SHAWGSheep Health & Welfare Group

Sheep Health and Welfare Report for Great Britain

2016/17

Contents

1. Introduction 1

2. Background to the report 2

3. Industry data and trends 3

4. Surveillance and monitoring 8

5. Internal parasites 11

6. External parasites 13

7. Lameness 14

8. Chronic wasting diseases 15

9. Common endemic diseases 17

10. Abortion 18

11. Ewe mortality 20

12. Lamb mortality 22

13. Abattoir data 24

14. Horizon scanning 26

15. Flock health planning 28

16. Use of medicines 29

17. Farm assurance 30

18. Breeding for health and welfare traits 31

19. Nutrition 32

20. Recommendations 33

References 34

Glossary 37

Appendix 40

About SHAWG 44

The SHAWG members would like to thank Kate Phillips, Harriet Fuller, Brian Lindsay and Ian Davies for their significant contribution to this report.

I am delighted to be writing this introduction for the very first Sheep Health and Welfare Report, instigated and commissioned by the Sheep Health and Welfare Group (SHAWG). The launch of this report supports the role of the SHAWG conferences that have become such popular and well attended events. These conferences reflect a sheep industry on the verge of a step change, to even further improvements in sheep health and welfare. It is anticipated that this report is part of that process. This document is purposely designed as a reference tool rather than a booklet to be read from cover to cover.

One of the key roles of SHAWG is the coordination of industry initiatives in sheep health and welfare related activity. While there is much the industry can address, we are focusing on prioritising and fully exploring the key industry challenges, in preference to a broader, less productive blanket approach. SHAWG hopes that based on the available data and associated information contained within this report, the sector can collaborate and work towards some common health and welfare goals.

Sourcing data was a major challenge in producing this document. At several points in this publication you will see data from commercial organisations or even personal communications. If you have relevant data that you feel could be useful for future editions, your input would be greatly appreciated and we would welcome your contribution.

SHAWG does not have resources to deliver programmes on behalf of the industry, but has a substantial role in getting the sector to identify and focus on major issues. This comprehensive document makes a number of recommendations, based on the evidence explored within this report. I encourage you to take time to read it and if you or your organisation has a role to play in any of these areas, please do give them your support. Equally importantly, do let SHAWG know of plans you may have, since they may connect you with others considering similar actions. Transferring knowledge in this way is key to developing the industry as a whole.

Finally, I wish to thank all the members of SHAWG for their continued commitment to the Group. The level of debate and the genuine support of the individuals involved makes this a truly valuable resource for both the industry and associated government agencies. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the report drafting group who have read and re-read this document, attended meetings with the authors and invested considerable effort in originating and editing this publication. Without their help, this document could not have been produced. SHAWG is also very grateful for and could not exist without the core funding initially from EBLEX and more recently from AHDB Beef & Lamb.

Finally, when reading this report, try and make sure that whatever points you take from it, result in someway to improving the health and welfare of our national flock!

1. Introduction

peter BaBer

SHAWG Chair (2009-2016)

1

2

This is the first report on the state of sheep health and welfare in Great Britain (GB). It covers health and welfare subjects relevant to today’s sheep industry and uses historic data to provide a context for the findings.

The Sheep Health and Welfare Group (SHAWG) originally started as an England-only committee but soon included representatives from across GB. The fact that we are an island and that diseases do not respect borders, necessitates a cohesive approach to understanding the impact of disease and maintenance of high standards of animal welfare. We depend on each other to maintain a nationwide reputation for sheep meat and breeding stock.

The aims of this report are to:

■ Inform the industry of current disease threats, control measures and disease incidence

■ Highlight potential areas for concerted effort to help maintain a profitable sheep sector in GB

■ Emphasise the need for proactive health planning and surveillance to protect our national flock to maintain trade.

This report is compiled using data from a variety of sources including industry, Government and from peer reviewed literature. The data comes from both statutory surveillance and voluntary collection, which have pros and cons in regards to reliability and being representative. The hope is that this report will stimulate additional data to be identified or collected, especially in relation to the major health and welfare concerns identified by SHAWG (see Figure 1).

2.Backgroundtothisreport

EWEMORTALITY

INTERNALPARASITES

EXTERNALPARASITES

POORNUTRITION

LAMBMORTALITY

CHRONICWASTINGDISEASES

ABORTION MASTITIS

LAMENESS

Figure1.MajorsheephealthandwelfareconcernsidentifiedbytheSheepHealthandWelfareGroup

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Sheep numBerS

Defra figures for the UK sheep flock (based on the annual June census) show that, following a period of general decline from 2002 onwards, there has been a steady but small increase in breeding ewe numbers since 2010, with an increase of 3% between 2013 and 2015, as shown in Figure 2. Results of the June 2015 census indicate a total UK breeding flock of about 16 million ewes, with around 7 million in England, 5 million in Wales, 3.5 million in Scotland and 1 million in Northern Ireland (1).

The distribution of sheep tends to be in the west and north (2) (see Figure 3).

3. Industrydataandtrends

Figure2.EwenumbersbyregionintheUnitedKingdom(2002to2015)

Figure3.SheeppopulationdensityinGreatBritainin2015

Mill

ion

ewes

20

18

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

UK

England

Scotland

Wales

Northern Ireland

Source: Defra

Source: animal and plant health agency

reSuLtS from BritiSh Sheep BreeD SurVey

The British sheep breed survey has been carried out periodically since 1971, with the fifth and latest describing the breed structure at mating in 2012 (3).

In 2012, a single page postal questionnaire was sent to 42,215 wool producers registered with the British Wool Marketing Board (BWMB). The completed and usable forms represented 23% of breeders and 16% of breeding ewes.

The survey found that the number of breeds and crosses had increased to 106 in 2012. Crossbred ewes were 56% of ewes mated and purebreds 44%; in 2003 the split was 50:50. Change has been driven by a fall in purebred numbers while crossbred numbers were similar. Much of the fall in ewe numbers since 2003 is due to reduced numbers of the three main hill breeds (Scottish Blackface, Swaledale and Welsh Mountain). More information can be seen in Tables 10 and 11 in the Appendix.

The vast majority of rams used in GB are purebred (94%) and are dominated by the three terminal sire breeds (Texel, Suffolk and Charollais), which together accounted for nearly half of the rams used in 2012 (see Table 12 in the Appendix).

The Texel is now the dominant sire at over a quarter of all rams used. While many of the other popular sires saw a slight decline in numbers, the Lleyn has seen an approximate 50% increase since the last survey in 2003. Crossbred rams are becoming more popular (e.g. Suffolk cross Texel or Charollais cross Texel) and new composite breeds lines have been developed.

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LamB proDuCtion

Each year Defra calculates the overall lamb survival rate from ewes and ewe lambs put to the ram (see Figure 4). The survival of lambs is dependent on weather conditions and this needs to be considered when interpreting year-on-year changes. There has been an overall upward trend in the surviving lamb percentage over the last 10 years. In the shorter term, following the high survival rate in 2011 (helped by favourable weather conditions) the surviving lamb percentage fell slightly in 2012 and again in 2014 (4). Anecdotally, the range in lamb survival rate varies enormously by breed, season and system from about 80 to 200%.

In 2015, around 14 million sheep were slaughtered in the UK, with 89% being lambs (see Figure 5). Lamb and mutton production made up approximately 14 -15% of red meat production in the UK over the period 2011-2015 (see Table 13 in the Appendix).

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Figure4.SurvivinglambpercentageforGreatBritain

Figure5.UKsheepslaughteringsfor2000to2015

Lam

b su

rviv

al (

perc

enta

ge)

130

125

120

115

110

105

100

95

90

2004

2002

2000

1998

1996

1994

1992

1990

2006

2008

2010

2012

2014

20

18

16

14

12

10

8

6

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2002

2001

2000

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ion

head

2003

2004

2005

2006

Lambs

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

Ewes and rams

Source: Defra statistics, ahDB survey of auction markets

Source: Defra

WooL proDuCtion

The British Wool Marketing Board (BWMB) is required to register all producers with four or more sheep (with the exception of Shetland, which has its own arrangement) and there are currently approximately 45,000 registered producers.

All wool is graded to internationally recognised standards by professional qualified graders who have served a five year apprenticeship ensuring the highest quality product is prepared for sale, providing the global market with fleeces possessing the unique characteristics required to suit the end users requirements.

In 2015, around 29 million kilograms (29,000 tonnes) of wool was produced with a value of £43.5 million (5). See Table 14 in the Appendix for more information.

Very low clip values in 2008-09 and 2012 highlight the difficulty of covering the cost of shearing and transportation of wool to collection centres in some years. BWMB lists a number of faults and defects that

can downgrade the value of the fleece on the open market. This includes damage caused by dampness, ticks, lice or blowflies and maggots. For example, grade 434 (Mule ewes no. 2) achieved 95p/kg in 2015 compared to a damaged fleece of the equivalent grade achieving 22p/kg. In addition, a number of natural advisory codes such as mycotic dermatitis and weak staple (resulting from a check in wool growth due to illness or stress) may be reported to producers.

Sheep miLK proDuCtion

There are currently about 70 members of the British Sheep Dairying Association (BSDA), but there is no accurate figure for the number of ewes milking or the numbers by breed.

The main issue for owners of milking sheep is the limitation on drug use, since many veterinary products have not undergone testing for milk residues and therefore are not licenced for milking ewes. Of particular concern are the endo and ecto-parasiticides. The predominant breed for milking is the Friesland and its crosses (e.g. Poll Dorset) and more recently the Lacaune (imported from France) (6).

A small number of producers, who supply one sheep milk buyer, send in weekly bulk milk samples to National Milk Records for milk analysis (fat, protein, lactose), somatic cell counts, bactoscan and antibiotic residues.

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Sheep importS

The majority of live sheep consignments delivered into the UK in 2014 were for breeding stock (86%), with Belgium the biggest exporter in terms of animal numbers. Other countries exporting significant numbers of breeding stock to the UK included Switzerland, the Republic of Ireland and the Netherlands.

Trade with the Republic of Ireland dominated imports of finishing and slaughter stock in 2014 (72% of all consignments and 62% of animals). It is worth noting that in 2011 there was a sharp fall in imports from the Republic of Ireland to the UK compared to 2010 and 2009.

The import of animals and animal products into the UK are controlled to prevent the importation and spread of animal disease. Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA) carries out post-import risk based assessments, checks and sampling to detect any imported disease as quickly as possible, and detect non-compliance, especially in relation to traceability, and take corrective action when needed. For sheep, the diseases of interest are Brucella ovis, Brucella melitensis, contagious agalactia and bluetongue disease.

Sheep eXportS

In 2014, a total of 408,972 animals in 1,807 consignments were exported live from UK, (see Table 15 in the Appendix). Of these, 0.9% was destined for breeding, 10.6% for finishing and the remaining 88.5% for slaughter. The vast majority of sheep destined for slaughter (99.5%) were exported to the Republic of Ireland from Northern Ireland. France (39.8%) and Republic of Ireland (29.5%) imported the largest number of breeding stock from the UK, followed by Belgium and Germany. APHA vets supervise loadings of consignments at places of departure to ensure required health and welfare standards are met.

Exports of sheep meat (mutton and lamb) are recorded in Table 16 in the Appendix. This represents 38% of the lamb produced in the UK.

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Table1.NumberofsheepimportedintotheUKsince2011

2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

European Union 1,113 4,093 2,096 3,770 5,639

Non-EU (e.g. New Zealand) 31 36 20 13 0Source: traCeS Data Warehouse, animal and plant health agency

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4.Surveillanceandmonitoring

The UK governments fund the collection of information on diseases and infections in animals from a variety of sources, which is called surveillance. There are two main types of surveillance: scanning and targeted.

SCanninG SurVeiLLanCe

Scanning (or passive) surveillance includes regular contact between private veterinary practitioners and veterinary investigation officers, and the analysis of samples submitted for diagnostic testing to APHA and SAC Consulting Veterinary Services (SACCVS) centres and non-APHA post-mortem examination (PME) sites (see Figure 6). It can be useful for detecting new or unusual conditions when they first appear.

Scanning surveillance has identified several new or unusual conditions in recent years. Examples include:

■ Schmallenberg virus (SBV) - disease was identified in Germany in November 2011. The first cases were suspected in South and East England in early 2012. In these initial cases, the disease was diagnosed following the testing of deformed lambs submitted to AHVLA (now APHA) Regional Laboratories

■ Vitamin A toxicity associated with incorrect formulation of a milk replacer - in 2011 AHVLA (now APHA) and SAC (now SAC Consulting) were involved in the investigation of unusual clinical signs seen in orphan lambs. Subsequent investigation revealed that lambs had been fed a milk replacer which had been inadvertently formulated with a large excess of vitamin A

■ GM2 gangliosidosis (Tay–Sachs disease) in Jacob sheep - since 2008 the disease has been identified in four UK flocks through scanning surveillance.

Figure6.LocationofdiseasesurveillancesitesforAPHAacrossGreatBritain

Source: animal and plant health agency

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Surveillance data is captured from carcase submissions and also samples that are submitted for testing, e.g. blood or tissue samples (non-carcase submissions). The trend in annual diagnostic sheep submission numbers is shown in Figure 7.

Analysis of sheep submissions where a diagnosis is not reached is carried out as part of the scanning surveillance process. An increase in the proportion of submissions relating to a particular presenting sign or syndrome, for which a diagnosis is not found despite a reasonable level of testing, might be the first indicator of the presence of a new disease.

Figure7.Sheepdiagnosticsubmissionsfrom2011to2015

12,000

10,000

8,000

6,000

4,000

2,000

02011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Carcase submissions (SAC) Carcase submission (APHA)

Non-carcase submissions (SAC)

Num

ber

of s

ubm

issi

ons

Non-carcase submissions (APHA)

Source: animal and plant health agency, SaC Consulting Veterinary Services

tarGeteD SurVeiLLanCe

Targeted (or active) surveillance includes when specific surveys are carried out to measure the prevalence of certain diseases.

EU law requires all member states to carry out active disease surveillance for bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in cattle and scrapie in sheep and goats. This information is used to determine the transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE) disease status of each country.

Since 2004, disease control measures require sheep flocks and goat herds to join the compulsory scrapie flocks scheme (CSFS) when a case of scrapie is confirmed. Subsequent cases of scrapie in these flocks and herds are reported separately.

There were no reports of classical scrapie in UK sheep in 2015, although 15 cases of atypical scrapie were reported (7). Surveillance of TSEs is due to the (unproven) risk to human health. Stakeholder groups are engaging with policy makers in the UK and EU to argue for a more proportionate approach to scrapie. However, it remains an important sheep health issue and surveillance is important to ensure the current low level is maintained.

premium Sheep anD Goat heaLth SChemeS (pSGhS)

SAC Consulting Veterinary Services offers keepers of sheep and goats membership of nationally recognised schemes to screen for Maedi Visna (MV), caprine arthritis encephalitis and enzootic abortion.

Members of these schemes are awarded certificates of health status following successful testing programmes. In addition, SACCVS provides the membership database for the scrapie monitoring scheme (SMS). Table 2 shows the PSGHS membership by disease and country. Flocks and herds that comply with the requirements of the SMS are able to demonstrate compliance with ‘negligible risk’ and ‘controlled risk’ status for classical scrapie. This is an international trade requirement for breeding and finishing sheep and goats, semen and embryos.

Membership of the MV accreditation scheme has held steady at about 2,700 flocks; the majority of which are pedigree breeders. In contrast, the EAE Accreditation Scheme has seen a decline in membership, with most residing in the hill and upland areas of Scotland.

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Table2.MembershipofPSGHSbyadministrationinAugust2015

MaediVisna Enzooticabortion Scrapiemonitoring

England 1,449 28 109

Scotland 810 247 61

Wales 458 1 28

GB 2,717 276 198Source: SaC Consulting Veterinary Services

WormS anD paraSitiC GaStro-enteritiS

Parasitic gastro-enteritis (PGE) refers to infections of the stomach or intestines by a number of nematode worm species, either singly or in combination. Where a single worm species is causing disease, the term used may relate to that species, e.g. disease due to Haemonchus worms is termed haemonchosis and to Nematodirus worms is termed nematodirosis.

The annual cost of gastro-intestinal parasites to the British sheep industry was estimated to be £84 million in 2005, making PGE the most costly disease affecting sheep (8). This cost is predominantly due to the effect of worms on production and is likely to be increasing as the level of anthelmintic resistance increases.

Parasitic gastro-enteritis is consistently the most common Veterinary Investigation Diagnosis Analysis (VIDA) finding for sheep (9). Figure 8 shows the most commonly diagnosed diseases in all ages of sheep in GB from 2011 to 2014. PGE was also the most common diagnosis for lambs in a survey of fallen stock in north-east England (10).

antheLmintiC reSiStanCe

Since 2011, five classes or groups of anthelmintic have been licensed for use in sheep in the UK. Resistance to benzimidazoles (1-BZ), levamisoles (2-LV) and macrocyclic lactones (3-ML) is widespread. A recent study on 47 farms in Wales found evidence of resistance to 1-BZs on 94% of study farms, resistance to 2-LVs on 68% of farms, resistance to ivermectin (in the 3-ML group) on 51% of farms and to moxidectin (also in the 3-ML group) on 19% of farms (11). Furthermore, 15% of farms showed resistance to all groups tested, i.e. 1-BZs, 2-LVs, ivermectin and moxidectin.

In a similar study in Northern Ireland, resistance was found on 81% of farms to 1-BZs, 14% of farms for 2-LVs, 50% of farms for ivermectin and 62% of farms for moxidectin (12). In both these studies, testing was carried out using faecal egg count reduction tests (FECRTs) and larval cultures were used to identify worm species. In both studies, the resistant species were identified as Teladorsagia or Trichostrongylus species. Resistance to the Monepantel (4-AD) or derquantel and abamectin (5-SI) has not been recorded in the UK to date, but resistance to 4-AD was reported in the Netherlands in 2014.

Resistance of Nematodirus battus to a 1-BZ was first confirmed in the UK in 2011 (13). However, resistant strains of N. battus are not thought to be widespread.

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Figure8.ThemostcommonlydiagnoseddiseasesinsheepofallagesinGreatBritainfrom2011to2014

Source: animal and plant health agency

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5. Internalparasites

3,500

3,000

2,500

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1,500

1,000

500

0

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PGE

Liver fluke

Pasteurellosis

Clostridial dise

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Coccidiosis

Other pneumonia

Cobalt deficiency

Sheep scab

Johne's dise

ase

Listerio

sis

Cryptospridiosis OPA

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Sustainable Control of Parasites in Sheep (SCOPS) formed in 2004 to develop sustainable strategies for parasite control in sheep, as it recognises that, left unchecked, anthelmintic resistance is one of the biggest challenges to the future health and profitability of the UK sheep industry. It also facilitates and oversees the delivery of these recommendations to the industry and ensures that new research is incorporated to refine and improve advice given to the sheep industry.

SCOPS advice has been evaluated in a study comparing eight farms following SCOPS principles with eight farms following more traditional worm control practices (14). The results suggest that farms implementing SCOPS principles use less anthelmintic than other farms, without loss of animal performance or increased worm burdens.

LiVer fLuKe

Liver fluke disease has increased in the UK in recent years and spread into previously fluke-free areas. This is thought to be a result of recent climate change (milder winters and wetter summers) favouring the parasite and its mud snail intermediate host. The disease is responsible for considerable economic losses, estimated at £3 to £5 per infected sheep (15), due to direct production losses, poor reproductive performance and livers rejected at slaughter. FSA data show that 6.6% of all sheep livers were rejected due to liver fluke in 2014.

Triclabendazole (TCBZ) has been the most widely used flukicide in sheep because of its activity against young immature fluke. There is currently no specific diagnostic test to identify infection with young immature fluke, so decisions on when to treat rely on producer knowledge and a fluke risk forecast based on meteorological data provided by NADIS (16). Lack of efficacy of TCBZ against liver fluke has been reported for some years and the presence of resistance was confirmed in a dose and slaughter trial in 2011 (17). The prevalence of TCBZ resistance is not known but its presence is a major threat to the farming of sheep in wetter areas of the UK where liver fluke is endemic.

haemonChoSiS Haemonchus contortus is becoming a serious threat to intensive sheep production throughout the UK and not just south-east England. In haemonchosis the most important clinical sign is anaemia, which can be assessed by looking at the animal’s eyelids.

Moredun Research Institute has developed a vaccine for Haemonchus contortus and it is currently being trialled in Australia.

CoCCiDioSiS

Coccidiosis is one of the most common causes of production losses in lambs in GB, second only to worms as a cause of scour and ill thrift. Disease is usually caused by either Emeria ovinoidalis or Eimeria crandallis; the two most pathogenic species of Eimerians. Coccidiosis is most common in more intensive systems where stocking rates are high.

hyDatiDS anD other CeStoDeS

In 2013, 0.2% of sheep slaughtered at licensed abattoirs in the UK were found to have hydatid cysts; the larval stage of the dog tapeworm Echinococcus granulosus. Hydatid cysts rarely cause disease in sheep but the disease is zoonotic. In 2013, there were 14 cases of hydatid disease in humans in the UK, but the exposure history suggested that all these cases had contracted the disease outside the UK. The Zoonoses Summary Report UK 2014 (18) no longer includes figures for hydatid disease, suggesting that the focus has been transferred to other more common zoonoses.

Cysticercus ovis (C. ovis) and Cysticercus tenuicollis (C. tenuicollis) are the larval stages of the tapeworms Taenia ovis and Taenia hydatigena respectively. Both these parasites have a similar life cycle to E. granulosus, with the adults residing in the intestines of dogs or foxes and the intermediate stage in sheep. These parasites rarely cause disease in sheep, but their presence leads to the rejection of affected tissues. In 2014, 8.8% of sheep livers were rejected due to C. tenuicollis and 0.76% of sheep carcases were affected by C. ovis (19). Where C. ovis is detected in more than two sites, the whole carcase is rejected. A recent study of C. tenuicollis and C. ovis on Welsh farms found that failure to worm dogs adequately and to prevent dogs from scavenging on sheep carcases were common and likely to account for the high incidence of these parasites (20).

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6.Externalparasites

Sheep SCaB

Nieuwhof and Bishop (2005) estimated the annual cost of sheep scab in Great Britain to be £8.3 million (8). Only £800,000 was attributed to reduced animal performance, with the majority of the cost coming from the cost of controlling sheep scab.

Historically, there have been many attempts to eradicate sheep scab from the UK, but all have ultimately failed. Many other European countries also struggle to control the disease. The last period of compulsory dipping for sheep scab ended in 1992 and currently the Sheep Scab Order 1997 operates in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. Under this legislation it is an offence not to treat animals visibly affected by sheep scab. In Scotland, the disease was made notifiable again in 2010 under the Sheep Scab Order (Scotland) 2010 (21).

The prevalence of the disease is not known with certainty, but it is widespread and common throughout most of the UK, with the exception of some of the Scottish Isles. In 2005 there were estimated to be 10,000 outbreaks of sheep scab. Many treatments are given to sheep in GB every year to either control or prevent sheep scab. Effective treatment options are limited to plunge dipping in organophosphate (OP) or injecting with 3-ML anthelmintics, with the latter now the more commonly used. This inadvertent use of the 3-MLs is contributing to the rapid increase in anthelmintic resistance.

A recent diagnostic development is the Psoroptes ovis ELISA test that detects serum antibodies in infested sheep. This test has been developed by the Moredun Research Institute and became commercially available in 2015. ELISA testing has been used extensively in Switzerland before flocks return to alpine pastures where they mix together in a common grazing arrangement.

other eXternaL paraSiteS

The prevalence of lice in sheep is also not known but, as with sheep scab, there is no doubt the incidence has increased markedly since compulsory dipping ended.

Blowfly strike is a constant threat for most sheep producers during the summer months and preventive treatment is routinely carried out on most farms. The risk season is changing as weather patterns alter, and may extend from April to October in some regions.

Ticks appear to be extending both their period of activity and their distribution in response to changing climate, but VIDA diagnoses of tick-borne diseases in sheep have not increased significantly as yet.

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7. Lameness

Lameness poses a significant animal welfare and economic challenge to the sheep sector. In 2005, footrot was estimated to cost the sheep industry £24 million a year (8). These costs are associated with the time spent in catching and treating lame sheep but mostly in the reduced flock performance that results when lameness levels are high. A report published by the Farm Animal Welfare Council (22) estimated that about three million sheep or 10% of the national flock are lame at any one time. A paper prepared by Fiona Lovatt in 2014 suggests that a lameness prevalence of 10% could reduce flock profitability by more than £14 per ewe in the flock (23).

The main causes of lameness are footrot, interdigital dermatitis (or scald) and contagious ovine digital dermatitis (CODD). It is now recognised that the bacterium Dichelobacter nodosus is the cause of both footrot and interdigital dermatitis and that this infection is present in 97% of flocks. CODD was first reported in the UK in 1997 and recent studies have shown it to be present in 35-50% of flocks in England and Wales (24, 25). The cause of CODD is still unconfirmed but treponemes are thought to have a role.

The FAWC report22 proposed that the prevalence of lameness in flocks in Great Britain should be reduced to 5% by 2016 and to 2% or less by 2021. In addition, cross-compliance regulations require producers to maintain prevalence levels at less than 5%. In 2014, a group of English stakeholders agreed that the Five Point Plan (26) (see Figure 9) should be implemented in order to meet the FAWC targets. There are indications from work that is happening at Warwick University that the FAWC targets are achievable.

Recent findings from a postal survey of 1,260 sheep producers suggest that the first FAWC target may already have been met. In this survey, producers were asked to estimate the period prevalence of lameness in their flocks from May 2012 to April 2013. When compared to the results from a similar survey in 2004, the period prevalence had fallen from 10.6% in 2004 to 4.9% in 2013 (27).

Evidence from recent studies has shown that routine foot paring of the whole flock has been associated with a higher level of lameness (28) and also that paring lame sheep was associated with a longer time to recovery (29).

Figure9.Thefivepointlamenessplan

the five points of the plan can be split into three areas:

■ Cull to build resiliance

■ treat, quarantine and avoid to reduce disease challenge

■ Vaccinate to establish immunity.

Source: fai farms

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8.Chronicwastingdiseases

maeDi ViSna

Maedi Visna (MV) has been found in most sheep-rearing countries other than Australia and New Zealand. The prevalence of MV is high in countries in southern Europe, such as Italy and Spain. MV was first confirmed in the UK in 1979. The number of MV positive flocks identified through the MV Accreditation Scheme remains low but appears to show a slight increase over the past five years (30). The presence of the disease has been confirmed in England, Scotland and Wales.

Members of the MV Accreditation Scheme are almost exclusively pedigree flocks. The prevalence of MV in commercial sheep is uncertain as it is suspected that it may well remain undiagnosed in many flocks. In 2010, a survey of sheep from 726 flocks throughout GB found MV to be present in 2.8% of flocks, with the counties of Gloucestershire and Leicestershire having the highest prevalence at 15% and 14% of tested flocks respectively (30). The within-flock prevalence ranged from 5% to 80% with a mean of 24%. Compared to the results from a similar survey 15 years previously, both the percentage of MV infected flocks and the average number of MV positive sheep within an infected flock had doubled.

oVine puLmonary aDenoCarCinoma

Ovine pulmonary adenocarcinoma (OPA) is an infectious neoplastic lung disease resulting from infection with a betaretrovirus called Jaagsiekte sheep retrovirus (JSRV). The disease is present in most sheep-keeping countries of the world. Naive flocks may incur losses of 20-25% to OPA upon initial infection with subsequent annual losses of 1-5% (31).

The prevalence of the disease in GB is not known. In an abattoir survey in 2014, OPA was diagnosed in 0.9% of 3,385 adult sheep (31). In this study, it was not possible to match the lungs with individual ear numbers or batch, so flock prevalence could not be established. Furthermore, it is likely that the majority of clinical cases of OPA animals will die or be culled on farm, so surveying sheep that are fit for slaughter may not indicate the true prevalence. Two small studies of fallen stock in North East England diagnosed OPA by gross pathology in approximately 6% of 106 and 329 ewes examined (10, 32). VIDA data shows that the number of diagnoses of OPA expressed as the percentage of diagnosable submissions has increased between 2004 and 2015 (9) (see Figure 10).

A polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test for JRSV was used in a survey of 125 flocks in Scotland (33). JRSV was detected on 38% of farms, but only 12% of producers reported clinical disease. These findings are consistent with another study of an OPA infected flock (34), where a high proportion of animals were found to be positive for JRSV by PCR testing, but most showed no signs of disease.

The fact that there is no reliable ante-mortem test for OPA makes it a difficult disease to control. Ultrasonography has recently been proposed as a means of early diagnosis (35) and an AHDB, HCC and APHA funded project due to be completed in September 2016, is exploring whether it might be possible to identify OPA infected flocks by using the PCR on nasal swabs on a subset of thin ewes (36). See Table 17 in the Appendix.

12

10

8

6

4

2

02004

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2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Source: animal and plant health agencyVertical bars represent 95% confidence limits

Figure10.AnnualincidentsofOPAforGreatBritainasapercentageofdiagnosablesubmissions(2004-2015)

16

Johne’S DiSeaSe

The prevalence of Johne’s disease in sheep in the UK is not known, but it is considered to be significantly under-diagnosed. This may be partly due to the reluctance of producers to investigate thin sheep but also because of poor sensitivity of diagnostic tests in sheep.

In many infected flocks the annual ewe mortality rate from Johne’s disease is estimated to be as high as 5-10% (37). There was a significant increase for submissions diagnosed with Johne’s disease in GB in 2014, with 109 cases compared to 84 in 2013 (38) (see Figure 11). It is likely that increased awareness of this condition and the availability of the more sensitive PCR testing have contributed to this increase. In two fallen stock surveys (10, 32) Johne’s was diagnosed in 6% of ewes examined.

In 2013, the Veterinary Medicines Directorate (VMD) granted a limited marketing authorisation in the UK for the use of an inactivated MAP vaccine (Gudair) in sheep and goats to aid in the control of Johne’s disease in these species.

CaSeouS LymphaDenitiS

Caseous Lymphadenitis (CLA) was first diagnosed in the UK in goats in 1990, then in sheep in 1991. The disease is mainly seen in terminal sire breeds. A serological survey in 2000 of samples from 745 flocks found 18% of them to have one or more CLA positive animals, with an individual prevalence of 9.9% (39). There are no published estimates of the cost of the disease in the UK, but it is not considered to be of high economic importance. This is because CLA predominantly causes abscesses in superficial lymph nodes in sheep in the UK, while in other countries where the disease is endemic, internal or visceral abscesses are more common and these have a greater effect on animal health.

There is no licensed vaccine in the UK, but the Australian Glanvac vaccine is widely imported under license from the VMD. Between 2009 and 2014, licences have been granted for the importation of 20,000-30,000 doses each year. A complication of the use of this vaccine is that serological tests cannot differentiate between vaccinated and infected animals.

Figure11.Johne’sdiseaseincidentsinsheepinGBaspercentageofsubmissions

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3

2

1

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2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

Source: animal and plant health agencyVertical bars represent 95% confidence limits

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paSteureLLoSiS

Bacteria previously identified as Pasteurella species have been re-classified, and the main species causing disease in sheep are now called Mannheimia haemolytica (previously Pasteurella haemolytica) and Bibersteinia trehalosi (previously Pasteurella trehalosi).

Mannheimia haemolytica commonly causes either a septicaemia in young lambs or pneumonia in all ages, but especially in lambs. Bibersteinia trehalosi is most commonly associated with septicaemia in older lambs. Pasteurellosis is one of the most common causes of death in growing lambs in GB, despite there being effective vaccines that offer protection against disease due to both M.haemolytica and B.trehalosi. See Figure 8.

CLoStriDiaL DiSeaSeS

Clostridial diseases are the most common cause of sudden death in all ages of sheep in GB. The most common syndromes are referred to as pulpy kidney disease and lamb dysentery, caused by Clostridium perfringens type D and type B respectively. Less common clostridial diseases include black disease (due to Clostridium novyi) and botulism (due to Clostridium botulinum). See Figure 8.

Botulism has become more common in sheep and cattle in recent years, with outbreaks usually being associated with access to broiler litter.

With all the clostridial diseases, it is not the bacteria that cause disease but the toxins that they produce. Several multivalent vaccines protecting against all the major clostridial diseases are available and are highly effective when used correctly.

orf

Orf is commonly seen as scabby lesions on the lips of lambs and results in poor growth while the lambs have lesions. The infection may also manifest as lesions on the teats of ewes, and these lesions predispose to mastitis. A vaccine is available that can be given to ewes and lambs, but is most commonly used just in young lambs.

maStitiS

Over recent years, researchers at Warwick University have carried out two AHDB-funded projects on mastitis in ewes (40). Acute mastitis is estimated to affect approximately 5% of ewes, with up to 50% of these ewes dying and 90% losing the affected quarter.

Furthermore, anecdotal reports suggest that 20-30% of ewes culled at weaning have chronic mastitis with palpable lumps in the udder, so mastitis is an important cause of involuntary culling. Inadequate nutrition either pre- or post-lambing has been recognised as one of the main risk factors for mastitis in ewes. Staphylococcus aureus and Mannheimia haemolytica are the most common causes of acute mastitis.

AHDB Beef & Lamb with Warwick University has recently produced a BRP+ manual on understanding mastitis in sheep, which summarises the recent research work. It can be found on the AHDB Beef & Lamb website.

9.Commonendemicdiseases

18

10.Abortion

A study on Welsh farms in 2011 attributed 26% of perinatal lamb losses to abortions or stillbirths (41). Estimates suggest that these losses cost the UK sheep industry £30 million a year (42). Figure 12 shows the breakdown of the most commonly diagnosed causes of abortion (43).

The three main infectious causes of abortion are:

■ Enzootic abortion (EAE) caused by Chlamydia abortus

■ Toxoplasmosis

■ Infection with Campylobacter sp.

These three infections often cause abortion storms, with more than 20% of ewes either aborting or producing weak lambs when the disease first appears in a flock.

Salmonella and listeria are less commonly diagnosed causes of abortion. Various salmonella serotypes are isolated and only rarely are they the serotypes commonly associated with illness in people.

Listeria generally causes sporadic abortions, usually in flocks where ewes are being fed silage or root crops.

Figure12.OvineabortiondiagnosesforAPHAdiagnosticsubmissions2011-2015asapercentageofallabortiondiagnoses

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5

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2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

■ Chlamydia abortus ■ toxoplasma ■ Campylobacter ■ Listeria

■ Salmonella dublin ■ Salmonella (no organism specified)

Source: animal and plant health agency

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EAE is consistently the most common abortion diagnosis (44). Toxoplasmosis is the next most common and also a common cause of barren ewes. There are effective vaccines against EAE and toxoplasmosis, with estimates suggesting that approximately one third of replacement ewes are vaccinated against EAE and one fifth against toxoplasmosis (45).

MSD Animal Health has offered subsidised testing of blood samples from unvaccinated flocks with high barren or abortion rates for a number of years. Testing undertaken in the 2015 lambing season showed 80% have evidence of toxoplasma exposure, 52% to C.abortus and 43% of flocks to both infections.

Incidences of campylobacter fetopathy recorded by APHA appear to follow a cyclical pattern, with a significant rise in infection rate observed every three years. In 2013, 74.6% of campylobacter isolates from ovine abortions were confirmed as C. fetus fetus, an increased percentage compared with 2012 (66.9%) (46); 14% of isolates in 2013 were C. jejuni. Approximately 90% of cases of human infection are caused by C. jejuni, although C. fetus fetus may occasionally cause serious systemic disease in humans. Both C. abortus and Toxoplasma gondii are also zoonotic infections. Human infection with C. abortus is very rare and there were no confirmed cases in 2013 (47). However, toxoplasmosis has the highest human incidence amongst the parasitic zoonoses and is considered to be an under-detected and under-reported disease in the EU (48). Since 2008, all EU countries have been required to enhance surveillance for toxoplasmosis both in humans and in sheep and goats.

Border disease virus (BDV) is a less commonly diagnosed cause of abortion. The disease is present throughout the UK but the prevalence is not known. In a survey of 125 Scottish flocks in 2009, evidence of exposure to BDV was found in a third of flocks (48). The impact of BDV infection is widespread as it affects both reproductive performance and lamb performance. BDV is closely related to Bovine Viral Diarrhoea virus (BVDV), both belonging to the pestivirus family of viruses. Sheep can be infected by both BDV and BVDV. A survey of pestiviruses isolated from sheep by the Moredun Institute in 2006 confirmed 80% BDV and 20% BVDV type (49). The presence of BVDV in sheep will be relevant to BVD eradication programmes in cattle.

A significant cause of stillborn lambs in 2012 was Schmallenberg virus (SBV). A notable feature of SBV is malformed lambs, typically with fused joints and a twisted spine often preventing a normal birth. The incidence of SBV was much lower in 2013 than 2012, and since that time it is thought that there have only been sporadic cases. However, as producers are able to recognise the disease, cases are unlikely to be submitted to a laboratory and it may be under-reported.

20

11.Ewemortality

The annual ewe mortality rate in the UK is estimated to be 5-8%(50), representing a loss of 800,000 to 1.3 million ewes per year. Data on ewe mortality is not centrally collected or analysed.

The profile of diseases that contribute to mortality and involuntary culling in adult ewes is known but cannot be quantified with any certainty. For ewes that die on farm the cause is often known, e.g. prolapse, difficult lambing and ewe stuck on her back. This may be recorded by the producer but there is no national scheme to collect these data.

nationaL faLLen StoCK SCheme

A proportion of the fallen stock figures for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland are recorded by the National Fallen Stock Company (NFSCo). The figures do not include all collections, just those put through the NFSCo scheme. Statistics are not available for other disposal routes (e.g. hunt kennels, on farm incineration). Furthermore, NFSCo data is recorded in different ways between fallen stock centres, with some recording numbers of sheep and others only recording volume. Consequently, conclusions should only be drawn according to the trends, rather than the specific figures. The trends show a dramatic seasonal peak coinciding with the main lambing period and that mortality for 2014 returned to average levels after the bad weather spike in 2013.

aDuLt SLauGhterinGS More information exists on the number of ewes that are culled, as the vast majority of these will be slaughtered at licensed abattoirs. Of an estimated breeding ewe and ram population of 16.4 million (51), the predicted adult sheep slaughterings in 2015 represent a culling rate of 11% of the UK flock (see Table 3).

Most cull ewes are sold through live markets so it is not possible for abattoirs to feedback disease information to the source farms. VIDA data generated by the APHA endemic disease scanning surveillance programme examines 500-700 ewes as diagnostic submissions annually. It is unlikely that this is representative of the whole industry.

repLaCement rate

AHDB Beef & Lamb carry out costings (52) on a small number of farms each year and ewe mortality, empty ewes and replacement rates are recorded (see Table 4). A survey of 70 flocks in Wales carried out in 2010/11 (41) revealed similar results (see Table 5). The average ewe replacement rate is estimated to be 20%. As with ewe mortality, producers are required to record the number of ewes entering the flock but the data is not used to generate national figures.

Table3.Adultsheepslaughterings

‘000head 2013 2014 2015 2016(forecast)

Jan-Mar 498 461 364 400

Apr-Jun 468 410 366 392

Jul-Sept 532 479 455 538

Oct-Dec 571 455 416 532

Year (52 weeks) 2,069 1,805 1,600 1,862figures in bold are forecasts Source: Defra and ahDB Beef & Lamb

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Table5.BarreneweratesforaselectionofWelshflocksin2010/11

Table4.Averageewemortality,emptyewesandreplacementratesforaselectionofEnglishflocksfor2014/15

Ewesscanned Ewesbarren Barrenrate%

Hill 20,782 927 4

Upland 13,316 492 4

Lowland 4,189 344 8

Non-SDAbreedingflocks SDAbreeding

Non-SDAFebruary/Marchlambingflocks*

Non-SDAApril/Maylambing

flocks*

No. flocks 80 47 44 33

Empty ewes at scanning (%)ˆ 5.8 4.8 5.1 6.6

Ewe mortality (%) 3.5 3.6 3.6 3.3

Flock replacement rate (%) 22.7 25.8 23.9 21.5

*included in the 80 non-severely disadvantaged areas (SDA) flocks ^ target for empty ewes at scanning is <2% Source: ahDB Beef & Lamb

Source: hybu Cig Cymru

22

12.Lambmortality

Lamb mortality is thought to be 15-20% when estimated from pregnancy scanning to sale/retention, although accurate figures are not available. An HCC survey of the main causes of lamb losses (from pregnancy scanning to September) in Wales during the 2010/11 breeding season showed a very similar pattern on hill, upland and lowland flocks (41) and an overall lamb loss rate of 12%. Figure 13 shows the main causes of lamb loss for upland ewes.

APHA has reviewed the diagnoses reached for lambs up to seven days of age (see Figure 14). Many of the cases appear to have been associated with a lack of colostral antibodies (hypogammaglobulinaemia) and lack of or improper vaccination of ewes for clostridial diseases and pasteurella (9).

Other18%

Abortion/stillbirth26%

Ewe diedbefore/duringlambing15%

Delivered lesslambs than scanned3%

Lambtoo big5%Lamb

too small6%

Abnormal4%

Mismothering10%

Disease9%

Weather/predation

4%

Figure13.MaincausesoflamblossesonaselectionofWelshfarms

Source: hybu Cig Cymru

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Figure14.Thetwentymostcommondiagnosesinyounglambs(uptosevendaysofage)between2011and2014(aggregateddata)

Figure15.ThemostcommoncausesoflambdeathforFallenStockproject

140

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Cou

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A d

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Hypogammaglobulin

aemia

Crypto

sporid

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Coliseptic

aemia

Cl. pefri

ngens B

disease

Rotavir

us dise

ase

Hereditary

/dev

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Cl. perfr

ingens D

disease

Arthrit

is dt s

trepto

cocc

us

Border d

isease

Wate

ry m

outh

Colibacil

losis -

enteric

- k9

9 - ve

Trauma/fr

acture nos

Pneumonia dt mannheim

ia spp

Neonatal h

ypotherm

ia

Colibacil

liosis

- ente

ric

Salmonella

nos

Pneumonia nos

Navel il

l/joint i

ll

Interte

stinal t

orsion nos

Pastu

eurellosis

In a fallen stock survey in North East England the main diagnoses from 364 lamb submissions were parasitic gastroenteritis, pasteurellosis and clostridial disease (10) (see Figure 15). The lambs could range from near birth to one year old.

Perc

enta

ge

201816141210

86420

None

Gut worm

s

Coccidiosis

Pulpy kidney

Pasteurella se

pticaemia

Pasteurella pneumonia

Acidiosis

Nephrosis

Intestinal to

rsion

Nemtodirus

Lamb dysentry

Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae

Dosing gun injury

Border dise

ase

Listerio

sis

Plant poiso

ning

Source: animal and plant health agency

Source: ahDB Beef & Lambnone means no diagnosis was reached

24

13.Abattoirdata

The breakdown between live and deadweight sales for sheep (ewes and lambs) remained relatively constant between 2010 and 2014, with approximately 60% of finished sheep sold through livestock markets and the remaining 40% sold direct to abattoirs. The percentage of lambs being sold direct to abattoirs is slightly higher with the breakdown nearer 50:50. Table 6 shows the total number of livestock markets, with total and average throughput.

In GB, there was a total of 194 abattoirs slaughtering sheep in 2014, processing a total of 13,882,496 sheep. An interactive map showing the locations of auction markets, abattoirs, meat processors and meat traders can be found on the AHDB website. The annual throughputs of abattoirs in England, Scotland and Wales are shown below in Table 7. The figures highlight the relatively small number of high throughput abattoirs that slaughter the majority of sheep. This is particularly evident in Wales where 95% of animals pass through just four abattoirs. Similar information for Scotland has been derived from QMS data and shows a similar pattern.

At post-mortem inspection, a number of conditions may be identified that result in rejection of organs (e.g. liver, heart) or part/whole carcases leading to lower returns to the producer and processor. Some of these (such as bruising and abscesses) can be controlled through careful handling of the live animal.

Abscesses are among the main post-mortem conditions found in sheep slaughtered in English abattoirs (alongside C. tenuicollis, C. ovis, liver fluke and pneumonia/pleurisy). Many of these abscesses are avoidable if producers follow best injection practice.

The total rejections for C.ovis, C. tenuicollis and fascioliasis as a percentage of all sheep slaughtered in England, Scotland and Wales for 2014 are presented in Figure 16.

Table6.LambthroughputatauctionmarketssellingfinishedsheepinGBfor2015

Table7.Abattoirsslaughteringsheep

Numberofauctioncentres Totalthroughput(head) Averagethroughput(head)

TOTAL 110 8,106,385 73,694

Country Numberofabattoirs

Totalthroughput(head)

Averagethroughput(head)

Shareofthroughput(%)

England 152 9,124,986 60,033 66

Wales 24 3,387,100 141,129 24

Scotland 18 1,370,410 76,134 10

TOTAL 194 13,882,496 71,560

Source: ahDB Beef & Lamb

Source: ahDB Beef & Lamb

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Numberaffected %ofthroughput

Cysticercus tenuicollis 548,099 5.81

Fascioliasis (liver fluke) 430,383 4.57

Cysticercus ovis 57,339 0.61

Pleurisy/Pneumonia 272,251 2.89

Abscesses 114,676 1.22

The incidence of conditions identified in sheep at post-mortem inspection in England in 2015 (based on a throughput of 9,427,382 animals) are shown in Table 8.

Abattoir data is collected by the Food Standards Authority (FSA) from both ante and post-mortem inspection. Data collection and analysis are changing and it is anticipated that there will be significant improvements in the communication of food chain information (FCI) and collection and communication of inspection results (CCIR) data. This will help to deliver positive benefits in terms of public health, animal health and animal welfare. A validation trial was initiated in late May 2016.

There would be major benefits if a more functional and better-integrated system of information capture and flow existed. This has been identified by other livestock sectors. For example, a 12-month feasibility project, funded by the Agri-tech Catalyst and coordinated by AHDB, is aiming to develop a prototype system for the exchange of cattle information across the supply chain. The livestock industry data exchange hub could effectively work as a search engine to facilitate data exchange between Government, industry and private databases, so that key information can be brought together and presented through a single portal, for example at auction markets. It could also, for the first time, provide the cattle industry with a facility to underpin risk-based trading for economically important diseases such bovine viral diarrhoea (BVD), Johne’s disease and bovine TB (bTB). While the initial focus is on animal disease, it is envisaged that the framework developed can be expanded to other areas of data collection, which will greatly benefit the industry.

AHDB is working with over 20 industry collaborators, including industry databases, farm management software suppliers, auction market and abattoir system providers. Within the consortium, Shearwell Data Ltd will have primary responsibility to deliver the final technical specification, to be agreed by an industry project steering group. The steering group includes National Farmers Union (NFU), AHDB, Livestock Auctioneers‘ Association (LAA), British Meat Processors‘ Association (BMPA), British Cattle Veterinary Association (BCVA) and Cattle Health and Welfare Group (CHAWG).

Figure16.Incidenceofparasiticconditionsidentifiedatpost-morteminspectionin2014

Table8.Conditionsidentifiedatpost-morteminEnglandin2015

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8

6

4

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January

FebuaryMarch

April MayJune

JulyAugust

September

October

November

December

Average

Source: food Standards agency

Source: food Standards agency

26

14.Horizonscanning

The Government has a responsibility to maintain border security, but equally the industry must be mindful of these potential threats in terms of trade and surveillance for signs of disease.

potentiaL eXotiC DiSeaSe threatS

foot and mouth disease

The Middle East and North Africa, and Turkey in particular, remain a significant risk of being the source of a new disease incursion into the EU, particularly concerning given the level of political instability in Syria, Libya and other countries in the region, and the associated movements of refugees, economic migrants, their possessions and livestock. Although these outbreaks do not currently represent an increase in risk to the EU from legal trade, there is an overall low risk of introduction of disease from any affected region in the world. It is important that livestock keepers maintain strict on-farm biosecurity and report all suspicions of notifiable disease promptly.

Bluetongue virus (BtV)

Four serotypes (BTV1, 2, 4, and 16) were circulating in mainland Europe in 2014 and five serotypes (BTV1, 2, 4, 8 and 16) in 2015, particularly in the southern Mediterranean. The re-emergence of BTV8 in central France and the emergence of BTV4 in Austria in the autumn of 2015 is a reminder of the potential for further incursion of this disease into Northern Europe and the UK, either from these known serotypes or from new emerging strains. The further the spread, the greater risk of incursion into GB. A qualitative risk assessment for entry of BTV8 into the UK in 2016 has been published by Defra.

Sheep and goat pox

Sheep and goat pox occurs in regions including Africa (north of the equator), the Middle East and Central Asia, as well as India. Turkey, Greece and Israel reported outbreaks of sheep and goat pox in 2014, with outbreaks continuing in Turkey and Greece in 2015. The risk of release of sheep and goat pox virus into GB via the importation of one untreated animal skin, hide or wool bale from the EU is low.

peste des petits ruminants (ppr)

The disease occurs in a band that spreads across Africa between the equator and the Sahara, through the Arabian Peninsula, the Middle East, South West Asia and India. China first reported the disease in 2007 and it spread into North Africa for the first time in Morocco in 2008. Disease has re-emerged in China in 2013 and 2014. The likelihood of the introduction of PPR by legal trade from any affected region to the UK is considered negligible. Nevertheless, this disease can have a significant impact on the economy for small ruminant farming and as such, is now the target disease for global eradication.

Contagious agalactia (Ca)

Mycoplasma agalactiae is the principal cause of contagious agalactia and has been reported in many countries surrounding the Mediterranean, in particular Portugal, Spain, Greece, Italy, France, Turkey, Israel and North Africa, as well as in many parts of the Middle East, most notably Iran, India, Mongolia and parts of South America. Sporadic cases have been reported in the USA. The pathogen can be difficult to diagnose in clinically normal animals and trade rules rely only on lack of clinical signs in consigned animals. Mycoplasma agalactiae was detected in October 2014 in one of four goats imported into Wales from France. This was detected in a post-import test and effective action to control the disease risk was successfully implemented. Surveillance for CA is pro-active and relies on submissions of samples from cases showing signs of mastitis or udder abnormality in sheep or goats, which are tested by APHA. In addition to this passive surveillance, all imported animals from countries that have the disease are post-import tested.

Brucellosis Brucellosis in sheep and goats is mainly caused by Brucella melitensis, although infection with Brucella abortus and Brucella ovis can also occur. Brucella melitensis is prevalent in sheep and goats in several Mediterranean countries. GB is considered free of these diseases. Annual surveillance (blood testing) and testing of sheep abortion material is carried out to uphold free status.

Schmallenberg virus (SBV)

SBV was first confirmed in GB in January 2012 following emergence of this novel virus in the Netherlands and Germany in 2011. Since then, infection has spread widely through Europe. Disease is now considered to be endemic in many countries, although there are still some limited third country trade restrictions in place.

anthrax Two cows died from Anthrax in Wiltshire in 2015. Movement restrictions were imposed at the farm and carcases of the animals were incinerated. The previous outbreak in livestock in Great Britain was in 2006.

26 27

other potentiaL iSSueS

Climate change and anomalous weather events

Extreme weather and anomalous weather events, which may or may not be linked to climate change, are already impacting on sheep farming in many ways, including increasing disease vectors, e.g. midges, increased heat stress, flooding and drought, resulting in poor forage yield/quality and effects on parasite lifecycles, e.g. liver fluke.

antimicrobial resistance

The sheep industry needs to continue to play its part in using antimicrobials responsibly. Increased emphasis on flock health planning, appropriate use of effective vaccines and improved ewe nutrition will help producers achieve this.

Draft new eu animal health Law

This regulation is mainly a consolidating and simplifying piece of legislation, with the aim of having all the major transmissible diseases covered by a single piece of legislation. There will be five major diseases: foot and mouth, classic swine fever, African swine fever, highly pathogenic avian influenza and African horse sickness. Thereafter, the regulation introduces categorisation and prioritisation of diseases which require intervention at EU level. The impact of the regulation on the UK sheep industry will largely depend on how diseases are categorised and the controls applied. The new regulations are based on the principle that prevention is better than cure and there will be added emphasis on biosecurity and the use of compartmentalisation (that is, allowing some biosecure farms to be considered safe to trade even during a disease outbreak) could be extended. The regulation aims to improve standards and to provide a common system to better detect and control disease. It proposes to introduce a requirement for all farms to be visited by a vet at a frequency proportionate with the risk posed. Until the listing and categorisation of diseases is agreed, it is unclear how or if the requirement for vet visits may affect sheep producers in the UK. However, it is clear that these visits would not be another kind of official control, but would be a private arrangement between producers and their chosen vets. These visits could potentially play some part in the member state’s surveillance strategy. The higher level proposals have now been agreed by the EU and decisions on UK implementation will be made over the coming years.

Until exit negotiations are concluded, the UK remains a full member of the European Union and all the rights and obligations of EU membership remain in force. During this period the Government will continue to negotiate, implement and apply EU legislation and will do what is needed to support producers as the UK leaves the EU and make a success of Brexit.

Changes to support payments

Reduction in funding paid to producers under the Basic Payment Scheme, along with reduced access to environmental support, may have an indirect impact on sheep health by reducing available financial resources across the farm business. Proactive health planning will play a big part in promoting the benefits of good veterinary care to maintain and increase output from many sheep flocks as producers seek to find greater returns from the market place.

exchange rates and export opportunities

The strength of the pound against the euro had a significant effect on lamb prices in 2015, resulting in a reduced volume of exports. There is a need to make producers more resilient to price volatility. Improved levels of mortality and effective health planning and implementation will have a part to play in creating robust, efficient systems of production. The weaker pound following the Brexit result has had some short-tem benefits on lamb prices.

28

15.Flockhealthplanning

A number of health planning tools are available for sheep producers, ranging from ready-made templates from Red Tractor Assurance to a web-based health planning service from SRUC. It is not a requirement in the UK for a vet to be involved in creating or reviewing a farm health plan. The RTA scheme members have been required since October 2014 to have an annual vet visit, as a minimum, to review the use of prescription only (POM-V) medicines, production records and the health plan.

There is wide variation in the level of veterinary involvement on sheep farms in the UK. Researchers investigated sheep producers’ opinions of the current and future role of vets in flock health management on sheep farms and concluded that there was an impasse, as sheep producers do not perceive that vets have the expertise to give them the advice they need, but until the producers keep better records and financial accounts they will not appreciate whether flock health planning could benefit their flock and their income (53).

BioSeCurity

Flock biosecurity is an integral part of flock health planning, but the extensive nature of sheep farming in the UK means that sheep farms are generally less biosecure than more intensively reared species. A Defra project in 2004 highlighted the requirement for better quantification of the benefits of biosecurity on UK cattle and sheep farms (54). The number of sheep movements that take place in the UK each year is high, with a total of 70 million individual sheep movements reported in 2014 (55). ADAS recorded that 70% of sheep producers who had bought in sheep over the previous 12 months had purchased them from a livestock market (56). The high number of sheep movements clearly increases the risk of disease spread between farms. A study of producers’ attitudes to disease risk management found that most producers feel they are doing all they can reasonably do to minimise disease risk and that practices not being implemented are either not relevant or ineffective (57). The study also identified that there is a difference in disease risk perception between producers and the veterinary profession and that improving biosecurity on farms depends on changing producers’ attitudes and perceptions.

13

down 1

64

up 3

<1

same

19

same &

2

up 1

225

down 1

46

up 12

32

down 4

28

down 1

MULTIFOODSPECIES

NON-FOODSPECIES

429

up 9

TOTALSALES

FOOD& NON-FOOD

28 29

Guidance on the responsible use of medicines in agriculture are produced by a number of organisations, including the Responsible Use of Medicines in Agriculture Alliance (RUMA), the Veterinary Medicines Directorate (VMD), the National Office for Animal Health (NOAH) and the British Veterinary Association (BVA).

uSe of antimiCroBiaLS in Sheep

In light of increasing antimicrobial resistance and in response to the government’s five-year strategy on antimicrobial resistance (58) all the organisations listed above provide specific guidance to promote responsible use of antibiotics in animals.

The VMD produces an annual report detailing the amount of antimicrobials sold for farm animals and antibiotic resistance data for bacteria isolated from farm animals (59). Antibiotic sales data have many limitations and are not suitable for assessing use in each species, especially given that no antibiotics are licensed only for sheep in the UK. This is illustrated in Figure 17, which shows that 225 tonnes of antibiotics licensed for use in pigs and poultry were sold in 2013 and 2014 but the VMD do not have the information to break this figure down into the amount sold for use in pigs and the amount for use in poultry. Consumption data, i.e. the amount of antibiotics purchased, prescribed or administered, have the potential to provide much more precise estimates. The VMD is currently working in partnership with key livestock sectors to develop a system for the collection of antibiotic consumption data in food producing animals, facilitating and coordinating sector-led collection systems for the priority livestock sectors (pigs, poultry and cattle).

The industry is starting to use milligrams per production correction unit (mg/PCU) to describe antimicrobial use rather than tonnes as the standardised unit. The sales of veterinary antibiotics for food producing species adjusted by the food producing animal population were 57 mg/PCU. This represents little change from 2013.

The VMD collates data from government laboratories on antibiotic resistance in bacteria found in samples from animals. This is managed through two programmes: EU Harmonised Monitoring, which is carried out as a legal requirement and a clinical surveillance programme that relies on voluntary submission of samples by producers and veterinary surgeons. In general, low levels of resistance to most antibiotics are consistently observed in sheep.

meDiCine reSiDueS

The VMD runs a surveillance programme to monitor the use of veterinary medicines and prohibited substances in UK produce. It produces annual reports that provide information on substances found in UK animal produce and what action is being taken to avoid unacceptable residues in the future. In 2014, antimicrobials were detected in less than 0.2% of sheep samples tested and anthelmintics in less than 0.3% (60).

16.Useofmedicines

Figure17.Antibioticsalesbyspeciesintonnes(2013-14)

Source: Veterinary medicine Directorate

30

17.Farmassurance

A number of farm assurance schemes applicable to the sheep sector operate in GB. Red Tractor Assurance is the UK’s main farm assurance scheme, covering six farming sectors, and reports a membership of 24,741 producers for the beef and lamb sector61. There are also country-specific schemes, including Quality Meat Scotland (QMS) and Farm Assured Welsh Livestock (FAWL). In addition, some multiple retailers have developed their own standards.

reD traCtor aSSuranCe

Red Tractor Assurance (RTA) completed a review of the beef and lamb farm standards in 2014 with changes in force from 1st October 2014. Animal welfare is a core principle of RTA and was a key focus in the review.

A documented health plan has been a requirement of Red Tractor standards for many years but the changes introduced in 2014 aimed to make health planning more review focussed and allow the identification of underlying problems and emerging issues.

The plan must now include euthanasia (method used and by whom) and young animal management (e.g. provision of alternative sources of colostrum). Scheme members are required to keep additional health and performance records (including culling and mortality records and any abattoir feedback received) and to complete an annual Health and Performance Review. It remains a recommendation (rather than a requirement) that flock health plans are written in conjunction with a veterinary surgeon (see page 24). Red Tractor has produced a new health plan template and a separate review template which are available on their website to help producers. It is now a requirement for the farm vet to visit at least once a year if prescription medicines are used. This does not need to be a specific visit but the vet should be able to look over the livestock, discuss and review the purchase and use of antibiotics and other medicines as part of the requirement.

The previous standards on artificially reared calves were updated in 2014 to include artificially reared lambs as well. The standard now requires that lambs have access to water at all times, that lambs in individual pens can see and touch other lambs, in line with legislation, and that alternative sources of colostrum are available on farm and used as required.

other SChemeS

The Farm Assured Welsh Livestock Beef and Lamb Scheme (FAWL) operates in Wales and is provided by Welsh Lamb and Beef Producers Ltd; a cooperative owned by over 7,200 Welsh producers.

The Cattle & Sheep Assurance Scheme is an essential element in the Quality Meat Scotland (QMS) ‘whole chain’ consumer assurance programme and has approximately 4,600 members with sheep. To qualify for Scotch PGI status lambs must have been born, reared and slaughtered in Scotland and spent their entire life on QMS Scotch Assured holdings.

The most recent edition of the RSPCA welfare standards for sheep was produced in January 2013. Membership of Freedom Foods (the RSPCA assurance scheme) by sheep producers is low, however, the RSPCA standards are not restricted for use solely by Freedom Food members, and having a low sheep membership should not define their sphere of influence in relation to sheep welfare.

WeLfare outComeS

Welfare outcome assessment aims to provide a more objective, accurate and direct picture of animal welfare. Welfare outcomes are now part of farm assurance for a number of farmed species (e.g. laying hens, pigs and dairy cows). The following individual, flock and record measures (see Table 9) have been identified as being important for sheep by the AssureWel project team (comprising RSPCA, Soil Association and the University of Bristol62). They are testing a standardised method of welfare outcome assessment for use within farm assurance schemes, including the RSPCA Freedom Food and Soil Association schemes, and RTA.

Table9.FlockandrecordmeasuresforAssureWelproject

Individual measure 1. Lameness

Flock measures 2. Body condition score (thin sheep) 3. Dirtiness 4. Fleece loss5. Skin irritation 6. Sheep needing further care 7. Mutilations8. Ear integrity 9. Response to stockman

Records 10. Mortality11. Health and welfare planning and management a. Lameness – verifying self-assessment and management b. Body condition score – verifying self-assessment and management c. Mastitis d. Faecal egg count testing

Source: assureWel

30 31

In GB, most genetic evaluations are carried out by Signet Breeding Services. In total, 714 flocks spread across 36 breeds are currently performance recording with Signet. Breeds with more than 50 flocks recording include Charollais, Hampshire Down, Lleyn, Suffolk and Texel. Growth and carcase conformation estimated breeding values (EBVs) generated have been largely accepted by the industry and an increasing number of commercial producers are using these to inform their choice of ram.

Estimated breeding values for specific health and welfare traits are being developed and some already exist in some breeds. The following traits and potential EBVs are recognised as potentially having a significant impact on health and welfare:

■ Lambingease: Lambing ease EBVs are available to Texel breeders after the implementation of a five-point point scoring system and the discovery of considerable amounts of phenotypic and genetic variation in this trait. The information is published on the internet but is not widely used by breeders (63). Similar scoring systems have been implemented for other breeds, although where phenotypic variation in this trait is small, such as in a relatively easy lambing breed, then it is unlikely that a robust EBV will be developed in the near future. However, the collection of these data does allow the trait to be monitored.

■ Birthweight: Birth weight EBVs are being produced within some of the more recent Signet analyses, including the National Texel Evaluation. Birth weight has been routinely collected by Signet recorded flocks since the start of flock recording and selecting for lower birth weight may help to reduce lamb mortality, by reducing the dystocia caused by large lambs. However, as lamb mortality tends to increase for both very heavy and very light lambs and optimum, rather than extreme, EBVs are probably required for this trait.

■ Wormresistanceandresilience: Faecal egg counting (FEC) can be used as an indicator of resistance to gastro-intestinal parasites. AHDB Beef & Lamb, HCC and QMS provide a subsidy to support the laboratory testing of faecal samples collected from sheep in Signet recorded flocks. The results are then used to generate a FEC EBV. In 2014, there was an increase in the amount of FEC samples submitted, due to an AHDB Beef & Lamb Farm Innovation Grant awarded to the Performance Recorded Lleyn Breeder group to look at the relationship between FEC and Immunoglobulin A (IgA) levels in saliva. It is hoped this work will pump prime further enthusiasm in collecting these phenotypes.

■ Lameness:The most comprehensive review of breeding for resistance to footrot was undertaken by Conington and Bunger (2009) as part of Defra Link Project KK066867. This suggests that there are no major genes responsible for susceptibility to footrot, which probably has a polygenic determinism. A follow-up, funded by AHDB and others, looked at the genetic influences on shelly hoof in Texel and Blackface sheep. Shelly hoof has a high prevalence level in the Texel and Blackface breeds and the expression of clinical signs of shelly hoof is under moderate genetic control. It was concluded that screening hooves for shelly hoof and selection using EBVs for this trait would lead to a reduction in shelly hoof prevalence (64). The Scottish Rural College (SRUC) has also undertaken work for HCC attempting to validate a New Zealand based genetic test for lameness in the Welsh Mountain breed (65). The results showed that the use of the NZ footrot gene test will not separate Welsh Mountain sheep into categories adequately enough to warrant investment in the test by the breed. The medium heritability of lameness means breeders would make relatively good progress if they were to simply cull affected animals.

■ Mastitis:AHDB has funded research work at the University of Warwick to look at a number of aspects influencing the incidence of mastitis (40). While there was a link between udder conformation and health, most ewes had well shaped udders and in the absence of much phenotypic variation in this trait, genetic selection on the basis of udder and teat shape to reduce the incidence of mastitis would not be cost effective. SRUC is undertaking a project with the Texel Sheep Society to try and identify a genetic approach (including the use of genomics) to deal with mastitis. The project will run through 2016.

■ Eweandlambsurvival:SRUC is currently completing work for AHDB on ewe longevity (66). Initially three breeds (Poll Dorset, Lleyn and Texel) will be used, because of the large data sets stored by Signet and all cover both maternal and terminal sires. Improving aspects of maternal performance is the key to reducing wastage and flock inefficiencies. SRUC undertook a short project funded by AHDB using Scottish Blackface data to see if a lamb survival EBV could be ‘data mined’ from the Signet datasets, to deduce genetic differences in lamb survival (67). The project found there are genetic components associated with lamb survival as both a trait of the ewe and the lamb. This work is now being extended to see if the approach can yield breeding values for lamb survival in other breeds, such as the Lleyn and Dorset.

The potential value of genetic improvement to health and welfare is not currently being realised. A recent study commissioned by AHDB Beef & Lamb concluded that the realised returns from genetic improvement of all kinds in sheep are substantially below their potential in the UK (68). The report stated that terminal-type breeds have been used increasingly to generate replacements for the ewe flock, with detrimental effects on the performance of the maternal ewe flock. It highlights the value of genomics in earlier identification of superior individuals and in assessment of hard-to-measure traits, such as disease resistance. The greatest opportunity from genomics is likely be in maternal traits, including disease resistance/tolerance and ease of management traits.

18.Breedingforhealthandwelfaretraits

32

19.Nutrition

Correct nutrition is fundamental to the health and welfare of all sheep in all systems of production, with well-nourished animals generally being more able to withstand a disease challenge and to mount an immune response. There are issues with both over and under feeding. A variety of nutritionally related problems arise particularly around lambing time, most due to lack of energy (pregnancy toxaemia) or protein or conversely problems related to ewes being overfed causing problems with prolapse, acidosis and dystocia.

Body condition scoring (BCS) plays a big part in managing the nutrition of breeding sheep and there are widely accepted guidelines for target scores at different stages of the production cycle. An AHDB-funded project is investigating the impact of BCS of ewes on the litter size at scanning and lamb growth rate to weaning (69, 70). The project runs over four years, looking at the performance of three flocks in England. The analysis of data across all four years of the project will not be available until autumn 2017.

Without the final report, it is difficult to draw conclusions, however key trends that have been seen in each production cycle are:

■ The impact of ewes at low BCS (below 2 at weaning) is longer term than first thought and has an impact (even if ewes to regain condition) on scanning the following production year and as far as weaning weight of lambs the following year

■ Ewe parity affects litter size at scanning, eight week lamb weights and weaning lamb weights with younger ewes achieving lower scanning results and lighter lambs in rearing twins

■ The importance of a ewe’s rearing phase (growth pattern from ewe lambs to shearlings) is thought to have an impact on her first year’s performance and possibly lifetime performance (further work required on this subject)

■ The weight of lambs at eight weeks is important to their future performance. Lambs that are light (defined as below 17kg when the flock target is to achieve average of 20kg) at eight weeks continue to be the lighter lambs at weaning and beyond. More analysis is needed but it has been found that as ewe BCS improves, the number of light lambs has reduced

■ The importance of shearling management is being investigated because shearling ewes rearing twins contribute the highest proportion of light lambs (when compared to the number of shearlings in the flock)

■ The change in BCS between production periods appears to be as important as the actual BCS, but again this requires further analysis to be able to highlight which periods of the production cycle have the greatest impact on litter size and lamb weight.

BCS and late pregnancy feeding have a huge impact on lamb survival, with ewes in poor body condition on inadequate diets giving birth to poor weak lambs, getting a poor supply of colostral antibodies making them more likely to succumb to diseases like watery mouth.

Although many nutritionally related conditions are reported by producers and vets there are no reliable statistics available on prevalence. A number of laboratories analyse blood samples for metabolic profiles (to assess nutritional status) and trace elements to help diagnose deficiencies but these are purely to assist individual producers in managing their flocks.

AHDB Beef & Lamb is funding a new ‘Feeding the ewe’ manual, which will be published in autumn 2016. This will bring together all recent research and information on feeding ewes into one comprehensive reference source for progressive producers and advisers.

32 33

■ Weneedmoredata

It can be seen from the report that good, up-to-date and robust data is not available for most sheep diseases. We need to look for new and innovative data sources, for example, CCIR data or on-farm data via EID, and better interrogation the current ones, e.g. post-mortems being done by vets and laboratory testing. However data from different sources must be compatible to allow interrogation. We need to make sure the data has relevance for producers, vets and advisers and at the regional and national level.

High quality knowledge exchange work using a variety of techniques needs to continue to provide producers with practical information, while also inspiring them to implement latest technological developments to increase data collection from farms.

■ Engagewiththedatahub

The key is not just to collect data for the sake of it, but to use it to improve our knowledge of disease and to promote the health and welfare status of our stock.

It will be interesting to see what the pilot project that links cattle disease status through the supply chain concludes, as this approach would be a long-term target for the sheep industry. There are opportunities through APHA because they are aiming to integrate various data sources to enhance disease surveillance. The Government disease surveillance model is currently based on detection of new and re-emerging diseases, but a more collaborative approach with industry could lead to better surveillance of novel, exotic and endemic disease.

■ Activehealthplanning

We need to encourage producers and vets to make health plans that are used to improve the health of animals and move away from the current situation where plans are drawn up but not implemented. We need to understand what stops some producers and vets using health plans to their full effect and what we need to do to engage them all in health planning. A positive step for the industry would be increasing the amount of proactive health care (including greater use of vaccines) rather than reactive fire-fighting.

We also have a role in encouraging producers to seek vets with greater sheep expertise if they are not getting the service they need.

■ Getreadyforthenextchallenges

The incursion of diseases, such as Bluetongue and Schmallenberg, has focussed the mind of the industry to realise that we can make concerted efforts to tackle disease and win. The same attitude needs to be applied to dealing with lamb mortality, anthelmintic resistance, reducing the use of antimicrobials in the sheep sector and the threat of chronic diseases in ewes.

There will be opportunities arising from Brexit to encourage the Government to implement long-term approaches to improving flock health, rather than focussing on short and single disease programmes of activity.

20.Recommendations

34

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17 Gordon, D., Zadoks, R., Skuce, P. and Sargison, N. (2011) Confirmation of triclabendazole resistance in liver fluke in the UK Veterinary Record 171 (6); 159-160

18 APHA (2014) Zoonoses summary report. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/zoonoses-summary-report-uk-2014

19 FSA personal communication

20 ADAS (2015) Control of the dog tapeworm larvae C. ovis and C. tenuicollis in sheep. http://www.menterabusnes.co.uk/tag/control-of-dog-tapeworm-covis

21 Scottish Government (2010) The Sheep Scab (Scotland) Order 2010. http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ssi/2010/419/pdfs/ssi_20100419_en.pdf

22 FAWC (2011) Opinion on lameness in sheep. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/fawc-opinion-on-sheep-lameness

23 Lovatt, F.M. (2014) Causes, control and costs of lameness in sheep. Veterinary Ireland Journal, 5 (4); 189-190.

24 Angell, J.W. Duncan, J.S. Carter, S.D. and Grove-White, D.H. (2014) Farmer reported prevalence and factors associated with contagious ovine digital dermatitis in Wales: a questionnaire of 511 sheep producers. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 113; 132–138

25 Angell, J.W., Clegg, S., Sullivan, L., Duncan, J.S., Grove- White, D. and Evans, N. (2015) An investigation into contagious ovine digital dermatitis lesion treponeme bacteria and their antibiotic susceptibilities. Final Report for HCC/EBLEX.

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26 Clements, R.H. and Stoye, S.C. (2014) The ‘five point plan’: a successful tool for reducing lameness in sheep. Veterinary Record; 175:225

27 Winter, J.R., Kaler, J., Ferguson, E., Kilbride, A.L. and Green L.E. (2015) Changes in prevalence of, and risk factors for, lameness in random samples of English sheep flocks: 2004-2013. Prev Vet Med. 122(1-2):121-8.

28 Green, L.E., Wassink, G.J., Grogono-Thomas, R., Moore, L.J. & Medley, G.F. (2007) Looking after the individual to reduce disease in the flock: A binomial mixed effects model investigating the impact of individual sheep management of footrot and interdigital dermatitis in a prospective longitudinal study on one farm. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 78(2); 172-178.

29 Kaler, J., Daniels, S.L., Wright, J.L. and Green, L.E. (2010). Randomized clinical trial of long-acting oxytetracycline, foot trimming, and flunixine meglumine on time to recovery in sheep with footrot. J. Vet Intern Med, 24(2); 420-5

30 Ritchie, C.M., Davies, I.H. and Smith, R.P. (2012) Maedi Visna (MV) seroprevalence survey 2010. http://beefandlamb.ahdb.org.uk/research/animal-health-and-welfare-sheep/maedi-visna-project/

31 Cousens, C., Gibson, L., Finlayson, J., Pritchard, I. and Dagleish, M.P. (2015) Short communication: Prevalence of ovine pulmonary adenocarcinoma (Jaagsiekte) in a UK slaughterhouse sheep study. Veterinary Record, 176 (16); 413

32 Lovatt, F.M. and Strugnell, B.W. (2013) An observational study involving ewe post-mortem examination at a fallen stock centre to inform flock health interventions. The Veterinary Record, 172; 504

33 SAC (2012) Prevalence Study of Endemic Diseases in the Scottish National Sheep Flock. http://www.sruc.ac.uk/downloads/file/673/prevalence_study_of_endemic_diseases_in_the_scottish_national_sheep_flock

34 Salvatori, D. (2005) Studies on the pathogenesis and epidemiology of ovine pulmonary adenocarcinoma (OPA). PhD thesis, University of Edinburgh.

35 Scott, P., Griffiths, D. and Cousens, C. (2013) Diagnosis and control of ovine pulmonary adenocarcinoma (Jaagsiekte). In Practice, 35 (7); 382-397

36 AHDB (2015) Project description: Detecting JRSV in a thin ewe diagnostic package. http://beefandlamb.ahdb.org.uk/research/animal-health-and-welfare-sheep/detecting-jrsv-in-a-thin-ewe-diagnostic-package/

37 NADIS (2016) Prevalence Study of Endemic Diseases in the Scottish National Sheep Flock. http://www.nadis.org.uk/bulletins/johnes-and-other-wasting-diseases-in-sheep.aspx

38 APHA (2015) Emerging Threats Quarterly Report - Small ruminant diseases, Quarter 4. https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/405638/pub-survrep-sr0414.pdf

39 Malone, F. (2007) Caseous Lymphadenitis (CLA) in sheep and goats. BVA Congress, Belfast.

40 AHDB (2016) Mastitis in Ewes Final Report. http://beefandlamb.ahdb.org.uk/wp/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/73104-Mastitis-in-Ewes-Phase-II-Final-Report-180915.pdf

41 HCC (2011) Making Every Lamb Count report. www.hccmpw.org.uk

42 Bennett, R. and Ljpelaar, J. (2005) Updated estimates of the costs associated with thirty four endemic livestock diseases in Great Britain: a note. Journal of Agricultural Economics. 56 (1); 135-144

43 APHA (2016) Disease surveillance report (March): Disease surveillance in England and Wales.

44 APHA (2014). Non-statutory zoonosis: annual report.

45 Ceva Animal Health and MSD personal communication.

46 Defra (2013). Zoonosis report for UK. https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/447771/pb13987-zoonoses-report-2013.pdf

47 EFSA (2007) The EFSA Journal, Surveillance and monitoring of Toxoplasma in humans, food and animals. Scientific Opinion of the Panel on Biological Hazards, 583; 1-64

48 Moredun (2010) Moredun Newsletter Spring 2010.

49 Moredun (2006) Border Disease. www.moredun.org.uk

50 Scott, P.R. (2007) Sheep Medicine. Manson Publishing Ltd.

51 Defra (2015) Farming Statistics Livestock Populations at 1 December 2014 for UK. https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/414334/structure-dec2014-uk-19mar15.pdf

52 AHDB Beef & Lamb (2015) Stocktake Report.

53 Kaler J. and Green L.E. (2013) Sheep producer opinions on the current and future role of veterinarians in flock health management on sheep farms: a qualitative study. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 112; 370–377

54 University of Reading (2004) Constraints to uptake of adequate biosecurity on UK cattle and sheep farms, with special reference to zoonotic diseases. Final Report to Defra on Project OZ0144. http://sciencesearch.defra.gov.uk/Document.aspx?Document=OZ0144_2133_FRP.doc

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55 APHA (2014) Report of the Livestock Demographic Data Group for Small Ruminants.

56 ADAS (2007) An independent evidence baseline for farm health planning in England. A report prepared for Defra farm health planning team. http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20130402151656/http://archive.defra.gov.uk/foodfarm/policy/animalhealth/documents/fhp.pdf

57 Garforth C.J., Bailey A.P. and Tranter R.B. (2013) Producers’ attitudes to disease risk management in England: A comparative analysis of sheep and pig producers. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 110; 456–466

58 Department of Health and Defra (2013) UK 5-Year Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) Strategy 2013–2018. www.gov.uk/government/publications/uk-5-year-antimicrobial-resistance-strategy-2013-to-2018

59 VMD (2014) UK Veterinary Antibiotic Resistance and Sales Surveillance (VARSS) report.

www.gov.uk/government/publications/veterinary-antimicrobial-resistance-and-sales-surveillance-2014

60 VMD (2014) Residues: Statutory surveillance results.

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61 Red Tractor Assurance. http://assurance.redtractor.org.uk/

62 AssureWel. http://www.assurewel.org/sheep

63 Signet (2014) The Signet Guide to Lambing Ease EBVs. http://www.texel.co.uk/node/465

64 Conington, J. and Bunger, L. (2009) Breeding for resistance to footrot: combining molecular and phenotypic approaches. LINK project, LK0668. www.envirobase.info/cgi-bin/searchdetail.pl?grn=RES1577

65 Conington, J., Moore K. and Bünger, L. (2008) Validation of an existing Footrot Gene Test in Welsh Mountain Sheep. http://hccmpw.org.uk/index.php/tools/required/files/download?fID=4398

66 EBLEX (2014) Project description – ewe longevity. http://beefandlamb.ahdb.org.uk/wp/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Ewe-longevity-251114.pdf

67 EBLEX (2014) Project description – generating EBVs for postnatal lamb survival. http://beefandlamb.ahdb.org.uk/wp/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/generating_ebvs_for_postnatal_lamb_survival_-_final_report_29_11_2012.pdf

68 EBLEX (2014) Review of the genetic improvement of beef cattle and sheep in the UK with special reference to the potential for genomics. http://beefandlamb.ahdb.org.uk/research/genetic-selection/genetic-selection-generic/review-genetic-improvement-beef-sheep-uk/

69 AHDB Beef & Lamb (2015) Sheep KPI Validation Pilot Project. http://beefandlamb.ahdb.org.uk/wp/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/74210-KPI-Sheep-Validation.pdf

70 AHDB Beef & Lamb (2015) Project description – Sheep KPI Validation. http://beefandlamb.ahdb.org.uk/research/animal-nutrition/animal-nutrition-sheep/sheep-kpi-validation-project-phase-ii/

36 37

Glossary

AD monepantel (Zolvix™), anthelmintic class 4

ADAS ADAS UK Ltd

AFBNI Agrifood and Biosciences Institute of Northern Ireland

AHDA Animal Health Distributors Association

AHDB Agriculture and Horticulture Development Board

AHVLA Animal Health Veterinary Laboratory Agency, now APHA

AHWBE Animal Health and Welfare Board for England

AIMS Association of Independent Meat Suppliers

AMR Antimicrobial resistance

APHA Animal and Plant Health Agency, formerly AHVLA and VLA

AssureWel University of Bristol, RSPCA and Soil Association initiative to establish farm animal welfare outcome measures

BBSRC Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council

BCS Body condition scoring

BCVA British Cattle Veterinary Association

BDV Border Disease Virus

BMPA British Meat Processors Association

BPEX Levy board representing pig producers in England (now AHDB Pork)

BSDA British Sheep Dairying Association

BSE Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy

bTB Bovine Tuberculosis

BTV Bluetongue Virus

BVA British Veterinary Association

BVD Bovine Viral Disease

BVDV Bovine Viral Diarrhoea Virus

BWMB British Wool Marketing Board

BZ Benzimidazoles, anthelmintic class 1

CA Contagious agalagactia

(i) CASE (industrial) Collaborative Awards in Science and Engineering,

CCIR Collection and Communication of Inspection Results

CDL Centralised Diagnostic Laboratory

CHAWG Cattle Health and Welfare Group of Great Britain

CLA Caseous Lymphadenitis

CODD Contagious Ovine Digital Dermatitis

COWS Control of Worms Sustainably

CSFS Compulsory Scrapie Flock Scheme

CVO Chief Veterinary Officer

Defra Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs

DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid

DNR Diagnosis not reached

DTP Doctorate Training Programme

DSC Disease Surveillance Centre

EAE Enzootic Abortion of ewes

EBLEX Levy board representing beef and lamb producers in England (now AHDB Beef & Lamb)

EBV Estimated breeding value

EFSA European Food Safety Authority

EID Electronic Identification

ELISA Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay

EU European Union

FAWC Farm Animal Welfare Council

FAWL Farm Assured Welsh Livestock

FCI Food Chain Information

FEC Faecal egg count

FECRT Faecal egg count reduction test

FIG Farm Innovation Grant

FSA Food Standards Agency

FSCC Fallen Stock Collection Centre

FUW Farmers Union of Wales

GB Great Britain

HCC Hybu Cig Cymru, Welsh red meat levy board

HMT Genetic hard to measure traits, e.g. disease resistance

IAAS Institute of Auctioneers and Appraisers for Scotland

IgA Immunoglobulin A

JSRV Jaagsiekte Sheep Retrovirus

KPI Key performance indicators

KTN Knowledge Transfer Network

LAA Livestock Auctioneers Association

LFA and non-LFA Less Favoured Area and non-Less Favoured Area

LV Levamisole, anthelmintic class 2

LW Longwool sheep breed, e.g. Bluefaced Leicester

MAP Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis

mg/PCU Milligram per production correction unit

ML Macrocyclic Lactose, anthelmintic class 3

MV Maedi Visna

NADIS National Animal Disease Information Service

NBA National Beef Association

NERC Natural Environment Research Council

NFSCo National Fallen Stock Company

NFU National Farmers Union of England and Wales

NFUS National Farmers Union of Scotland

NMR National Milk Records

NOAH National Office for Animal Health

NOS Not Otherwise Specified

NPA National Pig Association

NSA National Sheep Association

NZ New Zealand

OP Organophosphate

OPA Ovine Pulmonary Adenocarcinoma

PCR Polymerase chain reaction test

PCU Population correction unit

PGE Parasitic gastro-enteritis

PhD Doctor of Philosophy

PI Persistently infected

38

PME Post–mortem examination

POM-V Prescription only medicines, prescribed by veterinary surgeon

POM-VPS Prescription only medicines, prescribed by veterinary surgeon, pharmacist or suitably qualified person

PPR Peste des Petits Ruminants

PSGHS Premium Sheep and Goat Health Scheme

QMS Quality Meat Scotland, levy board representing the red meat industry in Scotland

RABDF Royal Association of British Dairy Farmers

RADAR Rapid Analysis and Detection of Animal-Related Risks – captures and processes data from a range of sources

RCVS Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons

RDPE Rural Development Programme for England

RTA Red Tractor Assurance

RSPCA Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals

RUMA Responsible Use of Medicines in Agriculture Alliance

RVC Royal Veterinary College, London

SACCVS Scottish Agricultural College Consulting Veterinary Services

SARS Suspected Adverse Reaction Surveillance Scheme

SBV Schmallenberg Virus

SCOPS Sustainable Control of Parasites in Sheep

SDA and non-SDA Severely Disadvantaged Area and non-Severely Disadvantaged Area

SEERAD Scottish Executive Environment and Rural Affairs Department

SHAWG Sheep Health and Welfare Group of Great Britain

SI Derquantel and abamectin (Startect™), anthelmintic class 5

Signet Breeding services providing genetic evaluation to sheep and cattle breeders, funded by AHDB Beef & Lamb, HCC and QMS

SMB Strategic Management Board, oversees veterinary surveillance in Scotland

SMS Scrapie Monitoring Scheme

SQP Suitably Qualified Person

SRUC Scotland’s Rural University

SVS Sheep Veterinary Society

TB Tuberculosis

TCBZ Triclabendazole

TMR Total mixed ration

TRACES The Trade Control and Expert System

TS Terminal sire, e.g. Suffolk, Texel

TSE Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathy

UK United Kingdom

USA United States of America

VARRS Veterinary Antimicrobial Resistance and Sales Surveillance

VAS Veterinary and Advisory Services

VIC Veterinary Investigation Centre

VLA Veterinary Laboratory Agency, now APHA

VIDA Veterinary Investigation Diagnosis Analysis

VIO Veterinary Investigation Officer

VMD Veterinary Medicines Directorate

38 39

40

Appendix:

Table10.EstimatedsizeofpurebreedpopulationsofewekeptinBritain2012(ewesmated)andcomparisonwith2003

Table11.Estimatedsizeofcrossbredewepopulationin2012(ewesmated)andcomparisonwith2003

Breed Breedtype2012 2003

No.ewesmated(000)

%ofallewesNo.ewes

mated(000)%ofallewes

Scottish Blackface

Hill 1,125 8.6 1,686 11.1

Welsh Mountain

Hill 966 7.4 1,563 10.3

Swaledale Hill 721 5.5 1,047 6.9

Lleyn Shortwool 474 3.6 237 1.6

Texel TS 304 2.3 326 2.1

North Country Cheviot

Hill 294 2.3 435 2.9

Romney Marsh Longwool 251 1.9 165 1.1

Cheviot (unspecified)

Hill 227 1.7 147 1.0

Beulah Speckled Face

Hill 144 1.1 498 3.3

Hardy Speckled Face

Hill 134 1.0 276 1.8

Suffolk TS 130 1.0 230 1.5

Breed Breedtype2012 2003

Ewesmated(000)

%ofallewesEwesmated

(000)%ofallewes

North Country Mule

LW x hill 1,636 12.5 1,915 12.6

Welsh Mule LW x hill 576 4.4 738 4.9

Scotch Mule LW x hill 469 3.6 610 4.0

Suffolk x (LW x hill)

TS x 342 2.6 590 3.9

Texel x (LW x hill)

TS x 247 1.9 307 2.0

Other Texel x TS x 1,236 9.5 720 4.7

Other Suffolk x TS x 584 4.5 699 4.6

Source: ahDB Beef & LambtS – terminal sire

Source: ahDB Beef & Lambnote: LW – Longwool, tS – terminal sire.

40 41

Table12.Rambreeds–summaryofthoseusedin2012and2003(restrictedtothoserepresentingover3%ofallrams)

Table13.UKRedmeatproductionfor2011to2015(000tonnes)

Table14.Britishwoolproductionfor2008to2015

Breed2012 2003

No.rams(000)

No.flocks(000)

%ofallramsNo.rams

(000)%ofallrams

Texel 99.0 19.8 27.1 100.4 24.4

Suffolk 46.8 10.7 12.8 93.9 22.8

Charollais 32.0 8.7 8.8 31.0 7.5

Scottish Blackface

24.2 2.9 6.6 30.3 7.4

Bluefaced Leicester

21.7 4.2 5.9 30.8 7.5

Welsh Mountain

18.5 2.3 5.1 26.2 6.4

Lleyn 12.6 3.5 3.4 8.2 2.0

Beefandveal Lambandmutton Pigmeat Totalredmeat

2011 936 289 806 2,030

2012 885 275 825 1,985

2013 847 290 833 1,970

2014 877 298 863 2,038

2015 888 306 902 2,095

ClipyearTotalproduction

(millionkg)Averageclipvalue

(p/kg)Averagesalevalue

(p/kg)Salevalue(£million)

2008 30.8 33 68 20.9

2009 28.7 48 89 25.5

2010 28.6 102 146 41.7

2011 30.2 124 166 50.1

2012 31.6 77 119 37.6

2013 28.3 103 148 41.9

2014 28.6 105 150 43.5

2015 28.9 85 128.2 37.5

Source: ahDB Beef & Lamb

Source: ahDB Beef & Lamb

Source: British Wool marketing Board

42

Table15.LivesheepexportsfromUKin2014

Table16.SheepmeatexportsfromtheUKintonnesfor2014

Destinationcountry

Breeding Finishing Slaughter

Numberofconsignments

Numberofanimals

Numberofconsignments

Numberofanimals

Numberofconsignments

Numberofanimals

Belgium 22 427 20 7,201 – –

France 26 1,403 52 24,961 – –

Germany 25 255 1 447 3 1,206

Ireland 272 1,042 23 1,549 1,287 360,278

Italy 1 32 2 610 – –

Latvia 3 97 – – – –

Netherlands 19 106 23 8,401 1 424

Romania 3 30 1 367 – –

Switzerland 13 54 – – – –

Others 13 112 – – – –

TOTAL 368 3,528 102 43,536 1,291 361,908

OVERALLTOTALFORNUMBEROFCONSIGNMENTS 1,807

OVERALLTOTALFORNUMBEROFANIMALS 408,972

Region Country Tonnes

To EU countries

France 46,513

Germany 8,804

Ireland 7,328

Belgium 6,671

Italy 3,742

Netherlands 2,263

TOTAL 77,746

To non-EU countries

Hong Kong 11,147

Norway 1,438

Ghana 657

TOTAL 15,219

OVERALLTOTAL 92,965

42 43

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44

WhatisSHAWG?

SHAWG was established in 2009 and has financial support from AHDB Beef & Lamb (formerly EBLEX).

The Sheep Health and Welfare Group (SHAWG) is an independent body with membership that reflects the range of organisations involved in the sheep industry. Its focus from 2017 until 2022 will be to guide and assist the Sheep Health and Welfare Strategy for the UK sheep industry. It will continue to act as an extremely useful link between representatives of the sheep industry with Government departments and their agencies.

The main objectives of SHAWG are:1. To reduce the impact of endemic disease by acting on surveillance data and new knowledge

2. To ensure the industry is aware of the threat of any new or re-emerging diseases

3. To promote and encourage responsible use of medicines, including anthelmintics and antimicrobials

4. To ensure welfare is maintained as a priority for the sheep industry

5. To highlight the role of nutrition in good health and welfare

6. To deliver an integrated approach with all stakeholders, allied support industries, retailers and Government

ShaWG ConferenCe

SHAWG organises a biennial conference, which attracts around 180 sheep producers, SQPs, advisers, consultants and vets. It is an opportunity for networking, sharing knowledge and highlighting areas that are priorities for future activity.

The 2016 conference titled “A business approach to health and welfare” held at Worcester on the 16th November focussed on several key areas:

■ Improving flock performance through better feeding

■ Using monitoring to improve health and welfare

■ How to maximise the investment in medicines.

The conference was sponsored by:

Go to www.shawg.org.uk for more information or contact liz.genever@ahdb.org.uk.

Vision:A UK sheep flock where health and welfare are continually improving, and nutrition is optimised, which results in better performance, the production of a safe and quality product, reduced environmental impact and increasing sustainability of the industry.

44 45

WhoisSHAWG?

Farmer Representative

Farmer Representative

Animal Health and Welfare Board for England

Liz Genever, Katie Brian(secretariat)

Nigel Gibbens

Joanne Briggs, Phil StockerRebecca Veale

Nick Ambrose

Amanda Carson

Peter Baber (chair)

Grace O’Gorman

Tim Bebbington, Rebecca Mearns

Huw Davies

Tim Morris

Charles Sercombe

Jess Sloss

Lesley Stubbings

Christianne Glossop, Chris Hale

Bryan Lovegrove

Chris Dodds

John Avizienius

Douglas Bell

SHAWGSheep Health & Welfare Group

Support from the Chief Veterinary offiCerS

We are pleased to welcome this, the first, Sheep report produced by the Sheep health and Welfare Group (ShaWG). it is an indication of ShaWG working together across Great Britain to support the interests of sheep farmers in GB.

The sheep flock of Great Britain is the largest in Europe, providing incomes in a diverse range of rural communities, including extensively farmed areas in the hills and uplands to more intensively farmed lowland regions of England, Wales and Scotland. The sheep industry is a significant contributor to our export trade.

Maintaining and improving the health and welfare of our national flock will in turn improve the economic production for farmers and secure their futures and this report provides insight into both successes and where activities can be prioritised and the cost benefit of interventions can be evaluated.

We congratulate SHAWG for producing this informative report and the progress they are making and wish the group success in the coming year.

Christianne Glossop

Chief Veterinary Officer for Wales

Nigel Gibbens

Chief Veterinary Officer of the UK

Sheila Voas

Chief Veterinary Officer for Scotland