided simply because farmers/producers here have yet to go a long way to enable themselves to take full advantage of such costly tools and techniques. We would like to record our thanks to our colleagues, namely Drs. Muhammad Younas, Muhammad Abdullah, Muhammad Yaqoob, Syed Hassan Raza and Prof. William Hohenboken, a friend from USA; all of them provided us a lot of useful literature for this book. Special thanks are extended to Mr. Farooq Ahmed, Dr. Akhter Saeed and Dr. Asad Saeed for arranging recent literature for the purpose from abroad. Suggestions in black and white from any quarter to effect further improvement and to remove any omissions in the contents of this book will always be welcome. March, 2003 Bakht Baidar Khan Arshad Iqbal

Muhammad Iqbal Mustafa


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PART- IV includes following contents of the book:

• MANAGEMENT PRACTICES • BEHAVIOUR AND WELFARE OF SMALL RUMINANTS • APPLICATION OF BIOTECHNOLOGY • FEASIBILITIES FOR KEEPING SHEEP/GOATS


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MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

Q. Are the teeth of sheep/goats helpful in determining their age? Mature sheep and goats have 32 teeth, of which 24 are molars and 8 are incisors. As in buffaloes, cattle and camel, all incisors are in lower jaw. The two central incisor teeth are called pinchers; the adjoining ones are called first intermediates; the third pair is termed as second intermediates; and the outer ones are called as corners (Figure 44). The temporary teeth (milk teeth) of lamb/kid are small and narrow, while permanent teeth are larger and broader. There are no tusks. Until sheep are 4 years of age, the front teeth of the lower jaw furnish a fairly reliable guide as to their development. In the newborn lamb mostly no teeth may be present or sometimes 2 pinchers and the first 2 intermediates are cut through or may be pressing through the gums. By three months a full set of temporary teeth is present. Between 12 and 15 months, the temporary pinchers are replaced by the 2 permanent ones. By 2 years, the first temporary intermediates are replaced by permanent teeth and by 3 years the second temporary intermediates are replaced by permanent teeth. Then by 4 years of age, the 2 temporary corner incisors are replaced by permanent teeth, giving the sheep a ‘full mouth’. The permanent set consists of 8 incisors, 12 premolars and 12 molars. The order of eruption of teeth, with very minor variations, is the same both in sheep and goats. After the sheep/goats have a solid mouth (at about 4 years), it is difficult to tell the exact age. With more advanced age, the teeth merely wear down and spread apart and finally become loose and the degree of wearing or spreading is an indication of age. The normal number of teeth may be retained until 7 to 8 years, but often some are lost after about the fifth or sixth year, resulting in a broken mouth. Outstanding producers should not be disposed of just because they have reached this age, especially in a purebred flock. If an animal is still valuable for breeding purposes, it may be retained and fed specially prepared feeds. Teeth represent the degree of development rather than the exact age.

Q. What different methods are used for weighing small ruminants? The regular weighing of small ruminants is uncommon in countries like ours except on research stations. It can, however be very helpful in selecting stock for breeding or for sale. For example when a young female reaches 70 to 75% of the average adult body weight, it is at its most efficient size for mating. There are three methods for weighing small ruminants: Spring Balance: The simplest method of weighing a small ruminant is to use a canvas or leather sling and a spring balance. The spring balance can be hung from a tree or suspended from a metal tripod. Small pocket spring balances can be used to weigh lambs/kids. The animal is lifted into a canvas, which is then hooked on the scale. Once the sheep/goat is still and all four feet are clear of the ground, the weight can be read on the scale. The animal is then lifted down.


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The Weigh band: This is a simple tape measure that predicts the liveweight of an animal from measuring its girth. The band can be made from a piece of string, which is marked off in kilograms. It should be calibrated against a spring balance or platform scale for accuracy because there are differences between breeds. When using the band the goat must be standing squarely on level ground. The string is then run under the animal, behind its front legs and up to the top of its shoulders. Platform Scales: Commercially available scales can be used for weighing small ruminants. The scales are built like a small cage with doors at each end and a clock scale on top. For large numbers of animals it is useful to have a holding pen that funnels the animals into the scale. Care must be taken to see that sheep/goats have all four feet on the floor of the cage when they are weighed, that the measuring indicator returns to zero after each animal leaves and that the scales are kept clean. This will help to ensure accurate weighings. Q. Do you know any other method that can provide a reasonable estimate of

body weight of small ruminants? Scientific workers have developed equations that allow the measurement of the chest of a small ruminant, known as heartgirth, to be converted into an estimate of its liveweight. Table 12 presents heartgirth measurements (cm) and their liveweight equivalents (kg). The animal should be standing square and simple tailor’s measuring tape put around its chest, just behind the front legs. This method gives only an estimate of the liveweight (Figure 45). Table 12. Conversion of heartgirth measurements (cm) to weight equivalents

(kg) Heartgirth measurements Weight equivalents

63 20.0 65 22.5 68 25.0 70 27.5 72 30.0 76 35.0 80 40.0 84 45.0 88 50.0 91 55.0 95 60.0 98 65.0

There are other, more expensive, methods of weighing; they include a special mobile crush and weighing platform or the use of load-cells underneath a platform with a digital read-out. Q. Give some useful hints in respect of small ruminant weighings required for

experimental work. Each small ruminant weighed needs to be identified so that it can be easily traced later on or so that recordings over a period of time can be compared. The animals should be weighed at the same time of day every time they are weighed. In one day they can eat and drink roughly a weight equivalent to 15% of their body weight, thus it is the best always


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to weigh them early in the morning before they go out grazing or are watered, to obtain a standardized weight. Regularly check the accuracy of the scales against a known weight, to make sure they are giving accurate readings. The whole weighing operation is made simpler if an assistant is available to help. It is particularly important to keep any recording sheets away from hungry sheep/goats.

Q. Write a note on weighing small ruminants. There are times when you want to weigh your sheep/goats such as to determine the growth rate of lambs/kids, to determine if an ewe/doe is old enough/weighs enough to breed, to check any unusual weight gain or loss or to estimate how much meat is on a wether or a cull ewe/doe. Since not many flock owners consider it worth purchasing an expensive livestock platform scale, therefore, some other means to determine the weight of small ruminants can be used. Those animals up to twenty-three kg may be hung from a sling on the milk scale. For larger animals, weighing tapes convert heartgirth into an estimate of weight or measure the heartgirth with a dressmaker’s tape and use the below given conversion chart to get an estimated weight. Place the tape snugly around the barrel just behind the front legs and convert the measurement into an estimate of sheep’s/goat’s weight. If you record this estimate and the date on each animal’s data sheet, it may help detect unusual changes that may signal nutritional or disease problems.

Estimating weight of goats Heartgirth Weight

In inches In centimetres Pounds Kilograms

12.75 32 7 3.2 14.75 37 11 5.0 16.75 42 17 7.7 18.75 47 25 11.4 20.75 52 33 15.0 22.75 57 42 19.0 24.75 62 54 24.5 26.75 67 66 30.0 28.75 72 78 35.4 30.75 77 90 40.0 32.75 82 105 47.7 34.75 87 125 56.8 36.75 92 145 65.9 38.75 97 165 75.0 40.75 102 185 84.0 42.75 107 205 93.2


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Q. Discuss transportation of small ruminants, indicating modes of transportation and the care required in this respect.

Improper handling of small ruminants immediately prior to and during transportation may result in excessive shrinkage, high death rate, bruises and crippling losses, disappointing sales and dissatisfied buyers. Unfortunately many small ruminant producers who do a good job of producing animals waste their efforts by doing a poor job of preparing and transporting to market. Generally, such omissions are due to lack of know-how. In preparing small ruminants for transportation, the producers should consider the following:

i) Select the best suited method of transportation. Pastoralists often walk large numbers of animals over very long distances to pastures and markets. A majority of small ruminants are walked to market in Asian and African countries where distances of 10 km are commonly covered. When the distances are too long, the producers should decide between truck and rail. Today truck shipments account for the majority of sheep/goat transportation business.

ii) Avoid transportation during extremes in weather⎯very hot or very cold. During warm weather, avoid transporting animals during the heat of the day; travel at night or in the evening or early morning.

iii) Feed and water properly prior to loading. Never transport small ruminants on excess fill. Instead feed and water lightly. Withhold grain feeding 12 hours before loading and do not allow access to water within 2 hours of loading. The animals may be allowed free access to dry well-cured grass hay, but more laxative type feeds should be avoided. The animals that are too full of concentrated feeds or those having eaten succulent feeds will scour and urinate excessively. Thus the floors become dirty and slippery and the animals befoul themselves. Such animals undergo a heavy shrinkage and present an unattractive look when unloaded.

iv) Keep animals quiet. Prior to and during loading, animals should be handled carefully. Hot, excited animals are subject to more shrinkage and injury and higher mortality.

v) Never lose your temper. Although loading may prove very laborious at times, but better take it easy. Avoid hurrying and striking the animals. Never beat them with pipes etc.

vi) Consider health certificates, ownership papers and permits. When animals are to be transported to another province, regulations of that province relative to health have to be observed. Therefore, certificate from the local veterinary officer about the animals being healthy needs to be carried along. Be careful and do not transport the animals to an area where some disease outbreaks have taken place.

vii) Use partitions when necessary. The animals may be separated into groups e.g. big males, small lambs/kids, horned animals⎯to prevent injuries and bullying.

viii) Animals should not be transported by truck or rail for a longer period than 28 consecutive hours without unloading for giving feed, water and rest for a period of at least 4 hours.


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Some additional precautions to be observed during transportation of small ruminants to reduce marketing losses from bruises, crippling and death.

a) Do not feed grain heavily just prior to loading rather omit one feed. b) Remove protruding nails, bolts or any sharp objects in truck or rail car. c) Use good loading chutes (ramp); not too steep. d) With two decks, have upper deck high enough to prevent back bruises

on animals below. e) Use partitions in very long trucks to keep animals from crowding from

one location to another. f) Drive trucks carefully. Slow down on sharp turns and avoid sudden

stops. g) Inspect load enroute to prevent trampling of animals that may be

down. If an animal goes down, get it back on its feet immediately. h) Back truck slowly against the unloading ramp. Unload slowly. Do not

drop animals out from truck. i) Never lift sheep/goat by the wool/hair. j) Provide proper bedding during transportation.

Q. Give an estimate of number of sheep/goats that may be loaded in a truck or

railroad car. Overcrowding of animals in a truck or railroad car causes heavy losses. The suggested number of animals is guided by the factors such as hauling distance, livestock class, weather conditions and road conditions. For comfort during transportation, the truck or railroad car should be loaded heavily enough so that the animals stand close together, but overcrowding must be avoided. Depending upon the size of the animals, 40 to 50 can be loaded in a normal-sized truck and 50 to 60 in a railroad car. In a long vehicle the number will increase accordingly. Q. Is bedding needed to cover the floor of truck or railroad car being used for

transportation of small ruminants? If so, what kind of bedding and footing to use for small ruminants?

Proper bedding and footing are very important for animals in transit. This applies to both rail and truck shipments. Bedding such as straw is recommended for warmth during transportation of small ruminants during very cold weather and as cushioning for breeding stock or other animals loaded lightly enough to permit their lying down. Footing such as sand is required at all times of the year, to prevent the car or truck floor from becoming wet and slick, thus predisposing animals to injury by slipping or falling. Sand used as bedding for sheep/goats during warm or moderate weather should be clean, medium-fine and free from brick, stones, and coarse gravel. In hot weather sprinkle water over sand before loading and while enroute. Q. Discuss air/sea transportation of small ruminants. With modern communication and transportation, the world is becoming smaller and smaller. Also, there is an increasing need and desire to move animals efficiently between countries separated by great distances. During the late 1960s, the concept of air transportation of large numbers of animals was born and whole planes were modified and adapted for livestock comfort and maximum capacity. Animals can thus arrive at any destination in the world within hours, thereby minimizing stress and virtually eliminating


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death losses. Numerous cattle, calves, small ruminants, horses, chicks and exotic animals have been successfully airlifted worldwide. Some of the larger aircraft can carry 1500 sheep/goats, 950 calves, 50 horses and about 200 cattle. Modern sea transportation although is not as fast as airlifting but it is very massive. Recently some oil tankers have been converted into large carriers of small ruminants capable of accommodating as many as 125,000 sheep/goats. These floating stockyards are used for shipping sheep from Australia to the Middle East. Aboard the 14-deck ship, conveyors and piping systems feed and water animals automatically. Such arrangements have given a spur to Australia’s sheep industry. Q. Define shrinkage in sheep/goats during transportation. What factors affect

shrinkage? The shrinkage (or drift) refers to the weight loss encountered from the time animals leave the farm until they reach their destination or are weighed over the scales at the market. Thus, if an animal weighed 50 kg at the farm and had a market weight of 47 kg, the shrinkage would be 3 kg or 6%. Shrinkage is usually expressed in terms of percentage. Most of this weight loss is due to excretion in the form of faeces and urine and the moisture in the expired air. Some tissue shrinkage also takes place due to metabolic or breakdown changes. Factors affecting shrinkage are: Time and Distance in Transit: The longer the animals are in transit and the greater the distance, the higher the total shrinkage. Also, the shrinkage takes place at a rapid rate during the first part of the haul and then gradually decreases, but if the distance is too long, it again increases. Truck vs. Rail Transportation: Truck shipments result in less shrinkage than with rail for short hauls, whereas the rail shipments result in less shrinkage than with truck for long hauls. Season: Extremes in temperature, either very hot or very cold weather, result in higher shrinkage. Shrink is at a minimum between 25 and 30°C. Age and Weight: Young animals of all species shrink proportionally more than older animals because of their lower carcass yield caused by less body fat and greater amount of fill in proportion to liveweight. Overloading and Underloading: Overloading always results in abnormally high shrinkage. Unless animals are partitioned off properly, underloading will also result in excess shrinkage. Rough Ride, Abnormal Feeding and Mixed Loads: As evident each of these factors will increase shrinkage. On average, small ruminants shrink from 6 to 10% during transportation.

Q. What do you understand by judging small ruminants? Judging as practised in livestock shows, in contests or on the farm, is an attempt to place or rank animals in the order of their excellence in body type. Scoring or type classifying means that an animal is classified and compared to an animal that is theoretically perfect and a rating is assigned on that basis. There is considerable question as to the degree of correlation between type and production, for appearance is not always indicative of sheep’s /goat’s productive ability. Yet it is generally recognized that desirable type is indicative of the functional value of the animal. Moreover, attractiveness and desirable type enhance the market value of purebred animals.


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The requisites for proper judging of small ruminants: the judge must know the language that describes and locates the different parts of sheep/goat (Figure 54); he must know what he is looking for. That is he should have a clearly defined ideal in view; he must be able to observe both good conformation and defects and to evaluate the various both good and bad features; he must possess honesty and courage in evaluating the animals, the judge needs to follow a logical procedure. Q. What may be a logical procedure for judging small ruminants? Good judging procedure consists of the following: observing at a distance of 6 to 7 meters and securing a panoramic view where several animals are involved, using close inspection and handling, moving the animal in order to observe action, and viewing an animal from all directions e.g. side view, rear view and front view, thus avoiding overlooking anything. No animal is perfect. In judging, therefore, one must be able to recognize and appraise common faults and give due credit to good points. A major requisite in judging or selection is to have clearly in mind a standard or an ideal. To be further clear about an ideal type and conformation, the example of a dairy type goat is presented here: A dairy goat should be angular, not round, the hip bones prominent, thighs thin, the animal should possess considerable length of neck and a long body; tendency to be short and thick of body, short of neck and thick in thighs or in any way fat and meaty indicates lack of dairy type. Meatiness is the opposite of dairyness. Good dairy goat will be sleek and alert, not fat and sluggish. The doe should be possibly straight on top and strong in chine and loin areas; less slope from hip bones to pin bones is desirable. Shoulders refined not coarse, withers or top of the shoulder sharp and refined, not rounded as desired in meat type animals; ribs well sprung, making more room for roughage plus two or more kids, ribs long and far enough apart to slide one finger between the ribs, openness of ribs denotes dairy temperament in the goat as well as in the buffalo and cow; width in floor of chest desirable; width plus depth of body denotes lung capacity and constitution and is associated with strength and ruggedness. The legs should be straight with adequate width of bone for strength but not coarse. The animal should walk easily and freely so that it can forage on pasture; hoofs well-trimmed so that feet do not become deformed, long pasterns make the legs look crooked; they should have some angle but not be so long that the dewclaws touch the ground. Breeding bucks, particularly, will be heavily discounted in show-ring if they are long in the pasterns; skin smooth, thin and pliable, hair reasonably fine to denote quality. The udder should show plenty of capacity and be well held up to the body so that it will not be injured by banging on stones or other objects in the pasture or around the paddock; low-slung pendulous udder undesirable, udder be pliable and soft, not hard and meaty, hard lumps in udder or teats highly undesirable, udder to be balanced in shape with teats hanging the same length and slightly tilted forward, the teats to be large enough to be milked; after a milking the udder should collapse and be pliable like a soft leather glove. The head should have an alert, intelligent appearance and the head and ears shape should conform to the particular breed. Q. What is meant by scorecard judging? Give a brief explanation. A scorecard is a listing of the different parts of animal, with a numerical value assigned to each part according to its relative importance. The use of the scorecard involves


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studying each part, then assigning a numerical score to it. Show-ring judging or actual selection on the farm is not accompanied by a scorecard. But a scorecard is a valuable teaching aid in acquainting students and beginners with the various parts of an animal and the relative importance of each. It systematizes judging and avoids any part of the animal being overlooked. The American Dairy Goat Association (ADGA) provides its judges with a scorecard to evaluate dairy goats. The scorecard for does assigns 30 % to general appearance, 30 % to the mammary system, 20 % to dairy character and 20 % to body capacity. For bucks, the scorecard assigns 40 % to general appearance, 25 % to dairy character, 25 % to body capacity and 10 % to the mammary and reproductive system. In addition the judge must see that each animal meets the breed standard for the breed. Q. What may be the most important purposes of small ruminant shows/fairs? One of the purposes to hold small ruminant shows is to select animals, which come the closest to the ideal of a sound, productive performance of sheep/goats. Awards and publicity accruing from shows/fairs encourage breeders to adhere to the ideal for continued improvement of small ruminants. Shows put quality sheep/goats in the public eye to improve their public image. Also, shows give sheep/ goat producers recognition for long months of work at the farm, plus an opportunity to talk to other breeders/producers. This occasion can also be availed for buying / selling the salable stock. Q. Write a note on fitting and showing of small ruminants for presenting at a

show/fair. Sheep/goats carefully selected for the purpose, need special feeding 6 to 8 weeks prior to the show day, depending on the condition of each animal. The animals should not be over-fattened, but should be fed enough extra grain to add bloom to the coat. Additional bedding is needed to keep the animals clean and avoid stains. Regular leading and posing several weeks prior to the show day will prove helpful in contests. To look at their best, animals should have their hoofs trimmed and polished. Daily grooming the goats with stiff-bristled brush (not densely bristled) keeps them clean stain–free. Show


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animals should be carefully clipped, particularly the long hair along the backbone and flank. In case of sheep, the first rough blocking is designed to make the top level so that the animal appears as wide, deep and blocky (for meat animals) as possible and to make fat wethers firm to the touch when handled over the back and loin. The second trimming is designed to impart the desired appearance and to give a blending together of all body parts. The final trimming of fleece consists of alternate brushing, carding and trimming in such manner as to enhance the natural lines of the individual to the maximum. Some shepherds then pat the fleece lightly with the back of a wool card. This packs the fleece and improves the appearance. Some exhibitors resort to oiling or dressing the fleece with wool fat or olive oil. It may be best applied by putting a light coat on the hand and gently rubbing them through the fleece. All of this handwork on the hair/wool and skin improves the quality of the skin and hair/wool. For show day, the exhibitor should be immaculate and wear the prescribed dress. The exhibitors must take animal feed and supplies with them to shows. These include a water bucket, a brush, polish, cloth and possibly milk utensils and sheep/goat covers. Health requirements/certificates should meet the rules of the show/fair. Upon arrival at a show, animals should be inspected before being unloaded. If signs of illness are found, the animals should not be unloaded. During transportation, sheep/goats should be protected from all sorts of stress. After the show, the show animals should be kept isolated from other animals and watched for at least 10 days for the development of symptoms of any infectious disease. The animals at shows are first divided by breed. Within each breed, they are further divided by sex and then into age classes.

Q. Why are sheep/goat farm records important? Good records help you to assess your standing in the farm business. Only with accurate records can the sheep/goat farmer evaluate the production of his animals, keep an account of the amount of feed consumed for unit production and determine whether his operation is profitable. Records also help to provide adequate information for breeding and genetic improvement of the stock. Besides, records form the basis on which you can make future planning such as the total feed and fodder requirement of your flock or labour requirement on the farm. Records of small ruminant farm comprise two types−technical records (dealing with performance of animals) and business records (dealing with accounts, purchases, disposal, dead stock etc.). The kind of records kept pertaining to the sheep/goats farms vary according to the scope and nature of the enterprise. Generally, however, the following records are essentially maintained: i) Farm diary, ii) Animal inventory, iii) Feeding records, iv) Breeding records, v) Pedigree sheets, vi) Production records (wool, milk surplus stock etc.), vii) health records, viii) Labour records, ix) Purchase and sale of animals and mortality records. Proformas pertaining to each aspect of farm records have been given in the following pages, which can be helpful in maintaining the required records.


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Q. Give some examples of calculations concerning important flock production records.

Flock production records tell many things about an individual sheep/goat unit and offer clues for places to improve production efficiencies. Often the figures are available but need to be converted for interpretation. Some common calculations are given below: 1. Percent of ewes/does that gave birth Number of ewes/does that gave birth = ____________________________________ X 100 Number of ewes/does turned to rams/bucks 2. Percent of ewes/does that settle on first cycle No. of ewes/does lambing/kidding in 20 days = ____________________________________ X 100 No. of ewes/does turned to males 3. Percent of lamb/kid crop born of females exposed No. of lambs/kids born = ____________________________________ X 100 No. of ewes/does turned to rams/bucks 4. Percent lamb/kid crop born of ewes/does lambing/kidding No. of lambs/kids born = ____________________________________ X 100 Total No. of ewes/does lambing/kidding 5. Percent lamb/kid mortality from birth to weaning No. of lambs/kids that died = ____________________________________ X 100 No. of lambs/kids born 6. Percent of total lamb/kid mortality that occurred from birth to 5 days of age No. of lambs/kids dying between birth and 5 days = _________________________________________ X 100 No. of lambs/kids dying between birth and weaning 7. Percent of total lamb/kid mortality that occurred from 5 days to 1 month of age No. of lambs/kids dying between 5 days and 1 month


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= ___________________________________________ X 100 No. of lambs/kids dying between birth and weaning 8. Percent of total lamb/kid mortality that occurred from 1 month of age to weaning No. of lambs/kids dying between 1 month and weaning = _____________________________________________ X 100 No. of lambs/kids dying between birth and weaning 9. Average weaning weight Total kg of lambs/kids weaned = __________________________ X 100 No. of lambs/kids weaned 10. Weight of lambs/kids weaned per ewe/doe exposed Total kg of lambs/kids weaned = _________________________________ X 100 No. of ewes/does turned to rams/bucks 11. Average fleece weight Total weight of wool = __________________ X 100 No. of sheep shorn

Q. What is meant by dipping? Explain when and how it is carried out? Dipping is a management practice meant to control and treat external parasites and skin diseases of sheep/goats. For the control of ticks, lice and scab mites, most flocks need to be treated with an insecticide at least once a year, in sheep soon after shearing when the shear cuts have healed. The frequency between dippings also depends on the disease risk. Immersing animals is rather effective than spraying them with chemicals, but animals are not keen to jump into a dip bath and will have to be forced. The operation should take place on a bright sunny day. The insecticide for dipping should be used according to the instructions of manufacturers. Rectangular dipping vats are of variable length but the rest of the dimensions are rather standard: 1.2 m (4 ft.) deep, 25 to 30 cm (10-12 in.) inside width at the bottom and 50 to 60 cm (20 to 24 in.) wide at top. Concrete permanent vats should be constructed with suitable entrances, inclined exit and a drain platform. The construction of the vat must not allow sheep/goats to jump out or through the bath without getting thoroughly soaked. Dips that animals wade through may be better than ones where they have to swim. A simple design for a dip is given in Figure 32. It has small pens so that small groups of sheep/goats can be handled. Animals are forced towards the dipping vat where an operator catches each animal and puts it in the dip. Another assistant pushes the sheep’s/goat’s head under as it swims by to ensure that it is


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totally immersed. He can use a forked stick to push the animal’s down. The sheep/goat resumes its swim to the end of the bath and climbs up to the steps to the draining areas, which slope back towards the dip. The strength of the insecticide in the bath will be diluted as more animals pass through. Extra chemical dip must thus be added for every 70 to 80 animals so that the dip remains strong enough to kill parasites and the dip is deep enough to cover each animal. Before sending the animals for dipping they must be provided adequate amount of water to drink so that do not take water from dipping vat. Also keep the animals from licking each other while they are dripping on the draining platform. Dipping should be done on a sunny day.

Routine Management Skills Q. Give a list of important management skills required for proper management

of small ruminants. A list of some very basic skills is as follows: Catching and restraining, disbudding, deodourizing, dehorning, castration, feet trimming, identification, wattle removal, management clipping, culling and dipping. Q. Give a brief account of catching and restraining sheep/goats. Sheep: if sheep are to be caught and handled for any reason, they should first be confined to a small corral, corner or shed. Sheep may best be caught around the neck, by the hind leg or by the rear flank. Never should they be caught by the wool. Such rough treatment results in badly injured skin and tissue, which may require weeks to heal. When animals are confined to a small area, move up quietly on the desired animal after working it into a position near you. With a swift, sure movement, grasp well up into the right rear flank with the right hand and while holding firmly, grasp under the lower jaw with the left hand. With the left hand firmly grasp a fold of flesh under the lower jaw. Place the right hand securely over the dock; the right hand in this position can be useful in moving the animal. As the animal quiets down, the right hand may be removed. In observing the fleece and skin, part the wool well down on the shoulder, side and leg. Opening the fleece on the back should be avoided, as it will allow water to run in. Goats: Most of the information given for catching and handling of sheep is equally applicable to goats as well. The easiest way to catch a goat is to bribe it with feed. If this fails a group of goats can be herded into a pen or enclosure from where individual animals can be caught. Approaching from the side and catching horns, leg or neck usually succeeds. The goat can be manhandled to a sitting position by first reaching under the belly and gently pulling the two furthest legs towards you. With the goat now on its side, lean over to catch both front legs, back up the goat towards you so that it sits on its bottom (Figure 46). An alternative method is to put one hand on the shoulder and one under the neck and carefully twist the goat into the sitting position. Mind the horns! Feet can be examined and hooves trimmed. Crooks (Figure 47) can be used to catch both goats and sheep. The hook at the end of the crook is made to catch either the foot or neck. Once the crook is around the goat, the catcher uses it to pull the animal towards himself. If the goat is friendly it can be restrained in a standing position using a neck crush (Figure 48). The neck is trapped between two pieces of strong upright planking. One piece is fixed and the


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other moves within a frame to allow the head to be put through and then closed to hold it in place. The frame can be driven into the ground or mounted on a wooden platform on which the animal stands. It makes working on the animal easier if the platform is raised up. A less expensive alternative is the use of rope loop fixed to a tree. The loop is just large enough to allow the goat’s head through. The rope loop must not tighten so that the goat can strangle itself. This can be avoided by tying a knot that does not slip but holds the loop at a fixed size. Q. Write short notes on disbudding, deodourising and dehorning. Disbudding: Some kids are born hornless, but as a practical management procedure, every kid, male and female, should be examined for horn buds. Horns are a danger to the operator and to the flock. Disbudding is the practice of removing horn buds from very young kids. The best method for disbudding is the use of a disbudding iron which heats a circular tip to a red-hot temperature. It is best to disbud kids when they are a few days old and the horn buds can be clearly felt. To disbud, preheat the iron. Then follow these steps: With a finger, locate the horn buds. Clip well the hair from the area of horn buds. The kids can be held between the knees or thighs for disbudding. However, a holding box makes the job easier. Center the iron on each horn bud, applying it with a circular motion and light pressure for 5 to 10 seconds, depending on the size and development of the horn bud. If a horn bud is large, a second burn after a few minutes rest is advisable. A proper burn leaves two copper-coloured circles. The kids should be checked every 2 to 3 months for scur growth. Scurs should be immediately removed with the disbudding iron (Figure 49). Deodourising: Bucks are noted for smelling bad. They label their territory and every thing in it with their buck goat aroma by rubbing their head against everything claimed. The buck’s shed, feed buckets and even the does will acquire the buck aroma. The scent or musk glands responsible for this odour are located immediately behind and along the inside edge of each horn base. In a polled kid they are in the same position. Making two additional burns at the time of disbudding will easily deodourinse goats as kids. The red hot disbudding iron should be applied about 13 mm (0.5 in.) behind and toward the center from the disbudded horn buds for about 10 seconds. The hair should be clipped from these areas before the application of hot iron. After disbudding and deodourising there appear two sets of overlapping circles as shown in Figure 50. After the hair over the area have been clipped, the scent glands can be identified as areas of skin that are shiny and darker than the surrounding skin. Older animals may also be deodourised, they, however, require more restraint. Dehorning: It is far better to be certain that kids are disbudded very young. If, however, for some reason, beyond the control of the farm operator, a mature animal has a set of horns, they should be removed. To dehorn a mature animal is quite a task and may be best done by a trained person who can use a local anaesthetic. Dehorning can be done using a hacksaw or a wire saw to remove the horns along with 6 to 13 mm (0.25 to 0.5 in.) of the skin growing up from the base. Before the horns are removed, the hair at their base should be clipped so that the skin line can easily be seen and the horn be painted with pyodine. Bleeding should be as minimum as possible. After the horns are removed, sulfa powder and a bandage should be applied. In some cases injections of tetanus antitoxin and antibiotics may be recommended.


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Q. Discuss various methods of castration of ram lambs/buck kids. Because ram lambs/buck kids in many cases can be sexually mature at around four to five months of age, castration may be necessary before this age to avoid uncontrolled matings. Castration involves either the removal of the testes or crushing the blood vessels to the testes, which causes them to wither. Three methods are available. The Burdizzo: It is a bloodless castrator. It is a pair of commercially available pincers that are used to crush vessels that convey blood to the testes. This method is commonly used on older rams/bucks. Treating one testicle at a time, force the testical down into the scrotum so that it is well clear of the animal’s body. Clamp the burdizzo on the scrotum above the testicle to crush the cords. Each cord should be clamped in two places, the highest first. The crushed skin should be covered in an antiseptic to discourage fly strike. Elastrator (rubber rings): Using elastrator (rubber rings) is an alternative method that is suitable for about 1 to 2 weeks old lambs/kids. A special pair of pliers (Figure 51) are used and it is easier performed with the help of an assistant. The assistant catches the young animal and holds it up by its four legs facing the operator. The testes are drawn down in the scrotum clear of the body. A ring is placed on the elastrator, which is opened and placed over the scrotum so that the ring can be put above the testes and below the body. Care must be taken not to catch the male teats in the ring. Surgical Removal of the Testes: This is a traditional way of castrating and is still satisfactory if good hygiene is observed. It is best used for young lambs/kids between 2 to 4 weeks age. All equipment should be sterilized and the following procedure taken: A helper holds the lamb/kid on a flat clean surface with its scrotum exposed. The scrotum and surrounding area is cleaned with a disinfectant or alcohol. The lower end of the scrotum is slit open. Draw each testicle out with the attached cords. Use a firm, steady downward pull and cut off by cutting through the sperm cord and blood vessels above the testes. The whole scrotum is dipped into pyodine or iodine. Return the animal to dry, clean, well-bedded quarters. Inspect the animal daily for a week to prevent infection and fly strike. For the good welfare of the animal, a local anaesthetic should be used when castrating. This is not necessary when rubber rings are used on lambs/kids in the first week of life. Q. Describe two important methods of marking or identifying small ruminants. On small farms sheep and goatkeepers will often know all their stock by sight. This is more difficult with larger flocks or where flocks graze together. All the animals in the same flock can be marked in the same way so that they can be identified as belonging to one person or the same farm. This may help recover them if they are lost or stolen. There are various methods of marking animals. Some mark the animal permanently while others are used for temporary identification e.g. identifying animals for experimental work. Two methods of marking are outlined below. Tattooing: Tattooing is used for permanent marking. A tattooing outfit consists of a pair of tongs and numbers or letters made up of sharp-pointed needle like projections that fit into the jaws of tongs (Figure 52a, b). The letters or numbers arranged in the proper sequence in the jaws of the tongs pierce the skin. Then a tattoo ink forced into the punctures remains visible after the punctures heal. Animals can be tattooed on any part of their skin that can be seen but the ear is the most popular place. Marking ears avoids damaging the skin, which may be used in leather production. The equipment required is


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tattoo tongs, digits, Indian ink, disinfectant and cotton swabs. The tattoo is applied as follows: Place the letters or numbers in the tattooing pliers and test on a paper. An assistant holds the sheep/goat in the standing position, legs astride the goat and hand on the neck. Older goats will try to rear up whilst younger ones will try to run forward. Clean the ear of wax and dirt with methylated spirit. Smear ink on the inside of the ear. Line up pliers between ear blood vessels in middle of ear. Squeeze pliers with quick firm movement to penetrate skin (assistant restraining the animal). Remove pliers and rub more ink into holes using a stiff brush. The skin takes one to three weeks to heal. Old tattoos can be read by shining a torch through the ear. To read any tattoo it is necessary to catch the animal. Eartagging: Ear tags are metal or plastic made hair-clip like devices. When applied to sheep’s or goat’s ear provide an easy but temporary means of their identification. Eartagging can be very useful for various aspects of management. For example does producing large litters can be identified and retained or sheep that consistently prolapse can be identified and sold. Eartagging of sheep/goats is also done during experimental studies of various types. Eartagging may have little advantage to the smallholder who with small numbers of sheep/goats knows the history of each of his animals. Tagging may actually create problems because tags may become snagged and ears torn which can leave open wounds that can become infected. Tag can be neat and small so that they do not get caught or larger so that big numbers can be written and then read from a distance. The procedure for tagging: Dip the tags and applicator in disinfectant. Write the number on the tag before tagging. Restrain the animal in the standing position. Clean ear with methylated spirit. Clip tag into ear by piercing it with the help of an applicator, avoiding ear veins. The tag is best placed as near to the head as possible to reduce the chances of ripping. The number should be on the outside. Placing tags in different ears to denote the animal’s sex can help sort animals in large flocks. Apart from tattooing and eartagging, other methods of marking animals are also practised. Two traditional methods are earmarking (earnotching) and fire branding. The latter is considered very painful and cruel to the animal. It has been mostly replaced by freeze branding, which preferably is practised in large animals such as buffalo, cattle, camel and horse. Paint brands are also commonly used on sheep and goats, especially those to be offered for slaughter on the religious festival of Eid-ul-Azha. Q. What are wattles? Explain the procedure for their removal. Wattles are fleshy appendages on the sides of the necks of goats. They may occur in males and females of many goat breeds. They are a source of injury and a possible site of infection. Wattles should be removed whenever they are large enough. Before the wattles are removed, the skin and area surrounding the site should be disinfected. Then while each animal is restrained, each wattle is held out from the neck and snipped off, at its point of attachment to the skin, with a pair of disinfected scissors. The procedure is nontraumatic and simple (Figure 53). Q. What do you understand by milking clip? From the standpoint of cleanliness and to produce quality milk, removing long and superfluous hair from pertinent parts of doe’s body is called milking clip. In warm climates, the entire body can be clipped. Briefly, a milking clip is from the tailhead diagonally forward and downward into the flank area to a point about 13 cm (5 in.) in


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front of the udder, everything to the rear of this path, including the sides and rear of the udder and the entire rear legs and the area about as wide as the udder extending 15 to 20 cm (6 to 8 in.) forward. Permitted by climate, bucks also should be clipped to help control buck odour. The areas usually included in buck clip are the belly, brisket , front legs and beard. Management clips can be repeated as often as necessary.


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BEHAVIOUR AND WELFARE OF SMALL RUMINANTS

Q. Why is the study of sheep/goat behaviour important for their producers? It is important so that sheep and goat producers can recognize when ewes and does are in heat (oestrus) or when parturition is imminent, and they know the bleat of a lamb or a kid in trouble. A producer should be able to walk through the flock and spot sick animals by their behaviour, thereby beginning early treatment or taking steps to correct some environmental problem. Through the years behaviour has received less attention but modern breeding, feeding and management have brought renewed interest in behaviour, especially as a factor in obtaining maximum production and efficiency. With confinement of flocks or herds many abnormal behaviours evolved to plague those who raise them, including loss of appetite, stereotyped movements, poor parental care, over aggressiveness, dullness, degenerate sexual behaviour and a host of other behavioural disorders. Confinement not only has limited space but has interfered with the habitat and social organization to which the species became adapted through thousands of years of evolution. People altered the environment faster than they altered the genetic make−up.

Q. Define animal behaviour and ethology. Give a list of general behavioural systems, which are exhibited by most of the farm animals.

Animal behaviour is the reaction of animals to certain stimuli or the manner in which they react to their environment. The individual and comparative study of animal behaviour is known as ethology. This term is used for observation and detailed description of behaviour with the objective of finding out how biological mechanisms function. Following is the list of general behavioural systems:

a) Ingestive (eating and drinking) behaviour b) Eliminative behaviour

c) Sexual behaviour d) Maternal and newborn behaviour

e) Agonistic or combat behaviour f) Gregarious behaviour

g) Investigative behaviour h) Shelter-seeking behaviour

Q. Write a note on ingestive and eliminative behaviour in small ruminants. The first ingestive behaviour common to all young mammals is suckling. Within 1 to 2 hours after birth, lambs/kids find the udders and begin to suckle. Initially, they are allowed to suckle at any time, but after 1 to 2 weeks, especially ewes begin to restrict the frequency and duration of suckling periods. They will generally do this by walking away from them. While suckling, lambs/kids characteristically nudge the udders with their noses and wiggle their tails from side to side. Sheep graze like cattle, but the cleft upper lip allows them to graze vegetation closer to the ground. The lips, the lower incisor teeth and the dental pad are the primary structures used by sheep and goats to grasp food. The tongue does not protrude during grazing as in buffalo and cattle. The leaves and stems are


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severed by the lower incisors against the dental pad as they jerk their heads slightly forward and upward. During a day, sheep will graze 4 to 7 times amounting to 9 to 11 hours of grazing, covering up to 8 km. Under grazing conditions, the difference between sheep and goats is the amount of browsing done by goats. They have unique preferences for shrubs and tree leaves. Depending on the food conditions, goats will spend 6 to 9 hours daily grazing and browsing.

Sheep will experience about 15 rumination periods per day. These may last anywhere from 1 to 100 minutes, but the total time spent ruminating is 8 to 10 hours per day. Goats ruminate mainly during night and each cycle of rumination lasts about 1 to 2 minutes. (Rumination is the act of chewing cud. It involves (1) regurgitation of ingesta from the reticulo-rumen, 2) swallowing of regurgitated liquids, 3) remastication of the solids accompanied by reinsalivation, 4) and reswallowing of the bolus).

Sheep and goats deposit their droppings in a random fashion. While defaecating they often wiggle their tails. To urinate, females assume a squatting position and males may arch their backs.

Q. Discuss briefly sexual behaviour of sheep and goats. Sexual behaviour involves courtship and mating. It is largely controlled by hormones. An ewe/doe in heat (oestrus) will seek out a ram/buck and closely associate with him, rub her neck and body against him and stand for mating. Does will mount each other occasionally, whereas ewes will not. Sexual behaviour in the ram/buck includes: following the female, biting the wool/hair of the female, nosing the genital region and sniffing female urine then extending the neck with upcurled lips (Flehmen response), running the tongue in and out, and raising and lowering one front leg in a stiff-legged striking motion. Aroused bucks urinate upon their front legs, briskets and beards.

Q. Write a brief note on maternal and newborn behaviour. After parturition, ewes and does lick their newborn, removing moisture and remnants of placental tissue. The mother-young bond in sheep and goats is very strong. Ewes and does become attached to their offspring and vice versa. Although ewes are normally timid and easily frightened, they will defend their young even if the attacker is formidable. Immediately after giving birth, ewes and does will readily accept alien newborns, thereafter, aliens are vigorously rejected by butting. It is their sense of smell that ewes and does employ to discriminate between their own and alien young.

Abnormal maternal behaviour includes: 1) deserting newborn, 2) moving when young attempts to suckle, and 3) butting their own offspring.

Newborn kids are hiders the first few days after birth. Under pasture or range conditions, they will hide when the does are not present. On the other hand, newborn lambs are followers. They follow the ewes everywhere.

Q. Discuss briefly agonistic (combat) and gregarious behaviour in sheep and goats.

Agonistic behaviour includes fighting and flight and other related reactions associated with conflict. Among all species of farm animals, males are more likely to fight than females. However, females may exhibit fighting behaviour under certain circumstances.


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Castrated males are usually quite passive, indicating hormones, especially testosterone, are involved in this type of behaviour. Rams fight by backing off and charging at each other headlong. The fight generally continues until one ram gives up, usually after both combatants have bloody noses. When fighting, goats will frequently rear up on their hind legs, come down, striking their opponents head-to-head. Gregarious behaviour refers to the flocking or herding instinct. It is particularly strong in sheep. It is reported to be more evident in some breeds than in others. This instinct facilitates their flocking on the range. Goats are less gregarious. The gregarious instinct of sheep diminishes to some extent when they are subjected to confinement (placed within fenced holdings).

Q. Write brief notes on investigative behaviour and shelter-seeking behaviour in sheep and goats.

All animals are curious and have a tendency to explore their environment. They investigate strange quarters and objects, approaching objects in a heads-up-, ears-forward and eyes-fixed manner. Sheep, however, are much more timid than buffalo and cattle; thus, they will usually turn and run if an object moves or if something frightens them. Goats, too, are investigative and easily find escape routes in pens. They are easily frightened, but learn quickly.

All species of animals seek shelter-protection from the sun, wind, rain, insects and predators. Sheep and goats seek shelter by moving into sheds or under trees, by huddling together to keep off flies, by crowding together in extremely cold weather and by pawing the ground and lying down. Like cattle, during a severe storm they turn there rear ends towards the wind. When there is no shelter, there is danger of their massing together and smothering during a very severe storm.

Q. Define social behaviour and social organization. Social behaviour is any behaviour caused by or affecting another animal usually of the same species, but also, in some cases, of another species. Social organization may be defined as an aggregation of individuals into a well-integrated and self-consistent group in which the unity is based upon the interdependence of the separate organisms and upon their responses to one another.

Q. Discuss the importance of social structure in a flock. The social structure in the flock is of great practical importance. Studies have shown that a group of sheep or goats of a single breed together in a pasture develop a flock or group identity so strong that when other sheep or goats of even the same age and sex are added to the pasture, it takes several weeks before the two groups integrate. Moreover, in a large pasture containing sheep or goats of several breeds, each breed may use different parts or areas and may never mix. When we restrict or confine animals and force them into spaces that bring them within the individual distance, we immediately create stress throughout the flock. Thereupon the dominants have to pay more attention to maintaining their dominance and to protecting their own field of territory. They will have to be more aggressive in their reactions. The subservients become far more nervous and their nervousness spreads throughout the flock.

Q. What is meant by dominance in sheep and goats? Discuss in detail.


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Within most groups of farm animals of the same species, there is a well-organized social rank called dominance hierarchy, which is just as real as any social register of people. Animals mostly observe this order in their relationships. With ewes, however, dominance does not seem to be as important or as obvious as with other farm animals. Unfamiliar ewes wandering into a group are generally subjected to sniffing investigation but active butting is rare. Even when only small amounts of feed are available, the competition involves primarily pushing and shoving toward the feed rather than active butting. Dominance is most likely to be observed in rams and bucks during mating, in competition for supplementary feed in a restricted space or at a watering trough.

In flocks of mixed ages and/or mixed breeds, the dominance at the feed trough is that the poor competitors i.e. the youngest and the oldest, cease trying. Also, some breeds demonstrate less competitive spirit.

Dominance and subordination are not inherited as such, for these relations develop due to several factors such as 1) age, 2) early experience, 3) size, 4) aggressiveness or timidity, and 5) sex. Of course, social rank becomes important when a group of animals is fed in confinement and doubly important if limited feeding is practised, since dominant animals crowd subordinate ones away from the feeding trough. In goats, the hierarchy depends on body weight/size, horns and age, but in flocks where there are many polled animals of the same age, the order is less firmly established. However, when goats are offered a palatable new feed and when feeder space is limited, a few goats may try to break the established order, resulting in fights and reduced feed intake.

Q. Do leader-follower relationships exist in small ruminants? Leader-follower relationships are particularly strong in sheep, for lambs follow their mothers from birth. In a naturally formed flock of sheep, the oldest ewes lead, followed immediately by their young lambs. Each is followed less closely by her descendents, with the females followed by their own lambs. Thus, the leader in the flocks is usually the oldest ewe with the largest number of descendents. This type of relationship is broken up in flocks where unrelated animals are brought together. Leadership in goats does not seem to be as established as that in sheep. Some leadership order is noted, but it is less likely to be closely related to age.

Q. Write a note on interspecies relationships. Social relationships are normally formed between members of the same species. However, they can be developed between two different species. In domestication this tendency is important because it permits several species to be kept together in the same pasture or a paddock and because of the close relationship that exists between people and animals. Such interspecies relationships can be produced artificially, generally by taking advantage of the maternal instinct of females and using them as foster mothers. For example, goats can be used to raise orphaned lambs.

Q. Define communication and discuss the various modes of communication between animals.

Communication involves a signal by one sheep/goat, which upon being received by another sheep/goat influences its behaviour. Communication between sheep and between goats may be via sound, smell, touch and/or vision.


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Sound: Typically, if an ewe or doe is separated from her lamb or kid, both animals ‘baa’ or ‘bleat’ until they are reunited. Also, a sheep or goat will ‘baa’ or ‘bleat’ when separated from the flock. During the breeding season, rams and bucks will produce courting grunts as they approach females and ewes and does demonstrate an increase in nonspecific bleats during courting. Ewes frequently produce a low ‘m-m-m’ when caring for their newborn lambs. A doe can identify her kid(s) by its voice after it is about 4 days old.

Smell: Initially, it is primarily the sense of smell that ewes and does employ to find their young. Rams use smell to locate females that are in heat. The buck odour elicits oestrus behaviour in does.

Touch: As part of the courting behaviour, ewes will rub against rams and rams will rub against ewes, paw them, bite their wool and nose them. While suckling, lambs nudge the udders with their noses. Goats will also show nuzzling behaviour during courtship.

Vision: Sheep use vision to maintain contact with other members of the flock. As a flock grazes, each individual throws up its head at intervals, presumably to respond to the position of other members. Vision is also important for mother-offspring recognition in both sheep and goats.

Q. Why is it considered important to be familiar with the behavioural norms of sheep and goats?

The sheep and the goat producers need to be aware of the behavioural norms of sheep and goats in order to detect and treat abnormal situations especially illness. Many sicknesses are first suspected because of some change in behaviour such as loss of appetite (anorexia), listlessness, laboured breathing, straining to urinate or defaecate, unusual posture, reluctant or unusual movement, persistent rubbing or licking and altered social behaviour e.g. one animal leaving the flock and going off by itself. They are among the useful diagnostic tools. Given below are some of the signs of good health: contentment, normal feed intake, bright eyes and pink membranes, alertness, dense, clean, bright fleece or hair and pliable, elastic skin, normal faeces and urine, no abnormal secretions from eyes, nose, mouth, normal temperature (102.3°F/39.1°C for sheep and 102°F/39.0°C for goats), normal heart rate (70 to 80 beats per minute for both sheep and goats), and normal respiration rate (12 to 20 breaths per minute for both sheep and goats).

Q. Are vision and sleep also important aspects of normal sheep and goat behaviour?

Vision: The eyes of sheep and goats, like many animals, are on the side of the head. This gives them an orbital or panoramic view−to the front, to the side and to the back⎯virtually at the same time. The field of vision directly in front of a sheep or goat is binocular, but on the sides and toward the back it is monocular. This type of vision leads sheep and goats to different interpretations of their environment than the binocular type vision of humans. Blind sheep at times exhibit rather bizarre behaviour such as panicking when approached and running headlong into obstacles.

Sleep: The normal sleeping posture of sheep is on the stomach but tilted to the side with one front leg folded under the body and the other extended forward. Usually the head is turned to one side and the eyes are closed. Although sheep and goats are usually inactive


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about half of the day, as with buffalo and cattle there is considerable debate as to whether they actually sleep. Certainly, sheep and goats do not enter the state of deep sleep that exists in horses, dogs and cats.

Q. Write a note on abnormal behaviour in small ruminants. Abnormal behaviour of farm animals is not fully understood. However, studies of captured wild animals have demonstrated that when the amount and quality, including variability of the surroundings of an animal are reduced, there is an increased probability that abnormal behaviour will develop. Also, it is recognized that confinement of animals creates a lack of space which often leads to unfavourable changes in habitat and social interactions for which the species have become adapted and best suited to over thousands of years of evolution. Abnormal behaviour may take many forms. Abnormal sexual behaviour is particularly distressing because the whole of production depends on the animal’s ability to reproduce. Sheep in confinement may develop wool-eating habit. They may not inflict great harm since they only take small nibbles of wool from each other. The cause is unknown, but it does seem to be associated with an unnatural environment, lack of comfort and boredom.

Q. Write a short note on learned behaviour in small ruminants. Available evidence indicates that sheep and goats are responsive to the requirements of a new environment and that they can rapidly adapt to modifications in reward and punishment patterns. Sheep exhibit classical conditioning−like Pavlov’s dogs. They develop preferences for certain environmental states or events-called preference acquisition. Goats are intelligent animals and they learn quickly in new surroundings.

Q. Discuss the significance of applied animal behaviour. Illustrate your answer with examples.

Knowledge and understanding of behaviour must be put into practice to be of value. Sheep and goat producers must make practical applications of animal behaviour e.g. such aspects as breeding for adaptation and training and adaptation.

Breeding for Adaptation: The wide variety of livestock in different parts of the world reflects a continuous process of natural and artificial selection, which has resulted in the survival of animals well adapted to climate and other environmental factors. Changes in the physical structure of animal species are dependent upon 1) the ability of animals to mutate and/or respond to selection pressure (natural or artificial) and response to the effect of environmental pressure on the animals, which results in survival of the fittest. There have been many attempts to introduce improved livestock into countries in which the productivity of native stock is low. But there are many problems in breed replacement; thus, a large number of experimental introductions of new breeds have not been successful. Disease problems, poor resistance to temperature extremes and limited feed supplies contribute to the failure of attempts to improve the output of native stock by replacing them with improved imported breeds. To succeed, breed replacement of crossbreeding systems for improved production with improved breeds must accompany improvement of the nutritional, parasitological, disease and husbandry conditions of the area.


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When choosing replacements to improve future generations, the producer should select from among animals kept under an environment similar to that under which it is expected that their offspring will perform. Moreover, these animals should be those that demonstrate high productivity in their environment. Therefore, the producer should select and breed sheep and goats that adapt quickly to their environment⎯animals that not only survive, but thrive, under the conditions imposed on them. When properly combined, hereditary and environment complement each other, but when one or the other is disregarded, they may oppose each other.

Training and Adaptation: Early training and experience are extremely important. In general, young animals learn more quickly and easily than adults do; hence, advance preparation for adult life will pay handsomely. The optimum time for such training varies according to species. Furthermore, stress can be reduced or avoided largely if animals proceed through a graduated sequence of events leading to an otherwise bitter experience.

Q. What is meant by animal environment? What factors are involved in environmental control?

Environment may be defined as all the conditions, circumstances and influences surrounding and affecting the production, growth and development of animals. The branch of science concerned with the relation of living things to their environment and to each other is known as ecology.

Sheep and goat producers in this country are little concerned with the effect of environment on their animals since they resort to uncontrolled grazing on pastures or ranges. But rising feed, land and labour costs, along with concentration of animals into smaller areas due to increasing colonization and ever−enhanced demand for food for exploding human population is going to change all this in near future. In sheep, goats and other animals, environmental control involves space requirements, light, air temperature, relative humidity, air velocity, wet bedding, ammonia buildup, odours and manure disposal. Control or modification of these factors offers possibilities for improving animal performance. In the present era, pollution control should be the most important requisite in locating a new livestock establishment or in continuing an old one. The location should be such as to avoid 1) complaints from neighbours about odours, insects and dust, and 2) pollution of surface and underground water.

In addition, feed and nutrition, weather, health and stress are environmental factors of special importance and they should be considered in any discussion on animal behaviour.

Feed and Nutrition: Sheep and goats may be affected by 1) too little feed, 2) rations that are too low in one or more nutrients, 3) an imbalance between certain nutrients, 4) or the physical form of the ration−for example, ground too finely. These conditions are further aggravated, especially in western countries, through the increased confinement of animals. Under these unnatural conditions, nutritional diseases and ailments are commonly noticed. Also, nutritional reproductive failures plague livestock operations. Generally, energy is more important than protein in reproduction. The level and kind of feed before and after parturition will determine how many females will show heat and conceive. After giving birth, their feed requirements increase tremendously because of milk production; hence ewes and does suckling young need 40 to 50% more feed


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allowance than during pregnancy period. Otherwise they will suffer a serious loss in weight.

Animals are creatures of habit, hence they should be fed at regular times each day. Too little feed results in slow and stunted growth of young stock; loss of weight and poor condition as well as poor reproduction in mature animals. Underfeeding also leads to failure of some females to show heat, more services per conception, lowered young crop and low birth weights. A deficiency of any essential nutrient required by a lactating sheep or goat will lower milk production and feed efficiency. On the other hand, too much feed is wasteful. It may create a health hazard. There is usually lowered reproduction in breeding animals.

Weather: Although sheep and goats, because of their body covering are comparatively more tolerant of environmental extremes than buffalo, cattle and poultry, thermal stress affects the maintenance requirement, voluntary feed intake, average daily gain and feed required per unit of gain of all species to varying degrees. Weather may be modified by shelters. Winter shelters and summer shades always improve production and feed efficiency provided they are cost effective.

Confinement Production: Some producers are using confinement structures. With this system, building designs, temperature, relative humidity, air velocity, dust, light, odours and space requirements are critical. Confinement buildings, mostly in use in western countries, are costly, but when properly designed and constructed, they create the ultimate in animal health, comfort and efficiency of feed utilization. Also, they lend themselves to automation. The decision on whether or not confinement and environmental control can be justified should be determined by economics. Manure disposal and pollution control are also considerations. In western world, dairy goats are managed under confinement.

Artificial Lighting: Ewes and does are mostly seasonal breeders. The number of hours of light in the day affects the initiation of their normal breeding season. Ewes and does generally begin cycling when the number of daylight hours drops below 14; hence, mostly they come into heat during the fall months. However, for oestrus to be initiated, it appears that the shorter days must be preceded by longer days. Artificial lighting can accomplish the same thing as daylight; hence it may be used to alter the oestrous cycle in ewes and does. The ratio of hours of daylight to darkness acts through the nerves and the hypothalamus of the brain, which may stimulate or inhibit the release of hormones from the pituitary gland. An increased release of hormones initiates the oestrous cycle in the fall.

Health: Diseases and parasites are ever−present animal environmental factors. Great economic losses result from retarded growth, poor feed efficiency, carcass condemnations, death, decreases in meat and wool quality and milk production and labour and drug costs. Any departure from the signs of good health constitutes a warning of trouble. Among the major signs of ill health are: lack of appetite, listlessness, droopy ears, sunken eyes, humped-up appearance, very hard or watery faeces suggesting an intestinal disturbance following infection, abnormal urine, repeated attempts to urinate without success, or off-coloured urine should be cause for suspicion, abnormal discharges from the nose, mouth and eyes or a swelling under the jaw, unusual posture such as


35

standing with head down, extreme nervousness, persistent rubbing, dull hair coat, loose wool, dry scurfy hidebound skin, pale or red mucous membranes lining the eyes and gums, reluctance to move or unusual movements, higher than normal or subnormal temperature, laboured breathing, altered social behaviour such as leaving the flock and going off alone and sudden drop in production−milk, wool, hair or weight gains.

Stress: Stress is any physical or psychological tension or strain. Many kinds of stress affect animals. Among the external forces which may stress animals are presence of strangers, fatigue, excitement, overcrowding, space, weather, shearing, trailing long distances, branding, changing barn and barn mates, joining a new flock, previous training, previous nutrition and management. Many sheep and goat diseases appear as a result of stress. Sheep and goats already weakened by poor nutrition or internal parasites may be particularly affected by stress. Animals may be prepared in such a manner as to reduce stress. In some cases crowding or inadequate facility design may lead to restricted access to feed or water. While such limitations may influence the performance potential of the animals, they may also result in stress related to frustration and associated abnormal behaviours. Thus stressors of physical nature may result in psychological influences as well (Ewing et al., 1999).

Q. Define animal welfare. Discuss animal welfare in relation to animal rights. Welfare in terms of what it means to an animal is difficult, if not impossible, to define accurately. In general, welfare refers to a condition of doing well, often defined by health, happiness and prosperity−all rather difficult to apply to animals.

Animal welfare is an issue of the times and there is no indication that the issue will be less important in the future. Although presently, passions in Pakistan society have not been aroused to the extent that people resort to protests and blockades to protect animal rights. However, feelings against mistreatment of animals during transportation, slaughter, overloading, unnecessary beating etc. are definitely there. In Europe and USA, the animal rights activist maintains that humans are animal too; thus, all animals should be included within the same system of moral protections. All animals have essential physical and behavioural requirements, which if denied, lead to stress and suffering.

Animal rights is a philosophical argument appealing to emotions and ideologies. Animal welfarists often judge animal welfare by applying human standards, whereas producers judge animal welfare by production efficiency and sick or poorly cared for animals fail to produce efficiently. Management practices such as castration and disbudding may create concern among animal welfarists-rightists. These procedures are performed when the animals are young and when good techniques are used, the indications of pain are mild. At the same time, the application of these techniques has known advantages. Producers in western countries are continually adopting better methods and selecting animals better adapted to their environment. They put their knowledge of animal behaviour to work. Good sheep and goat producers are actually the best animal welfarists. The minimum moral obligation of sheep and goat producers toward their animals is to provide freedom to express most normal behaviour, freedom from hunger and malnutrition, freedom from thermal or physical distress, freedom from disease or injury and freedom from fear. Recently an encouraging news appeared in the national press that soon a legislation will be enforced in Britian, which demands that pet keepers must provide their animals the


36

minimum required housing space, feed and water otherwise they would be proceeded against under the law of the land (Din, 2002).

Q. Suggest measures to control pollution relative to livestock sources. Pollution remains an issue of the times. It matters little whether pollution is due to crop or animal agriculture or due to factories. Everyone must ever be mindful that life, beauty, wealth and progress depend upon how wisely we use nature’s gifts⎯the soil, the air, the water, the minerals and the plant and animal life. In recent years, there has been a worldwide awakening to the problem of pollution of the environment and its effect on human health and other forms of life. Much of this concern stemmed from the amount of manure produced due to increased number of animals, especially those in confinement.

Both open lot and confinement livestock systems should come under pollution regulations. Open lots present drainage and runoff problems. Confinement systems must be coordinated with the disposal areas so that pollution will not be created when the storage pits are emptied. Registration of facilities and a permit to operate should be the primary requirements. Livestock systems with more than 100 animal units each should be subject to permit requirements with an undertaking to arrange for proper disposal of animal wastes and other pollutants. Livestock facilities with any combination of species, including open feedlots, confined operations, stockyards, livestock auction and buying yards, livestock fairs etc. must be regularly inspected to ensure for proper arrangements for the disposal of all types of pollutants from such places. Supervisors of Environment Protection Agency (EPA) should visit such places to deliver lectures to the owners and workers there to create awareness among them in this regard. Possibly, cost−sharing help up to 50% may be provided by EPA to such enterprises to construct livestock wastage storage and diversion facilities.

Little pollution potential exists from pasture systems with low animal density or where pastures are rotated. Under poor range management, the environment is affected adversely, while under proper range management, grazing actually improves the environment. Unregulated heavy grazing results in loss of desirable forage plants, increased runoff and erosion. On many grass-shrub ranges, livestock grazing reduces the danger of fire by preventing a buildup of dry grass, which is highly inflammable. When sheep and goats are held in confinement, the manure pollution problem will persist. However, the energy crisis accompanied by high synthetic fertilizer prices, has caused manure to be looked upon as a resource and not as a waste that presents a disposal problem. At current prices for nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P2O5) and potassium (K2O), 1 ton of sheep/goat manure is worth Rs. 800 to 1000. As a result, a growing number of farmers are returning to organic farming. In the future, as fertilizer and feed become increasingly expensive, the economic value of manure will increase.

In the everyday pursuit of modern agriculture, more and more chemicals and drugs are being used. There has been increased public concern over the use of these products, for fear of poisoning human food. When properly used, agricultural chemicals are an important adjunct in providing feed for animals and food for people. However, improper use can result in toxicity. Moreover, certain chemicals can accumulate in the body fat of animals and can be found in the meat or milk. Therefore, chemicals and drugs must be used with discretion. There is need for 1) careful testing through properly designed


37

experiments of all products prior to use, 2) conforming with federal and provincial laws, and 3) accurate labeling and use of products.


38

APPLICATION OF BIOTECHNOLOGY

Q. What is meant by recombinant DNA technology and genome? Recombinant DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) technology, which is a synonym for genetic engineering, conveys the idea of a design or blueprint used to construct a new genome or part of it in a methodical way. The genome is the specific sequence of DNA replicated in each cell of a living organism, which contains all the information for the genetic control of that organism. Recombinant DNA simply means taking a piece of DNA from a cell, transferring it to a vector in vitro and then inserting it into another cell. Much of the power of biotechnology derives from the power of multiplication of DNA segments brought about by the division of cell carrying the recombinant DNA. DNA is the common hereditary material shared by all living organisms, the technique of recombinant DNA has opened up the possibilities of changing the genomes of any species of living organisms.

Q. Discuss the possibility of the application of recombinant DNA for improvement of farm animals.

The implicit possibility is to use this technology to stimulate rapid growth of commercially valuable animals. The aim is to subject genes to detection, isolation, cloning, structural and functional diagnosis, transfer to a location for appropriate segregation and control of expression in the phenotype.

Target Areas: There are four areas of animal production and health in which it is realistic to expect biotechnology to have an impact. These are:

• animal reproduction and genetics; • animal nutrition; • animal health; • systematic changes in the animal’s basic life processes of growth, lactation,

fibre production and work. Animal Reproduction and Genetics: The use of superovulation in mammals, followed by subsequent fertilization in vivo using artificial insemination, flushing out the embryos and inserting them into recipient mothers is established as a field technique. Sexing of the embryo is also established. Recombinant DNA adds to this array of techniques the possibility of inserting part of the genome from other animals or even from other species to enhance genetic ability and adaptation of embryo. The aim is to multiply the benefits by cloning the transgenic embryo and thus producing many identical transgenic embryos of known sex for insertion in many recipient mothers.

Such animals could be of superior productivity and well adapted. There would also be the second advantage of disposing of the need for field recording and even of performance testing stations. The addition of recombinant DNA to the techniques of superovulation, embryo splitting and cloning would yield many dairy bulls/bucks of high breeding value for milk.

Animal Nutrition: The impact of biotechnology on animal nutrition can be considered in two broad groups: methods that operate within the animal and those that affect the


39

nutritive value of animal feed before it is ingested by the animal. Within the animal, the area expected to contribute significantly to improved nutrition is the modification of rumen microbial ecosystems (bacteria, protozoa). Although the species are known, there is little information on their relative quantitative contribution, for example to cellulose digestion. Furthermore, the genetics of rumen bacteria have scarcely been studied. Therefore, much basic mapping of the genome and identification of the enzyme products, biochemical pathways and functions under DNA control still needs to be done. There is nevertheless a huge pay-off to be gained by improvements in digestion of animal fodder, especially in countries like ours, where much feed for ruminants has a high cellulose content. As regards preparing animal feed for higher productivity, it may be possible to treat feed with transgenic microbes before ingestion by the animal, in order to promote higher digestibility.

Biotechnology is much more advanced in its effect upon plant breeding, and it is therefore, reasonable to expect that transgenic plants with improved value as animal feed will be developed. The target plant constituents include the proteins, which will be affected if a plant species is enabled to fix atmospheric nitrogen and also fibre and oil. Additional areas to be explored include improving plant tolerance of drought, excess water, frost and plant diseases. Producing fodder crops with a more robust stem to remain upright in storm conditions would also be valuable in some areas.

Systemic Changes in the Animal Life: Manipulation by exogenous hormones to increase the pace of the life processes has been practised for many years. Biotechnology offers the prospect of much cheaper production of exogenous hormones by transgenic microorganisms, and it offers the alternative and more attractive idea of stimulating endogenous hormone secretion. It was reported that dairy cows responded to exogenous bovine growth hormone in early lactation, showing 12% increase in milk yield and 25% increase in milk fat.

The possibilities of bringing about such changes by recombinant DNA to code for increased supply of endogenous hormones in all species of milch animals are intriguing. Using recombinant DNA, the buffalo probably could be induced to show more obvious signs of heat, thus permitting the use of artificial insemination on a wider scale without inducing oestrus synchronization by injections.

Animal Health: In this field biotechnology has already made substantial contributions, and many more are expected in the future. Broadly, three areas are to be considered: vaccine production, diagnostic methods and treatment of infected animals. It has been pointed out that live attenuated vaccines are cheap, highly effective and induce long prolonged immunity, while inactivated vaccines are often expensive to produce and less effective. Recombinant DNA is being used to produce activated strains of pathogens. One of the simplest approaches is to clone the genes that code for antigens and insert them into simple organisms, which then produce large quantities cheaply. A vaccine can thus be produced without using any infectious organisms. The first big step is always the identification of the antigens, which is often achieved by the use of monoclonal antibodies. Monoclonal antibodies are protein molecules with high specificity for identifying the chemical contents of living cells. Much work has already been done to develop monoclonal antibodies for specific organisms and antigens. This makes them


40

very useful for the diagnosis of disease. Rapid and specific methods for diagnosis of several diseases have been developed.

Two other areas of interest are the production of new antibodies and the development of vaccines for the control of diseases produced by metazoan parasites. There appears to be a new promise of dealing effectively with some of the endemic animal diseases in some of the African and Asian countries that have impeded animal production without adequate control.

Q. What is meant by animal cloning? Give a few specific examples indicating the application of biotechnology in this area.

Cloning denotes manipulation of a cell from an animal so that it grows into an exact duplicate of that animal. The first mammal cloned in this way from an adult cell was a sheep⎯Dolly, in July 1996. It involved an expenditure $750,000. Other examples are:

• Backed by PPL Therapeutics of Edinburgh, a cow named Rosie was genetically engineered in early part of 1997; its milk contains human alpha-lactalbumin. This protein contains just about all the amino acids a newborn needs; the idea is to purify the proteins from Rosie’s milk and sell it in powdered form, for premature babies who cannot nurse. PPL spent 4 million dollars to develop Rosie and two small herds of cows.

• Genzyme Transgenics Corporation has grown goats whose milk contains a human anticlotting protein that can be used in heart-surgery patients.

• Tools of biotechnology are used to increase production of lysozyme, a natural milk enzyme with antimicrobial properties. If production of this natural enzyme is increased, it would reduce udder infections, thereby improve animal health and help farmers use less antibiotics. Since its antimicrobial property is not destroyed by heat, milk that contains increased lysozyme, could have longer shelf life because fewer bacteria would have grown in the interval between the farm and the processing plant. Milk with high levels of lysozyme could be helpful in reducing diarrhoea among children especially in developing countries.

• Researchers have engineered a goat to make milk containing Tissue Plasminogen Activator (TPA), useful for dissolving clots in heart attack victims. Currently commercial production of TPA takes place in bioreactor vats of recombinant bacteria and costs thousands of dollars a gram. The goat engineered by a team of researchers of private companies and a University, produces 3 grams TPA/litre, a very high yield. Researchers believe that one goat could make as much TPA as a 1000 litre bioreactor. Further, a goat has been produced which will produce an experimental anti-cancer medication. Researchers believe it is more cost effective to produce medication with a flock of goats rather than establishing a new processing plant for the purpose.

• Some companies are working on ways to get pigs to grow hearts and kidneys that would not be rejected in transplants. Several transgenic companies have undertaken the exercise to alter the embryos of goats, pigs, mice with human genes so that they can produce proteins and drugs for treating cancer and other diseases.


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• Mice have largely been the subjects of genetic engineering experiments. Two male mice siblings about 10 weeks old were used in such a study. One of them contained a new gene composed of the mouse metallothionein promoter fused to the rat growth hormone structural gene. It weighed 44g, while his sibling without the gene weighed 29g. In general, mice that express the gene, grow two to three times as fast as control mice and reach a size of up to twice normal.

• ‘Yang Yang’, a goat cloned by Chinese has already produced two perfectly healthy kids. She would soon be having a third one. It shows that Chinese are well advanced in cloning technology.

Q. Enumerate the steps essentially involved in cloning of Dolly.

• The mammary cell for cloning was obtained from a Finn Dorset ewe. A mammary cell contains copies of every gene needed to make a sheep, but only genes for proteins required by mammary cells are active.

• Cells grow and divide, making carbon copies of themselves. But if the cells are starved of nutrients, they enter a quiescent state. At this point all of their genes could be activated.

• A Scottish Black Face ewe provided the egg. • The egg or oocyte was kept alive in a laboratory dish. • The nucleus was removed from the egg. • The mammary cell and the egg were made to fuse with a spark of electricity.

Molecules in the egg then programmed genes in the mammary cell to produce the lamb embryo.

• Clusters of embryonic cell were grown. • Embryos were implanted into a surrogate mother.

The lamb that resulted was a clone of the donor ewe and was named as Dolly.


42

FEASIBILITIES FOR KEEPING SHEEP/GOATS

Q. Discuss the major economic considerations in relation to establishing a small ruminant enterprise.

Investment: Animal farming is a high investment business, especially an enterprise involving large ruminants. The capital investment comprises i) Fixed capital or non-recurring and ii) Working capital or recurring expenditure. Non-recurring Expenditure: Cost of animals, buildings, equipment, fences, land (if purchased) and other property items. Recurring Expenditure: a) Variable cost. Costs of feeds including cost of producing fodders, salary of staff and wages of labour, AI and health care charges, land rent (if hired), upkeep of building, repair of equipment and other day-to-day miscellaneous expenses (contingencies), b) Fixed cost. Depreciation on livestock, buildings and equipment, interest on fixed capital. Receipts: Sale of animal products (wool, milk), sale of culled and surplus stock, appreciation on growing stock, sale of by-products such as skins, manure and grain and fodder in excess of requirements. Turnover: It means total output in relation to investment. In other words, turnover is return per unit investment. Turnover or the investment output, production potential of animals, size of farm, proportion of fixed capital to working capital and the managerial ability of the manager. Sometimes mixed farming−keeping animals as well as raising cash and grain crops, can prove to be more profitable than animal farming alone. Turnover can also be considered as the speed with which the gross income obtained from the business equals original capital investment. But unlike an industry where every thing works mechanically, production can be enhanced by various means, the biological system and capacity of animals and plants puts a limit on the farm manager’s efforts to increase the turnover rate of capital on animal farms. However, the manager should try to economise on non−biological components of farming e.g. avoid construction of expensive farm buildings, fences, since these are in a sense mostly unproductive and retard the rate of capital turnover. Law of Diminishing Returns: This law governs the input output relationship. In general, total output or yield of a product increases most rapidly with the first few units of input, then continues to increase but at a slower rate. Until it reaches the point of maximum total output. At this point additional input results in a decline of output commensurate with the additional input. An example is the response of growth rate of lambs which is almost very efficient till the age of about 5 months beyond this age growth continues but at a diminishing rate. The manager should be able to note the breakeven point and use inputs judiciously. Equi−marginal Returns and Opportunity Cost: It may be assumed that funds are available to increase inputs until marginal costs equaled marginal returns. But when capital is limited, as mostly is the case, the principle of equi−marginal returns becomes the basis of making decisions, relative to the use of resources. This principle means that


43

the last unit of capital spent on a given phase of the farm operation will yield a marginal return which is equal to the marginal returns from all other phases of the operation. For example, if Rs. 100/- spent on fertilizer will return more than Rs. 100/- spent on purchasing fodder, then additional fertilizer should be purchased until the last unit purchased will yield the same return as money spent on buying fodder. Opportunity costs indicate the obverse aspect of the principle of equi−marginal returns. Opportunity cost means assessing the value of a small ruminant product (or any other commodity) that was not produced, because the available resources were applied to the production of something else. For example, if a given amount of feed and labour applied to the dairy goats, provided additional yield of milk worth Rs. 1500/- and the same amount of feed and labour would be required to grow say four kids, then the opportunity cost of the four kids would be Rs. 1500/-. Thus the resources on a farm may be limited, but the manager has certain options to use such resources for different production purposes. Another example indicates that the manager would do better to spend Rs. 500/- partly on extra concentrate feed and partly on green fodder instead of spending the whole amount on grain feeding because the marginal or added product/income in the former case is more than the latter in conformity to the principle of opportunity cost as applied to resource utilization on small ruminant feeding. Substitution: It is the principle on which least−cost method of production is based. If the output of a product remains constant and the product is of equal quality, it seems a good business to substitute one factor for another factor when the cost of the substitute is less than the cost of the resource it replaced. For example, if the total milk production and its quality are not affected, a part of the ration of dairy buffaloes may be substituted by feeding urea−molasses mixture. The urea−molasses mixture provides nutrients (mainly protein) at a much cheaper rate. Similarly, purchased fodders can be substituted with home grown fodders, which are cheaper. The manager needs to keep track of recent innovations in the field of animal sciences with an aim of better management of farm animals leading to better productivity and higher returns from them. Q. Write a detailed note on systems of farming in Pakistan. Running of a farm is different under different conditions. Depending on the mode of ownership and organization, farms can be classified as i) individually owned, ii) cooperative, and iii) government farm. The type of farming can be i) specialised farming, ii) diversified farming, or iii) mixed farming, depending on how income is derived from a farming enterprise. Specialised Farms: A specialised farm is one on which 50% or more of the receipts are obtained from a single source. A specialised dairy farm, for example, is one on which the main source of income is milk, while there can also be income from other subsidiary sources such as sale of manure, extra fodder and grains. Diversified Farms: A diversified or general purpose farm is one from which the farmer derives income from several commodities or sources. But income from no single source is more than 50%. For example a farmer may keep a couple of buffaloes, some chicken, as well as has grown some vegetables and cash crops. He derives income from these different sources, if one or two enterprises fail for some reason, the others will help prevent total financial loss.


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Mixed Farms: Mixed farming is the most relevant system of farming to Pakistan conditions, because of small size of holdings and unsound economic status of an average farmer in this country. Generally, under mixed farming crop production is combined with animal production. Livestock is complementary to crop production and vice versa, depending on the relative emphasis given to one or the other. Agricultural economists consider that for a farm to be called as a mixed farm, at least 10 to 15% of its grass income must come from its livestock component. A vast majority of farms in Pakistan, by and large, can be called as mixed farms with an established complementary relationship between crops and livestock. Crop by−products like straw, bran, husks etc. are used for feeding livestock. Dung, droppings and urine of large and small ruminants are used for manuring the fields. Farm animals are better utilisers of crop wastes, can manure the fields directly and require very little day-to-day investment on them. Mixed farming also leads to provide balanced load of labour for the farmer and his family throughout the year. Ultimately it results in higher returns from a unit of land holding.


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FEASIBILITY FOR KEEPING 116 LOHI SHEEP

An outline of investment for the establishment of a sheep farm to keep 120 animals is given below. It is advisable that to get maximum profit and better growth of sheep, the provision of as much grazing as possible should be the best option. The expenditure can thus be reduced and income increased. Investment

116 sheep @ Rs. 3000 per sheep Rs. 348,000

4 rams @ Rs. 4000 per ram Rs. 16,000

Construction of 1920 sq.ft. shed for 116 ewes and 4 rams Rs. 192,000

@ Rs. 100 per sq.ft.

10 wooden mangers @ 250 per manger Rs. 2,500

Construction of water trough Rs. 4,000

Water pump Rs. 4,000

Iron cabinet Rs. 4,000

Buckets, balance, ropes etc. Rs. 5,000 Total investment Rs. 575,500

Annual increase/decrease in animals

O/B

Increased by Decreased by C/B

Year

Category of sheep Birt

h Purch

ase Trans

fer

Total

Death

Sold

Transfer

Total

Ram - 4 - 4 - - - - 4

Ewe - 116 - 116 6 10 - 16 100

MYS - - 59 59 - 59 - 59 -

FYS - - 59 59 - 43 - 43 16

MS 66 - - 66 7 - 59 66 -

Ist

FS 66 - - 66 7 - 59 66 -

Total

132 120 118 370 20 112 118 250 120

Ram 4 - - - - - - - - 4

Ewe 100

- - 16 16 6 10 - 16 100

2nd MYS - - 59 59 - 59 - 59 -


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FYS 16 - - 59 59 - 43 16 59 16

MS 66 - - 66 7 - 59 66 -

FS 66 - - 66 7 - 59 66 -

Total

120

132 - 134 266 20 112 134 266 120

Ram 4 - - - - - - - - 4

Ewe 100

- - 16 16 6 10 - 16 100

MYS - - 59 59 - 59 - 59 -

FYS 16 - - 59 59 - 43 16 59 16

MS 66 - - 66 7 - 59 66 -

3rd

FS 66 - - 66 7 - 59 66 -

Total

120

132 - 134 266 20 112 134 266 120

Basis for calculation

* Pregnant ewes will be purchased.

* Fertility 90%.

* Twins 25%.

* Male, female ratio 50:50.

* Mortality adults 5% sucklers 10%

* Culling (only in ewes) 5%.

MYS: male young stock; FYS: female young stock; MS: male suckler; FS: female suckler; O/B: opening balance; C/B; closing balance.

Expenditure on fodder production

Production expenditure per ton of fodder = Rs. 400.00

Production expenditure per 40 kg of fodder = Rs. 16.00

Production expenditure per kg of fodder = Rs. 0.40

(production expenditure includes land preparation

charges, seed, fertilizer, insecticides, land rent,

water charges and labour).

Fodder requirements


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For one year For three years Category of sheep

No. of animals Fodder

required (ton) Cost (Rs.)

Fodder required

(ton)

Cost (Rs.)

Ram 4 12 4800 36 14400

Ewes 116 339 135600 1017 406800

FYS 16 17 6800 51 20400

MS 59 5 2000 15 6000

FS 59 5 2000 15 6000

Total 254 378 151200 1134 453600

Ram 8.0 kg per day for 365 days

Ewe 8.0 kg per day for 365 days

FYS 4.0 kg per day for 270 days

MS & FS 1.0 kg per day for 90 days

Fodder price = Rs. 400 per ton

Concentrate requirements

For one year For three years Category of sheep

No. of animals Fodder

required (ton) Cost (Rs.)

Fodder required (ton)

Cost (Rs.)

Ram 4 114 1152 432 3456

Ewes 116 2755 22040 8265 66120

Total 120 2935 23192 8697 69576

Ram 400 g per day 15 days before breeding and one month during breeding.

Pregnant ewe 250 g per day one month before lambing and one month after lambing.

250 g per head per day for 45 days before breeding (flushing).

Medicines


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Items For one year For three years

Surgical instruments 2000 6000

Anthelmintics 6000 18000

Vaccines 2000 6000

Emergency medicines 1000 3000

Total 11000 33000

Labour charges

Detail For one year For three years

Monthly wage of a shepherd @ Rs. 3000/month 36000 108000

One young shepherd @ Rs. 1500/month 18000 54000

Total 54000 162000

Income from the sale of animals

For one year For three years Balance stock Category of sheep No. of

animals Rs. No. of

animals Rs. No. of

animals Rs.

Ram - - - - 4 20000

Ewe 10 30000 30 90000 100 350000

MYS 59 147500 177 442500 - -

FYS 43 107500 129 322500 16 48000

MS - - - - - -

FS - - - - - -

Total 112 285000 336 855000 120 418000

Sale price of animals

For first three years Last year (balance stock)

Ram 4000 5000

Ewe 3000 3500

MYS & FYS 2500 3000

Income from sale of wool


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For one year For three years Sheep category No. of animals Rs. No. of animals Rs.

Ram - - - -

Ewe 6 1200 18 3600

FYS 14 1400 42 4200

Total 20 2600 60 7800

Sale price per skin

Ewe Rs. 200

MS&FS Rs. 100 Expenditure for one year

Monthly wages of an adult shepherd @ Rs. 3000 and a young Rs. 54000

shepherd @ Rs. 1500

Cost of concentrates Rs. 23192

Cost of fodder Rs. 151200

Depreciation of building and other equipment @ 20% per year Rs. 42300

Cost of medicines etc. Rs. 11000 Total Rs. 281692

Expenditure in three years Rs. 845076 Purchase of animals Rs. 364000

Total Rs. 1209076

Income for one year

Sale of wool Rs. 10880

Sale of skins Rs. 2600

Sale of animals Rs. 285000

Sale of manure Rs. 4000 Total Rs. 302480

Income for three years Rs. 907440

Sale of left over animals at the end of three years Rs. 418000

Total Rs. 1325440


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Profit in three years = 1325440-1209076 = 116364

Profit per year = 38788

Note. If the animals are provided natural grazing instead of feeding them on cultivated fodder, the profit can be further increased (38788 + 151200) = Rs. 189988 per year.


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FEASIBILITY FOR KEEPING 100 BEETAL GOATS

Investment

100 Beetal goats @ Rs. 3000 per goat Rs. 300,000

3 bucks @ 4000 per buck Rs. 12,000

Construction of 1236 sq.ft. shed for 100 does and 4 bucks Rs. 123,600


Construction of a 420 sq.ft. shed for 70 male and female young stock Rs. 42,000


10 wooden mangers @ Rs. 250 per manger Rs. 2,500

Construction of water trough Rs. 4,000

Water pump Rs. 4,000

Iron cabinet Rs. 4,000

Buckets, balance, ropes etc. Rs. 5,000 Total investment Rs. 497,100

Annual increase/decrease in animals

O/B

Increased by Decreased by C/B

Year

Class of goats Birth Purch

ase Transf

er Total

Death

Sold

Transfer

Total

Bucks

- 3 - 3 - - - - 3

Does - 100 - 100 2 - - 2 98

MYS

- - 75 75 4 70 - 74 1

FYS - - 75 75 4 - - 4 71

MS 88 - - 88 13 - 75 88 -

Ist

Fs 88 - - 88 13 - 75 88 -

Total

176 103 150 429 36 70 150 256 173

Bucks

3 - - 1 7 - 1 - 1 3

Does 98 - - 71 71 4 67 - 71 98


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MYS

1 - - 73 73 4 68 1 73 1

FYS 71 - - 73 73 7 - 71 78 66

MS - 86 - - 86 13 - 73 86 -

2nd

Fs - 86 - - 86 13 - 73 86 -

Total

173

172 - 218 390 41 136 218 395 168

Bucks

3 - - 1 1 - 1 - 1 3

Does 98 - - 66 66 4 62 - 66 98

MYS

1 - - 73 73 4 68 1 73 1

FYS 66 - - 73 73 7 - 66 73 66

MS - 86 - - 86 13 - 73 86 -

3rd

Fs - 86 - - 86 13 - 73 86 -

Total

168

172 - 213 385 41 131 213 385 168

Basis for calculation

* Kids born to one doe per year 1.76

* Age at first kidding 559 days

* Kidding interval 357 days

* Mortality in sucklers 15%

* Mortality in young stock 5%

* Mortality in adults 2%

* Sex ratio 50:50 Note. Pregnant does to be purchased in the months of January and February. Male and female young stock to be sold at the age of 9 months and one year respectively.

MYS: male young stock; FYS: female young stock; MS: male sucklers; FS: female sucklers; O/B: opening balance; C/B: closing balance.

Expenditure on fodder

First year


53

Fodder for 103 (100+3) does and bucks @ 8 kg/animal/day for one year 300 tons

Fodder for 150 male and female young stock @ 4 kg/animal/day for 109 tons

6 months Total 410 tons

cost (410x400) Rs. 164,000

Second year

Fodder for 173 (71+1+98+3) does and bucks @ 8 kg/animal/day 126 tons

for 3 months

Fodder for 101 (98+3) does and bucks @ 8 kg/animal/day for 9 months 221 tons

Fodder for 146 (73+73) male and female young stock @ 4 kg/animal/day 106 tons

for 6 months cost (453x400) Rs. 181,200

Total 453 tons

Third year

Fodder for 168 (3+98+1+66) does and bucks @ 8 kg/animal/day for 123 tons

3 months

Fodder for 101 (98+3) does and bucks @ 8 kg/animal/day for 9 months 221 tons

Fodder for 146 (73+73) male and female young stock @ 4 kg/animal/ 106 tons

day for 6 months

cost (450x400) Rs. 180,000

Total 450 tons

Total cost of fodder Rs. 525,200

Expenditure on concentrate


54

First year Second year Third year Detail

No. Cost No.

Cost No. Cost

Concentrate for bucks @ 500 g/animal/day for 120 days @ Rs. 8/kg

3 Rs. 1440 3 Rs. 1440 3 Rs. 1440

Concentrate for does @ 500 g/animal/day for 150 days @ Rs. 8/kg (for one lactation)

100 Rs. 60,000

98 Rs. 58,800

98 Rs. 58,800

Total 103 Rs. 61,440

101

Rs. 60,240 101 Rs. 60,240

Total expenditure on concentrate Rs. 181,920

Annual expenditure

Detail First year Second year

Third year

Monthly wage of a shepherd @ Rs. 3000

36,000 36,000 36,000

Cost of green fodder 164,000 161,200 180,000

Cost of concentrate 61,440 60,240 60,240

Cost of medicines, vaccines etc. 10,000 10,000 10,000

Depreciation of building and other equipment @ 20% per year

37,020 37,020 37,020

Total 308,460 324,460 323,260

Total expenditure = Rs. 956,180

Annual income

Detail First year Second year Third year

No. Income No. Income No. Income


55

Sale of buck @ Rs. 4000/animal

- - 1 4,000 1 4,000

Sale of FYS @ Rs. 2500/animal

- - 67 167,500 62 155,000

Sale of MYS @ Rs. 2500/animal

70 175,000

68 170,000 68 170,000

Sale of skins 41 2,500 41 2,500 41 2,500

Sale of milk @ 200 lit/goat/lactation @ Rs. 8/lit

100 160,000

98 156,800 98 156,800

Total - 337,500

- 344,000 - 331,500

Total income = Rs. 10,13000

Sale of left over animals at the end of three years

Class of goats No. Value of one animal (Rs.) Total value (Rs.)

Buck 4 5000 20,000

Doe 98 3500 343,000

MYS 1 3000 3,000

FYS 66 3000 198,000

Total - - 564,000

Total income in three years

Detail Income

Sale of animals and milk in three years 10,1300

Sale of left over animals at the end of project 564,000

Value of building and equipment at the end of project

72,240

Total income 16,49,240

Total expenditure in three years

Initial investment 180,600

Annual expenditure 956,180

Total expenditure 11,36,780


56

Profit in three years 1649240-1136780 =512460

Profit per year Rs. 170,820

sheep goat 4

Documents

total lamb kid mortality

small ruminant enterprise

lambs kids born

weighing small ruminants

ram lambs buck kids

altered social behaviour

general behavioural systems

female young stock