Master’s thesis

Shipping Human and Nature and

Promoting Activism through

Terry Bisson’s “Bears Discover

Fire” Applying an Ecocritical Lens and the Biophilia

Hypothesis to Literature for Implications in the EFL-

Setting

Author: Karl Erneland

Supervisor: Anne Holm

Examiner: Anna Thyberg

Date: Spring 2020

Subject: English

Level: Advanced

Course code: 4ENÄ2E

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Abstract

The planetary crisis is a factor with undoubted effects on society. Education in

Sweden concerns itself with preparing students for societal life through passing on values and

emphasising the need for critical thinking. Many students today engage in environmental

activism with the agenda to demand change from governing bodies to mitigate climate

change. To understand the process of change, additional information is needed regarding what

it means to be human. This text concerns itself with environmental teaching for the EFL-

setting. Through focusing on literature, and contributing to an in-depth understanding of the

characters, increased awareness about what it means to be human can be achieved. By

selecting the short story “Bears Discover Fire,” it is illustrated how such an understanding can

be found through fictional works.

This paper covers an ecocritical reading focusing on how representation, relationship,

and structures detrimental for the climate figure in Terry Bisson’s story. In addition, it argues

that a deeper understanding of the characters results from applying the biophilia hypothesis.

The findings from the analysis of characters and the representation of nature and relationships

are applied to the EFL-setting, providing examples for how teaching can be conducted to

promote further activism and strengthen the relationship between students and nature.

Keywords

Ecocriticism, Terry Bisson, Biophilia Hypothesis, EFL, Environment, Activism, Nature,

Bears Discover Fire, Upper Secondary School.

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Table of Contents

1. Introduction ........................................................................................................ 1

2. Environmental reading – Ecocriticism and Biophilia ..................................... 4

2.1 Representation of nature and relationships ....................................................... 5

2.2 Influencing Structures ....................................................................................... 6

2.3 Biophilia Hypothesis ........................................................................................ 9

3. Environmental teaching ................................................................................... 11

3.1 Curricular documents and the Environment ................................................... 12

3.2 Teaching Representation of Nature and Relationships................................... 13

3.3 Teaching Influencing Structures ..................................................................... 14

3.4 Biophilia Hypothesis ...................................................................................... 15

4. Analysis of “Bears Discover Fire” .................................................................. 16

4.1 Nature and Relationships ................................................................................ 16

4.2 Influencing Structures ..................................................................................... 21

4.3 Biophilia in “Bears Discover Fire” ................................................................. 25

5. Bears Discover Fire in the EFL Classroom ................................................... 27

5.1 Representation of Nature and Relationships in an EFL Setting ..................... 28

5.2 Application of Structures for EFL Classroom ................................................ 30

5.3 Biophilia in Bisson for the EFL Classroom.................................................... 33

6. Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 36

Works Cited ...................................................................................................... 40

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1. Introduction

In 2019, millions of adolescents took part in the global strikes for the climate. The young

strike for what they perceive to be a lack of action against climate change. The Guardian reports

about the strikes stating that it concerns the children and students, indicating that the movement

is not a matter of political bias or limited to nations but rather a matter of generations (Laville

et al). The article illustrates that there is a demand from adolescents, not only for actions to

mitigate climate change, but also to learn about the climate crisis and ways to combat it, and

also how to act according to the future that they want. It could be considered a responsibility

for education to support the young in gaining the knowledge that the students demand and in

an ever-changing world, teachers ought to remain open to what they teach and alternative ways

to teach it.

This text is written from the perspective of a pre-service teacher of English in Sweden.

Teaching about the climate crisis, ecology, and nature are matters that often fall on the

responsibility of more traditionally, science-oriented subjects. However, with the open nature

of the syllabus for English, especially for upper secondary school, the subject can be considered

to offer an array of possibilities for the teacher. Most notably perhaps is the vast pool of

literature, offering a great source of understanding regarding people, society and cultures, both

past and present. Using literature to teach about ecology has the added benefit of giving an

alternative to the often apocalyptic tone used when dealing with the climate crisis in the

classroom. The apocalyptic tone is problematised by Sasha Matthewman in her book, providing

methods of how to approach the planetary crisis through English. She provides examples of the

distancing effect that an apocalyptic tone can have and emphasises the role English can have in

adding nuance to it (100). Despite alternatives to the apocalyptic tone being needed, however,

it is important not to stray too far off the subject. Therefore, adding nuance to a complex matter

does not necessarily suggest that the students’ perceived will to engage in activism is neglected.

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Through the teaching of English, activism may be encouraged, and through the use of literature,

the understanding of the complexity of the situation can nuance the activism. What is needed

can thus be said to be an intellectual position that may lead to new insights.

Such an intellectual position can be said to be found within ecocriticism. In essence,

ecocriticism is about raising awareness about the human relationship with nature. Rather than

focusing on the negative impact humans have on the climate, Greg Garrard defines ecocriticism

as “the study of the relationship between the human and non-human, throughout human cultural

history” (5). Cheryl Glotfelty’s early definition also emphasises the representation of nature

along with the relationship (xxiii). Furthermore, ecocriticism is partially rooted in a re-

awakened fascination for nature and wilderness, as discussed by John Tallmadge. He suggests

that the re-awakening was a result of “the environmental movement . . . merging into the

cultural mainstream” (Tallmadge 2). Ecocriticism can thus be seen to offer an understanding of

how nature has been portrayed in cultural expressions, not seldom focusing on nature writing.

While the celebratory elements can be considered beneficial (Matthewman 31), it is

important to acknowledge the criticality of the lens. Glotfelty sees the movement as part of a

solution to the environmental problems since it “directs our attention to matters about which

we need to be thinking” (xxiv). Furthermore, Glotfelty emphasises the similarities between

feminist criticism and Marxism criticism. However, where they put a gender-conscious

perspective and a class perspective in the foreground for the reading, “ecocriticism takes an

earth-centred approach” (xvii). In order to expand on the comparison, feminist criticism can be

seen to bring a critical awareness towards patriarchal structures preventing gender equality in

thought. Ecocriticism can be seen to bring critical awareness to structures that enable the

continued exploitation of nature’s recourses. Ecocriticism focuses on the relationship between

human and the non-human and also examines how that relationship is destructive and

problematises a worldview building on human superiority.

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The implementation of ecocriticism to teaching is a matter that has been widely

discussed. The National Agency for Education states the need through listing the environmental

perspective as a task for the school but does not state how it is to be implemented (6). On the

one hand is the celebratory aspect that Matthewman writes about, promoting a positive

relationship and a deeper understanding of the representation of nature (31). On the other hand,

there is the critical emphasis on the destructive relationship between human and nature. The

conviction that a change is needed from a human point in order to mitigate the climate changes

is often reported by media worldwide. Despite this, according to Uwe Küchler, there is very

little willingness to change one’s lifestyle, and the implementation of ecocriticism in language

teaching can be a way to address the issue (26). The discussion can be said to represent two

different views of teaching with one teaching on the negative aspects of the relationship

between human and nature and the other more on the positive side of that relationship. This

paper places its approach in the middle of the discussion by attempting to promote a positive

relationship with nature whilst not neglecting the didactic elements of the theory.

In order to reach the middle ground suggested above, this paper uses the biophilia

hypothesis as an application to the ecocritical lens. In short, the biophilia hypothesis suggests

that humans have an innate attraction to nature and that “simply spending time in nature is

beneficial for human health” (Rogers). The hypothesis was formulated by biologist Edward

Wilson and has been mostly used in the field of psychology. However, through applying the

biophilia hypothesis to literature, the reader can reach a more in-depth insight into the actions

of the characters and the motives for their actions. As a positive side result of its implementation

in the classroom, the students may also gain health benefits and an understanding of eventual

attractions to nature.

The fictional work that the theories are applied to is the short story “Bears Discover

Fire” by Terry Bisson. The story was released in 1990 and won several awards within the Sci-

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Fi genre. The plot is based on the somewhat surreal event of bears discovering fire and how

humans react to this discovery. The text can also be seen to illustrate how the human characters

interact and function as a part of nature. For a teaching context, Bisson’s text has several

benefits. Firstly, the sci-fi element can be seen to create distance between the story and the

questions that it raises for the students. The distance can enable a discussion that, while

involving elements of real life, focuses on a fictional story. Secondly, the level of language that

the text is written in facilitates using in all courses of upper secondary school while still

providing enough of a challenge. Thirdly, the text illustrates how human behaviour is

influenced by structures but also how these structures are subconscious. The subconscious

nature of the structures mirrors how they can be seen in reality which provides material for a

discussion. Regardless of the approach one takes to the text, its humorous tone, originality and

length provides a great reading experience, in or out of the classroom.

This paper applies an ecocritical lens to Bissons “Bears Discover Fire” to analyse the

representation of nature and to bring a critical awareness to structures influencing the

characters’ behavior. In addition, the thesis argues that through applying key components of

the biophilia hypothesis, valuable, in-depth insight to the characters and their behaviours are

found. The pedagogical aim of this paper is to encourage activism but with the added

ambition to provide nuance and perspectives to the activism through understanding how the

students’ own relationship with nature can be viewed through the help of the story. By

studying Bisson’s text in the suggested manner, the students may gain the opportunity to

realise the complexity of the planetary crisis.

2. Environmental reading – Ecocriticism and Biophilia

The sections on theory and the analysis will follow a similar pattern, starting with areas

that ecocriticism emphasises, namely, the representation of nature and relationships between

human and nature followed by the critical aspect of ecocriticism where structures are

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approached and examined. Subsequently, the biophilia hypothesis is handled to provide further

perspective.

2.1 Representation of nature and relationships

The essence of ecocriticism has been stated above to be about the relationship between

human and the non-human and its goal to raise awareness of this relationship. While this

relationship can be seen through its destructiveness, it also offers insight about how humans

have acted and interacted in nature throughout human cultural history (Garrard 5). By

examining how human have expressed this relationship, insights can be learned regarding the

value that has been put on nature through a human perspective. Tallmadge writes about a

reawakening of interest, among environmental activists especially, in nature writing from

American writers as well as from British romanticists (2). Even though the pool of literature

has since been expanded to encompass all forms of writing through various angles, the roots in

activism, and a curiosity and fascination for nature is important to consider.

The first step in an ecocritical analysis is to look at how nature is represented, be it a

sonnet or a full novel. Glotfelty suggests this approach to identify themes and stereotypes in the

representation (xxiii). In relation to the topic of representation, ecocriticism tends to divide the

representation of nature into different tropes. While they do not stand without criticism, the

tropes this paper relies most on are the “pastoral” and the “wilderness” as they are presented by

Garrard. Wilderness represents nature in its purest form with the absence of human interference

while pastoral represents the natural in symbiosis with the human. The critique towards pastoral

is mainly that it tends to imply an idealisation of rural life and that it depicts the human as the

overlord in nature (Garrard 37-38). Wilderness, according to Garrard, symbolises the grandeur

of nature and human impotence in contrast to this (66). Alison Byerly discusses wilderness and

states that it “has no meaning outside of the context of the civilisation that defines it” suggesting

that the way we perceive wilderness is dependent on it contrasting with what we would perceive

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as normal, often referred to as civilisation (54). The contrast, between civilisation and nature,

is considered key to ecocriticism, and many texts initially cherished by the ecocriticists, revolve

around this contrast. In Bisson’s text, the story is mainly set in what is often referred to as

human-modified nature, playing with the contrast between human and nature further. The

problematisation of the concepts will be used for reflection in the analysis and to support

discussions in the pedagogical implications.

2.2 Influencing Structures

In order to direct the attention “to matters about which we need to be thinking,” clarity

to the critical element of ecocriticism ought to be presented (Glotfelty xxiv). If a key element

of ecocriticism lies in the relationship between human and the non-human, another relationship

considered key to the theory is that between literature and the physical world. Glotfelty

considers ecocriticism to have “one foot in literature and the other on land” (xix). The

connection to the physical world offers a cross-disciplinary approach to ecocriticism, and the

relation to ecology is considered by Garrard to be “unique among contemporary literary and

cultural theories” (5). The connection is best illustrated by making an example of Rachel

Carson’s Silent Spring from 1962. The text criticises the use of DDT, a pesticide with a dramatic

effect on nature and wildlife and its use has since been prohibited. The first chapter of her book

combines the scientific with the fictional through the form of a fable. While Carson’s text is

non-fiction, it emphasises the importance of understanding the physical world in order to

understand literature. In order to approach literature through an ecocritical lens, an

understanding of the science of ecology is needed. An understanding does not entail that a

complete understanding of ecology can be had by students nor their teachers, but rather an

awareness about what is going on in the world. Bisson’s text, while fictional, has elements of

the physical world that are important to take notice of, most notably through discussions on

human-modified nature but also on the human effect on larger eco-systems.

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The similarities to feminist criticism and Marxism discussed in the introduction offer

further insight into how the critical angle can be approached. Ken Hiltner suggests that there

are similarities between how feminist critical theory approaches literature to “understand how

patriarchy and misogyny have been functioning for centuries” and how ecocriticism approaches

texts “to understand how we have traditionally understood our relationship with nature” (xiv).

Considering how Hiltner is using patriarchy and misogyny in this comparison, the emphasis on

understanding our relationship is in its destructiveness to nature. It can thus be said that similar

to how feminist theory can be said to put patriarchy in an antagonistic position, ecocriticism

puts systems that enable the continued exploitation to nature in an antagonistic position. Such

systems are often summarised under the concept capitalism. However, while capitalistic driving

forces might not be compatible with sustainable development, using the concept as a

counterpart to feminist criticism’s patriarchy is not without problems.

One of the key issues with using capitalism as a concept is that it is insinuating that

those who benefit from the potential dethroning of capitalism are those who have traditionally

opposed it, creating the idea that environmentalism is only benefitting the left. Graham Huggan

and Helen Tiffin discuss this issue and suggest that environmental writing can run the risk of

being placed in a category of protest writing (187). Regarding an attack of the capitalist system,

one can draw parallels between ecocriticism and eco-socialism, which, according to Huggan

and Tiffin, would not do any of those movements justice (187). This paper is written with the

understanding that environmental well-being is not compatible with aggressive exploitation.

However, simply blaming capitalism for the exploitation is making the situation simpler than it

is.

In the analysis and the pedagogical implications of this paper, the concept “influencing

structures” is used. Influencing structures are in reference to structures that have an effect on

the behaviour of the characters and the added goal of understanding how these structures affect

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us as individuals. The structures focus on behaviour and actions that are negative for the climate

and are rooted in exploitation, personal gain, and development over the well-being of the

climate. In order to limit the analysis somewhat, five such structures are identified in the short

story, namely impulsiveness and instincts, comfortability, capitalism, making the extraordinary

ordinary and human logic as a pinnacle. While impulsiveness, comfortability and capitalism

can be seen to be more concrete, human logic as a pinnacle and making the extraordinary

ordinary offer a more abstract way of thinking about behaviour and shows a tendency in human

behaviour. The concepts structures are borrowed from the discourse of feminist criticism.

The structures are partly rooted in anthropocentrism. Anthropocentrism is a major

concept within deep ecology that has influenced ecocriticism to a great extent. However, rather

than delving into the philosophical field of anthropocentrism and its many theoretical aspects,

in order to formulate a grounded pedagogical implication, a more general definition has been

used. Encyclopaedia Britannica defines anthropocentrism as a philosophy that “regards humans

as separate from and superior to nature and holds that human life has intrinsic value while other”

organisms are seen as resources that humans may exploit for their own benefit (Boslaugh).

Nature is thus valuable for the human due to its recourses. Another, alternative way of seeing

the world is referred to as biocentrism which “regards humans as one species among many”

and “holds that the natural environment is intrinsically valuable independent of” its resources

(Boslaugh). Biocentrism can be seen to be based on an aesthetic appreciation of nature’s beauty

and an ethical rejection of exploitation” (Boslaugh). The approach of this paper involves

creating an open mind toward challenging anthropocentrism. In Bisson’s text, the characters all

react differently to the realisation that the bears have discovered fire and some of these reactions

are based on an anthropocentric, perceived reality where humans seem to have exclusive right

to fire.

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The anthropocentric worldview and the influencing structures can be traced back far in

human history. Lynn White Jr. writes about the history of human exploitation and claims that

Christianity played a significant role in cementing the anthropocentric worldview through

establishing a dualism between man and religion that stood in absolute contrast to other

religions (43). While Christianity ought not to be blamed for bringing exploitation into the

minds of humans, it can be considered to have given a spiritual motivation to its continuation.

Depending on how far back one is willing to go, White Jr. writes about the Nile delta and how

it would have been a swampy African jungle were it not for human intervention, and that the

Romans, in their ambition for world conquest, deforested large areas to supply the army with

ships (39). It is important to understand that these structures are rooted in human history and

also to understand that these structures are not something that is practised by every individual

consciously, especially when discussing it from a teaching perspective.

2.3 The Biophilia Hypothesis

The biophilia hypothesis was formulated by biologist Wilson in the 1980s and suggests

that human have an inherent attraction to nature and through a healthy relationship with nature,

the human may see improved health and well-being. Wilson worked in the field of evolutionary

biology but his text is held in high regard by ecocriticism Glenn A. Love, stating that

“Biophilia” is a good introduction for environmental literature (251). The benefit of the

hypothesis is based on the idea that human and nature are closely intertwined and that in order

to thrive, we are deeply dependent on other organisms (Wilson 140). Furthermore, Wilson

suggests that an understanding of other organisms and our connection to them, leads to that “we

will place a greater value on them, and on ourselves,” indicating how the value and respect with

which we see nature will be reflected in the human self-image (2). The connection between

human and nature can be considered to be at the foundation of a positive relationship, something

that both biophilia and ecocriticism are concerned with.

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Wilson, finds proof for the hypothesis from an evolutionary stance, suggesting that

despite seeing a radical change to our lifestyles in the last 100 years, our brains have not

developed significantly since the late Stone Age (101). An illustration of this is that humans

tend to be more scared of snakes than of guns and cars, despite snakes posing a fairly limited

threat to most humans. Threats and fears put aside, Wilsons evolutionary stance can also be

seen to represent an opportunity to see value in engaging in processes valuable to evolution,

such as spreading knowledge or finding safety. In “Bears Discover Fire,” the value of spreading

knowledge and the perceived well-being emerging from it is used to discuss the actions of the

narrator who takes on a mentorship role for a young character in the story.

The potential of improving one’s well-being through approaching nature has been

researched from the psychologic field. Bell and others, in their book about environmental

psychology, state that humans need nature and that a healthy relationship with nature can reduce

stress while a lack of natural experiences can increase it (456). Encyclopaedia Britannica also

states the potentially positive effect that natural experiences have on health by writing that

“spending time in natural environments is associated with improved mental and spiritual

health” and that “children, being out in nature has been found to encourage physical activity

and play” (Rogers). Considering the issue that people today seem to have increased problems

with stress and anxiety, a correlation can be found in that humans in modern societies are more

disconnected from nature than what they would have been in the past.

The reason for including the biophilia hypothesis as a theoretical element of this text is

not to argue that literature can replace a relationship with nature. It is instead that reading texts

and focusing on human interactions with nature can invoke inspiration in the readers to, in their

own right, search for such interactions. Suzanne Keen discusses how novels can have an input

on everyday behaviour, connected to the empathy that a reader feels while reading the novel

(67). Thus, learning about biophilia as a factor in the characters’ behaviour, the students may

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be open towards biophilia as part of their own behaviour. Furthermore, by talking and learning

about the biological connections between human and nature, it could serve as an inspiration to

further examine the spiritual and emotional connection.

Using the biophilia hypothesis in literature studies has been done before. To my

knowledge, it has mainly been used to study non-fictional or semi-fictional literature. Two

examples of such approaches can be found from Amy K. Smart and Judith Saunders.

Saunders’s article examines the evolutionary aspect of biophilia by examining Henry David

Thoreau’s Walden, with a focus on the selection of habitat. She finds that the place that

Thoreau writes about “very faithfully corresponds to ancestral preference” (3). Saunders also

finds that the benefits to one’s health is also enjoyed by Thoreau as he is “demonstrating how

the experience contributes to increased emotional health, mental alertness” and “aesthetic

renewal” (18). Saunders takes an approach that can be seen to be, at least in some parts,

attempting to prove the hypothesis using Thoreau as an example. Smart, on the other hand, is

using it more as way to attempt to bring an understanding to Chateaubriand’s semi-fictional

diary Voyage en Amerique. She states that Chateaubriand suggests that the attraction to the

variety in nature and “otherness of nature makes us fully human” to correspond with the

claims by Wilson. Smart’s text can be said to mainly concern the finding of similarities

between Wilson and Chateaubriand rather than trying to prove the biophilia hypothesis in the

text. The take of the present study is, in contrast to Saunders, not trying to prove the biophilia

hypothesis; instead, it aims to bring a deeper understanding to the characters discussing their

behaviour and actions by emphasising their attraction to nature and its beneficial effect on

human well-being.

3. Environmental teaching

The teacher education program that this text is written as a part of has repeatedly

employed a critical reading to the curricular documents. These critical readings often find that

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there is an ambiguity within these documents that can serve as a possibility for the creative

teacher. This text does not intend to critically analyse the curricular documents to support the

approach that is suggested, but rather argue for its support in the documents as it is.

3.1 Curricular documents and the Environment

Considering the planetary crisis and its impact on all parts of society, the curriculum

and syllabus, with their emphasis on societal issues, suggest that an environmental angle ought

to be taken. In addition, given the preparatory role that education has for the student’s future,

one could simply state that teachers must incorporate the planetary crisis in teaching. The more

detailed descriptions from the curriculum state that an environmental perspective should

permeate all teaching to “illuminate how the functions of society and our ways of living and

working can best be adapted to create a sustainable development” (Natl. Ag. f. Ed. 6). The

National Agency for Education also states that the students should be provided with insights in

order to prevent harmful environmental effects, which, in addition to the previous statement

indicates that the students should gain knowledge on how to adapt to the changing world and

how to prevent further negative change.

There are no explicit statements regarding environmental teaching in the Syllabus for

English. There are, however, ways to implement the environmental perspective from above

through knowledge about “living conditions, societal issues and cultural features in different

contexts” and through making use “of the surrounding world as a resource for . . . information

and learning” (Natl. Ag. f. Ed., Syllabus). There is also an emphasis on relating subject areas to

the students’ education and societal and working life, matters undoubtedly affected by the

adaptions to the planetary crisis. There is also a rather open approach to literature in the

syllabus, enabling the study of fiction through a variety of angles. The lack of explicit

statements regarding environmental teaching does not indicate that teaching about the

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environment is not a priority, especially considering the societal effect on both a local and

global level.

3.2 Teaching Representation of Nature and Relationships

The statements above suggest focusing on adapting to a changing world and preventing

further damage. An extension to that is found among the fundamental values, stating that the

school should encourage respect for the intrinsic value of the environment we all share. Also,

The National Agency for Education sets the goal that each student “can obtain stimulation from

cultural experiences and develop a feeling for aesthetic values” (Curriculum 8). The statements

suggest that we should teach the students not only to prevent and adapt but also to value nature

and that we could focus on art that uses literature at its foundation for the expression. A

correlation can be seen between these two statements and Matthewman’s ambition with the

ecocritical approach. She suggests, through an ecocritical approach to reading in the classroom,

that pupils can be encouraged to see “the value of nature” (27) and that it may guide pupils

“towards a new relationship with an endangered world (23). In extension to adapting and

preventing, the curricular documents, when paired with Matthewman’s approach, are open to

incorporate artistic expressions in order to bring attention to values of both the environment and

the aesthetic.

Furthermore, Matthewman emphasises how ecocriticism can celebrate the wonder of

nature (23). With Matthewman’s suggestion, environmental teaching, with an emphasis on

ecocriticism, can be seen to be more about doing a service to the students than preventing and

adapting. By focusing on the representation of nature and the relationships between the human

characters and nature in aesthetic expressions, the goal can be perceived to encourage an

increased respect for nature.

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3.3 Teaching Influencing Structures

As was stated in the introduction, there is a debate regarding the purposes of

environmental teaching. On the one hand, Matthewman’s approach suggested above focuses

on respect for the environment and appreciating its potential value. The approach is based on

the students themselves finding this respect and then actually practising it. On the other hand,

the approach does not state the urgency of practising that respect. Besides, it can be said that

most people today, student or otherwise, are aware of the planetary crisis and that the current

attitude, as showed by humans, does not take nature’s best interest into account. Küchler makes

a point about the unwillingness to change one’s lifestyle despite knowing about the

consequences for one’s behaviour (26). Using Germany as an example, where environmental

awareness is considered high, the main outlet of knowledge is headlines in media, and while

Matthewman’s claim above can be seen to tackle this issue, Küchler suggests that it is not

enough (25). The discussion can be seen to be between a didactic approach and a non-didactic

approach. Küchler suggests a didactic approach to educate environmentally conscious members

of society, Matthewman, on the other hand, suggests an approach focused on educating

members of society with the intellectual capacity to choose to be environmentally conscious.

With the urgent demand for rapid change to lifestyles in the wake of the planetary crisis

taken into account, the benefits of a more didactic approach seem favourable. While Küchler is

mostly focused on identifying an opportunity for environmentalism in EFL teaching, David

Mazel is more specific. He identifies three key functions that persuasive ecocriticism performs.

Firstly, inspiring students to do the actual “ground-level work of saving the planet,” secondly,

making sure that “the planet is not saved at the expense of those whose voices have traditionally

been excluded from the discourse on environmentalism” and thirdly, “reminding the student

activists-to-be that as environmentalists they are part of a discourse that itself has a history”

(39). Mazel can thus be seen to envision the outcome of ecocriticism as related to the activism

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at its roots. This paper does not neglect the didactic approach. However, while encouraging

activism, it does not need to be at the expense of what Matthewman sees as the main benefit of

ecocriticism. Also, by creating opportunities for the pupils to strengthen the relationship

between themselves and nature, and seeing its value as separated from economic gain, it could

be seen to promote the activist potential of the approach. Thus, it is suggested that an addition

to understanding the relationship and the representation is applied. In this thesis, such an

addition is to bring critical awareness to behavioural structures.

3.4 The Biophilia Hypothesis in the EFL Classroom

Including the biophilia hypothesis offers an extension to its usage with literature that

for the approach can be considered secondary, but in terms of the students’ development it can

be seen as primary. The potentially beneficial aspects of the hypothesis can be used to

encourage a lifestyle in accordance with the hypothesis. However, the curricular documents do

not explicitly promote the biophilia hypothesis. Nevertheless, they suggest that all students

should “have knowledge about the precondition for good health” and also that “their awareness

of health, lifestyle and consumer issues” is developed by the school (Curriculum 6-8).

Considering the benefits of the biophilia hypothesis, it can be seen to deal with, partly,

improving mental, spiritual, and physical health (Bell et al. 456), and partly, questioning

lifestyle and consumer issues.

A further possibility with the biophilia hypothesis is also the ability to challenge the

idea of aesthetic values. By using the hypothesis in teaching literature, the students learn about

the connection and attraction and apply it to fiction. It is possible to use other forms of cultural

expressions, such as paintings and films, to show examples of how nature is a recurring theme

in many aesthetic expressions. As a result, the students may value nature as a form of beauty,

providing them with the possibility to “develop a feeling for aesthetic values” but from other

sources than human creation (Natl. Ag. f. Ed. 8). In addition, understanding the biophilia

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hypothesis may lead to the students showing “respect and care for both the immediate

environment as well as the environment from a broader perspective” (Natl. Ag. f. Ed. 10). The

implementing of the biophilia hypothesis in the present study is mainly concerned with creating

a deeper understanding of the characters in the short story. However, it may also lead to the

students looking at nature with new eyes and feeling an increased respect for nature which in

turn can encourage them to put greater values in other organisms (Wilson 2).

4. Analysis of “Bears Discover Fire”

4.1 Nature and Relationships

In the opening pages of Bisson’s short story, nature can be seen to represent problems

for the characters. As they return home, on the highway, they experience a flat tire. Nature is

then described as cold, making the changing of the tire difficult, and dark, adding to the

difficulty (Bisson). From the opening, it is possible to understand nature as representing an

obstacle that the human most overcome. However, as the story progresses, nature is described

less in terms of having an agenda and the value ascribed to nature is dependent on the character

and their interpretation of an event. The story as a whole can be seen to represent nature through

the bears and the environments where the story is set. The story does, however, imply that

nature can offer something supernatural, mainly through the mother of the narrator. She finds

solace in the proximity of the bears, as she, after a long time of waiting, dies.

The bears represent nature in a way that is challenging for both the reader and the

characters in the story. As a reader, one would be forgiven not to have thought much about the

discovery of fire and the possibility that other species would make such a discovery. This is

true for the characters in the story as well, and their reaction to the event vary to some extent.

At first, while dealing with the flat tire, the bears provide light for the narrator as he fixes the

tire. The narrator reflects on whether this is “out of curiosity or helpfulness” and that “there was

no way of knowing” (Bisson). Nevertheless, as the tire is fixed and the three characters present

Erneland 17

at the event jump into the car and drive off in silence before the brother of the narrator breaks

the silence to state that it “looks like bears have discovered fire” (Bisson). This casual reaction,

while humorous, can seem odd after making such an observation. However, it is difficult to

contemplate how one would react to such an observation, contributing to the complexity of the

situation. Further discussions on the human reaction to the bears discovering fire will be

handled in the section below.

Apart from being represented by the bears, nature is also represented by the surrounding

environment of where the story is set. The narrator owns an old farm in western Kentucky,

where his nephew lives while his parents attend camp. The story is set along highways, the

farm, a nursery home, and in the highway medians. The nursery home is mainly used to

characterise the mother of the narrator, and the highway medians, the farm and the highways

can be seen to represent nature in contrast to that which is human. It is, however, important to

notice that they represent a form of human-modified nature, kept the way that it is since it

benefits the human interests, be it due to food production, decreasing noise pollution, or

providing transportation. The human-modified nature is reflected upon by the bears’ interest in

a new species of berries, the “newberry”. As the narrator watches the news, he hears a scientist

saying that the newberry is the reason for the bears ending their hibernations and settling along

the highway medians. The berry is “brought about by the mixing of seeds along the highway”

(Bisson) which is worthy of note with the background of how human actions create new

habitats, changing the behaviour of wildlife in settling, eating or mating. The newberry can be

seen as way to see the complex nature of environmental change with Glotfelty’s claim that

ecocriticism has “one foot in literature the other on land” taken into account (xix). The

newberry, created through human actions has little negative impact on the climate in the story.

At the same time, it shows how the actions of humans has a dramatic effect on wildlife. An

example of a berry from the physical world with a similar background, albeit with a different

Erneland 18

intention, is the garden strawberry. The berry came about by mixing two versions of the plant

to cope with the European weather (Darrow 38). The strawberry that Europeans today associate

with the word is based on plants that could not grow in this climate, but through human

modification, strawberries became an integral part of many vegetable gardens. The newberry

can be seen illustrate that while we know that human behaviour has a dramatic effect on climate,

there are other aspects worthy to consider, for example, our intake of vitamins through modified

plants.

The choice of having the story take place in human-modified areas is also worthy of

note in the wake of Byerly’s comments that wilderness exists only due to humans defining

wilderness as such. The tropes of nature, as discussed by Garrard, pastoral and wilderness, are

especially worthy of discussing, most notably through the narrator’s reflection on nature in the

median being like “created country (Bisson).” The trope pastoral, symbolising the

representation of the symbiosis between nature and human can be questioned as the nature in

the median is not only created but also forgotten. It is, as the narrator reflects, “against the law

to stop on the highway” ensuring that the medians are inaccessible. Human absence is thus a

factor, indicating Garrard’s wilderness trope. However, the creation of the medians relies on

humans. It is also in the medians that the bears have settled, suggesting that the symbiosis

between human and nature is not there. Bears, generally wild animals, are often perceived as

belonging in the wilderness, yet, they eat the newberries, a berry existing due to alleged human

interference with natural processes, and from a hubcap that they pass around nonetheless.

Bisson’s text can be seen to take a challenging position to the tropes of ecocriticism, using them

somewhat contradictorily. The setting in the median, in contrast to that of the farm, can be seen

as wilderness but also to what Garrard refer to as classic pastoral, a motif fairly common in

literature (38). Regarding its creation, the median can be considered human-modified nature

Erneland 19

that has also been left and forgotten which, which can be considered to offer a different aspect

of pastoral.

The narrator of the story describes himself as “the old-fashioned one in my family”

(Bisson). It seems important for him to remain faithful to the old way of living. They grew up

on the farm that he later took over as their parents got too old. The narrator seems to have

abandoned farming in lieu of a career within crop insurance. He ascribes value to living life in

an old-fashioned way (Bisson). This lifestyle is illustrated by the narrator’s conviction that it is

better to change tires by himself, and his aspiration to teach this skill to his nephew. He

describes the skill “like making sorghum, fixing tires is a dying art” (Bisson), sorghum referring

to the sweet syrup extracted from grains, similar to molasses and replaced by the cheaper and

more convenient corn syrup. The narrator also seems to think less of his more financially driven

brother and seems to consider himself a reasonable mentor for his nephew. The mentorship is

illustrated by the narrator’s reaction to the character, Wallace, Jr.’s., impulse to grab his .22 gun

and shoot a bear. The narrator “explained why that would be wrong” and that “a .22 wouldn’t

do much more to a bear than make it mad” and lastly adds that “it’s illegal to hunt in the

medians” (Bisson). It is worthy of noting that the reader is left to interpret why it “would be

wrong” to shoot a bear, although the explanation that it is impossible to do so with the calibre

of the rifle and that it is illegal could be seen as enough. One attempt at understanding the

narrator’s explanation can be that it is not hunting season for bears in Kentucky, or that the

region that they live in does not have any dedicated seasons for hunting bears as bears do not

live in that region (Bisson). It could also be seen as the narrator representing an old fashioned

view of animal life and practicality as they do not intend to eat or in other ways use the bear for

anything, which could be seen to be somewhat challenging what Boslaugh writes about an

anthropocentric worldview. Challenging due to the fact that it offers a contrast to the more

reckless nature of humans that involves fishing and hunting for sports. The old-fashioned way

Erneland 20

of life represented by the narrator can be seen as to be more dependent on a relationship with

nature than the life of the other characters in the story.

A character with an arguably more distinct relationship with nature is the narrator’s

mother. She is in a nursing home, most likely due to her age, and is visited by her sons and

grandson at least once a week. She reacts to the news of the bears with curiosity. It is also clear

that she lacks autonomy at the nursing home, indicated by the nurse taking her tobacco away to

signal bedtime (Bisson). The strongest characteristic of the mother is her longing to die, as she

feels that she is “ready to pass over to the other shore” and reacting to not dying in the fall of

her admission to the home with disappointment (Bisson). It is noted by the narrator that as the

spring comes “she forgot about it” (Bisson). The mother changing her outlook on life with the

seasons is mentioned again when the narrator learns that she has been agitated all day and does

not consider this surprising as “every fall when the leaves change, she gets restless, maybe the

word is hopeful” (Bisson). It might not be dramatic to suggest that one changes attitude based

on the seasons, but the hopefulness the mother feels as the autumn approaches is worthy of

consideration. It is clear that she has a desire to die and a conviction that it will happen fairly

soon. However, she seems to believe that her life will end as the leaves fall, which indicates

that she considers her relationship with nature to be stronger than most people. Illustrated by

how her life, and the continuation of said life, is dependent on the seasons changing, it can be

seen to indicate that she is part of nature and does not live independently from it. Having the

mother changing her behaviour with the seasons can be seen as a classic allusion and through

that, containing insight into how our dependency on the seasons has decreased over time. White

Jr., suggests that “changes in human ways often affect nonhuman nature” which can be applied

to the lack of dependency on the seasons (39). With the possibilities that, for example, in-house

lighting, winter-clothing and leaf blowers bring, the effect on animals and ecosystems often

Erneland 21

remain undiscussed. The mother can be seen to represent a deeper connection through being

influenced by the changing of seasons, in contrast to the rest of the characters.

The relationship, or attraction, the mother feels with nature is also a key feature in the

story’s climactic event. As she escapes from the home, she is found by the narrator, due to his

instinct, to have settled down among the bears in the median close to his home. The narrator

can be understood to find some sense of solace among the bears, whilst finding it a bit difficult

to be relaxed. The mother, on the other hand, seems like she is a natural fit. For him, the situation

in the median is “no different from visiting mother at the home” (Bisson). The mother seems to

have a deeper understanding of the event though as she sees the light of what the narrator

describes as “the high beams of a southbound truck”, points towards it and begins to get cold

(Bisson). The narrator then goes to sleep, and when he wakes up, the mother is dead. The light

that the narrator describes as that of a truck can have been interpreted differently by the

grandmother. She seems to understand the bears to a different extent than the narrator, and she

does not seem to consider the situation strange. The child character is among them in the

median, and his childishness and impulsivity are more reflected in the mother than in anyone

else. The childish tendency to ascribe meaning to an event that for an adult is insignificant can

be said to have occurred albeit from an elderly character. The mother finding solace among the

bears, after having been agitated, restless, yet hopeful, can be said to enforce the idea that her

connection to nature is strong and she is happier for it, receiving what she has long awaited. It

is also an indication that the biophilia hypothesis is providing the character with a sense of calm

needed to finally reach the rest that death can be said to provide.

4.2 Influencing Structures in the Short Story

The structures influencing how the human characters react to the bears’ discovery are

mainly illustrated by the public reaction to the event. It is also worth noting that the narrator’s

Erneland 22

reactions, not necessarily to the bears but to his surroundings, are influenced by the same

structures.

The reaction of the character Wallace, Jr., can be said to stand for the impulsiveness

among humans. After having encountered the bears in the story’s exposition and seen their fire

from a distance the following night, he wants to shoot one (Bisson). Despite learning that it

would be wrong to do so, he brings his gun as the child and the narrator walk to the median the

following morning; according to the narrator, “not because he wanted to kill a bear but because

a boy likes to carry some kind of gun” (Bisson). Despite the potential threat that bears pose, it

can also be seen as a reaction to encountering the unknown. The attitude of the boy can be seen

to represent a “better safe than sorry” attitude to encountering the unknown. The reaction to

bringing a gun might seem strange for a Swedish reader. However, for an American reader, the

relationship to weapons is not as stigmatized and is very much a part of their cultural history.

Also, upon learning from the narrator that it would be wrong to kill a bear, the boy seems to

have changed his attitude regarding wanting to shoot one. The change of attitude can point

towards the importance of being open to learning about the unknown and realising that what

we do not know is not necessarily dangerous and an open attitude to the unknown can lead to

personal growth. The character Wallace, Jr., can thus be seen to be influenced by structures

affecting our impulses, mainly in regards to facing the unknown. However, the character learns

that a key to facing the unknown with an open attitude is knowledge and by learning more about

the bears he can use the unknown for personal growth. Walter Jr.’s first reaction is in line with

what White, Jr., writes about the human tendency to rest on the structures influencing our

behaviour. His first impulse is to shoot a bear, enforcing an anthropocentric way of thinking

that indicates that the character “makes human interest central” (Hiltner 2). Changing such

structures is not easy as they are historically rooted and enforced through religion (White, Jr.

43). However by remaining open, positive personal change can occur which is illustrated by

Erneland 23

the character Wallace, Jr., whose attitude change from wanting to shoot a bear to sitting with

them around the fire and sharing an important moment with his family.

The public’s reaction upon learning about the bears’ discovery can also be said to be

understood best through highlighting the influencing structures. The story is moving forward

as the narrator and his nephew are watching the news on the television, either from the farm or

from the nursing home, visiting the mother. The discovery, perhaps expectedly, is heavily

reported by the various news outlets. The many reports are reflected on by the narrator as he

and Wallace, Jr., are watching “CBS or NBC (I forget which is which)” (Bisson). The narrator

can be understood to have lost track of what channel he is watching due to their tendency to

report the same thing over and over. The narrator and Wallace, Jr., appear to lose interest in the

reporting of bears as “the TV showed more guys talking about bears than it showed bears”

(Bisson) which is an attitude shared by one of the nurses at the home who complains that there

is “nothing but bears on TV anymore” (Bisson). The attitude towards the news is of interest due

to the fact that the text is written in 1990, several years before the digital revolution resulting

in the constant update of news that our connected reality is part of. The attitude can also be seen

to represent how the extraordinary becomes ordinary as the constant reports are taking away

the excitement of not knowing. The constant reports and the spread of stories can be seen to

conflict with how Wallace, Jr., encounters personal growth from knowledge. The news provide

knowledge, but it results in a lessened interest among the characters rather than the growth

Wallace Jr., can be said to experience. However, it can also be seen to represent different forms

of knowledge, with the news stories representing a form of shallow knowledge whereas

Wallace, Jr., and the actual encounter with the bears represent a deeper knowledge.

The deeper knowledge can be seen to comment on the human relationship with nature

as well as the biophilia hypothesis. We can learn facts about nature that in isolation matter little

to the individual, represented in the story by the news. However, it is not until knowledge is

Erneland 24

practised through an active relationship with nature that it becomes real, illustrated by the

personal growth of Wallace Jr. This, in turn, can be seen to illustrate how we tend to rely on

shallow knowledge when shaping our view of the world, rather create that knowledge from

genuine experiences. The shallow knowledge rests on the historical preconceptions about

human and nature and helps to enforce anthropocentrism. Regarding the connection to the

biophilia hypothesis, Wilson comments on knowledge, questioning the reliance on facts and

the human ability to interpret it. The news can be seen to offer information that Wilson claims

is stripped down and “scrutinized with as much coldness . . . as the naturally warm human can

muster” (67). The reason that the characters react negatively to the news can be explained by

them already having encountered the bears, thus gaining knowledge without stripping down

and scrutinising the information.

The majority of the news reported by the narrator involves stories on how various

experts are trying to apply human logic to understand the bears’ behaviour. There seems to be

a consensus that the bears “don’t hibernate anymore” and that they are lighting fires and are

planning to “keep it going all winter” (Bisson). However, the reasons for this vary between their

attraction to the newberry, as discussed above, the bears suddenly starting to remember as a

result of warmer winters and alleged evolutionary methods of adapting to the surroundings, and

discovering fire “when Yellowstone burned, several years ago” (Bisson), most likely

referencing the Yellowstone Fires of 1988. The reference to the fires of 1988 is most likely a

conscious move by Bisson, as the fires are reported by Linda Young to have triggered a massive

reaction from the public and what she refers to as “an almost primal-level emotional response”

based on a misunderstanding behind naturally triggered forest fires that plays a natural role in

the park’s ecosystem. The emotional response can be seen to be shared by the unnamed

characters in the story as “there were talks about hunting them” (Bisson), and hunters fearing

for their properties as the bears can now fight back (Bisson). The emotional response can also

Erneland 25

be seen to stem from an anthropocentric worldview as the bears discovering fire, similar to the

reaction to the Yellowstone fire, is received like an insult to humanity. By not protecting

humanity’s interest, in the examples exclusive right to fire and access to a national park, the

responsible parties receive criticism from sections of society. The examples illustrate how

human logic is applied in an attempt at bringing reason to a phenomenon. Yet, the lack of

understanding due to the distance between human and nature not only opposes the logic but

also the reality of the phenomenon.

Apart from the emotional response, there seems to be a priority from the news channels

in the story to find reasons for the bears’ behaviour. However, considering that this story

portrays the rather surreal event of bears discovering fire, there is little logic to be applied to it.

One could also argue that there was little logic in humans discovering fire, although there were

no news channels to report on the event. The tendency to try to explain the behaviour of bears

with human logic and also considering them a threat may imply that the discovery of fire is a

human invention rather than happening by chance. While little accounts exist that far back, it

does suggest an anthropocentric worldview, where humans are superior to all other organisms.

A disturbance to that order can be seen as either a threat or as an opportunity to exploit. The

application of human logic to the surreal situation suggests a structure where humans apply

human reasoning to matters which do not concern humans.

4.3 Biophilia in “Bears Discover Fire”

The biophilia hypothesis is most evident through studying the behaviour of the

narrator’s mother. She experiences an attraction to the bears and finds solace among them.

However, there are more examples of nature providing the characters with a sense of calm or

with insights and even examples of the opposite.

While biophilia seems to suggest that one can improve the mental and spiritual health

simply by spending more time in natural environments, biophilia in the story is dependent on

Erneland 26

openness and readiness to immerse oneself in nature and letting go of parts of what it means to

be human in order to fully benefit from the natural experience. The immersion is motivated by

what Wilson suggests, that by understanding and placing value on other organisms, we will, as

a result, put a greater value on ourselves (2). Wilson’s statement can be seen to be illustrated

by the mother ascribing meaning to the headlights (Bisson), her more relaxed reaction to the

newberries as her reaction is not described while the narrator and Wallace, Jr. spit their berries

out, and the reluctance to go home. The reluctance to go home can also be understood to signal

that the mother seems to be experiencing an inner peace among the bears that the other

characters seem unable to find.

Furthermore, the mother’s perceived attraction to the bears is what drives her to find the

median where the bears have settled, and in a dramatic phase of her life, she not only finds them

but trusts her ability to sit with the bears without facing any danger. Her conviction that the

bears will not harm her can be said to correlate with the claim by Wilson that despite the danger

that the bears pose, she is drawn to them, revealing the complexity “of our relation to nature”

(84). The mother’s reactions indicate that when faced with the hope of finally dying, she can

use the connection to nature to find the inner peace that she needs in order to part from life on

earth. The mother’s connection to nature correlates with Wilson’s hypothesis as the mother is

acting as a part of nature (140). Her connection to the bears can be seen to allude to a herd

mentality with an extended definition of herd. Rather than seeking for this comfort among the

human characters, who lack the connection to nature, she seeks it, and finds it, with the bears.

Another example from the text can be found in the narrator’s handicraft. While not

necessarily involving nature, he seems to find some sort of inner peace while involved in the

“dying art-form” quoted above, of fixing tires. Also, through teaching his nephew, a character

that could be seen to be further from a connection with nature, as an extension of his father’s

alleged disconnectedness, the narrator seems to take pride in finding this peace. The text

Erneland 27

suggests that there is more to the changing of tires than simply changing tires. When

describing the event and teaching of changing tires, there is very little else happening in the

text. Other events are focused on talking about the bears, hearing about the bears or thinking

about the bears. The sequences where the changing of tires are involved do not involve bears,

apart from the initial sequence where they provide light (Bisson). This could suggest that it is

not only in nature, surrounded by trees and wildlife, that one can reach the peace that the

mother seems to reach, but it is also in providing for oneself and taking pride in doing things

in what could be perceived to be the most natural way. Changing tires also demands an

immersion into the work being done, something that can be considered to be shared by the

mother’s immersion when sitting with the bears. This suggestion can be seen to extend the

biophilia hypothesis but also limit it. It is not a matter of simply going outside, but it is a

matter of fully immersing oneself into the natural experience. The connection between

providing and teaching the changing of tires to the biophilia hypothesis can be seen to provide

an example of where the knowing of information is prioritised over the actual information.

Related to the knowing, Wilson claims that scientific awards are not given to scientists for

knowing but rather for the information that they present (58). The narrator and Wilson can be

seen to share the idea that knowing is an art-form in itself and the narrator’s conviction that

the skill is vital, represented by his persistent attempts in teaching his nephew the skill that he

values highly. The narrator’s handicraft can be seen to comment on partially, knowing as an

art-form and partially, the need to teach future generations vital skills, a prerequisite when

taking the evolutionary aspect into account.

5. “Bears Discover Fire” in the EFL Classroom

The pedagogical implications of this paper are based on the key points from the analysis.

From the section on nature and natural relationships, the bears and the setting are used to discuss

the representation of nature. The relationships that the following section will focus on are

Erneland 28

between the narrator and nature, through his old-fashioned ways, and the mother and her

perceived connections with nature. In terms of the structures influencing behaviour, they will

be discussed as categories of impulsiveness and instincts, making the extraordinary ordinary,

human logic as a pinnacle, and comfortability and capitalism as illustrated by the narrator’s

brother. Lastly, the biophilia hypothesis is discussed as offering not only perspective on the

students’ relationship with nature but also added incitement to prevent further damage to the

environment.

5.1 Representation of Nature and Relationships in the EFL Setting

“Bears Discover Fire” can be said to offer new perspectives to the representation of

nature. It can be assumed that students mainly associate nature with the unkempt, pure natural

wilderness. Bisson’s text offers a perspective to this association, both implicitly and more

explicitly by using the simile that the median of where the bears have settled “is like created

country”. The simile can be discussed with Byerly’s notion that there is no wilderness unless

there is civilisation to stand in contrast with it (54). The text as a whole and the simile can be

used to challenge the student’s preconceptions of wilderness. By challenging this

preconception, and discussing how we, as a group including both students and teacher, view

nature can be seen as a way to teach in accordance with the norms and values for the Swedish

school by discussing and analysing different values and views (Natl. Ag. f. Ed. Curriculum 11).

Useful concepts for such a discussion is the problematised wilderness concept, and also the

pastoral. By learning, reflecting and discussing these concepts, the students may gain the

opportunity to be critical to their perception of nature.

The story also gives room for a potential discussion regarding anthropocentrism with

the fairly undramatic and surreal example of bears discovering fire. By using the story to discuss

questions along the lines of how we would react to learning about different species making such

a discovery, or whether other animals have made the discovery but opted not to use it, the

Erneland 29

discussions can have a tone of a more trivial nature that can grow to include discussions on

anthropocentrism and the what if question that the genre of speculative fiction often asks.

Mazel’s three key functions of ecocriticism, with activism at its goal can be seen to be in the

background for such a discussion. However, focusing on other species can be seen to work with

what Mazel presents as “making sure that the planet is not saved at the expense” of other species

excluded from the discourse (39). The trivial nature at the start of the discussions can potentially

lead to the discussions being more open, and from the openness, a more meaningful tone can

grow.

A reasonable way to handle the relationships between human and nature in “Bears

Discover Fire” is to focus on each of the characters and the specific relationship between the

character and nature. The mother, the narrator and Wallace, Jr., offer examples of constructive

relationships, where both nature and the characters gain from the relationship. At the same time,

Wallace, the nurse, and the public offer a contrast to this, mainly illustrated by how the

characters struggle to find a sense of calm. This lack of calm, while not necessarily connected

to a destructive relationship, offers an opportunity to discuss why the students believe that the

text is written in such a way. Singling out the characters and focusing on each one can be

considered problematic as they are part of a context and the information about the characters,

for example, the nurse and Wallace, is shaped by the narrator’s feelings about the specific

character. However, it offers the teacher the opportunity to discuss these aspects as well,

contributing to a wider understanding of narration as a by-product. The main benefit of focusing

on the characters is the ability to reflect on their relationship with nature and as an extension,

reflect on a personal relationship with nature. Also, being able to make comparisons with the

students’ own experience and knowledge is a recurring grading criterion for English throughout

all courses at upper secondary school. (Natl. Ag. f. Ed., “Syllabus”). Using the characters in the

text as a starting point for the discussion ensures that the students can use their own experiences

Erneland 30

while still keeping distance to the topic. Discussions such as the one suggested are in accordance

with Matthewman’s goal for ecocriticism, encouraging pupils to see the value in nature (27).

Rather than polemic teaching, that Matthewman considers both inappropriate and ineffective,

ecocriticism can be concerned with encompassing “a whole set of attitudes and behaviours”

that in turn can motivate students to engage in activism not against the treatment of the

environment but rather for the environment (27). This paper is written with the belief that the

students can receive both an increased value of nature and a critical awareness of structures that

influence human behaviour.

5.2 Application of Structures for EFL Classroom

In order to fully realise the potential of highlighting and discussing the implicit

structures accounted for, it is vital that the students have prior knowledge regarding how

structures influence behaviour on both individual, societal, and global level. While the syllabus

for English emphasises “social, political and cultural tradition” and “current issues” for all

courses of English, English 6 and 7 could be seen as most compatible since they also list

“concrete and abstract subject areas related to the students’ education and societal and working

life . . . and ethical and existential issues” (Natl. Ag. f. Ed.). Both English 6 and 7 emphasise

that the student should gain the ability to take in information from texts of various genres and

length, while English 7 has the addition to draw conclusions from texts “in terms of attitude,

perspectives, purposes, values and implied meaning” (Natl. Ag. f. Ed., “Syllabus”). The above

does not necessarily suggest limitations to the approach but instead that the approach one uses

with the text, and how in-depth the teacher plans to go with the ecocritical theory, depends on

the course being taught and the group of students. It is likely that there will be classes where

the environmentalist interest is low, and in those classes, a focus on the complexity of

environmentalism, and in extension, what it means to be human, is surely a way to distance the

students even more from the environmentalist cause. However, it is just as likely to teach a class

Erneland 31

where there are several students who are active in the climate strike movement. Also, certain

student groups are likely to be active in other socio-political questions. Regardless, the students’

pre-knowledge regarding influencing structures are sure to vary. Focusing on the destructive

structures, illustrated in the novel and raising awareness of how these are destructive, can be

seen to combat what Küchler identifies as a knowledge gap leading to little personal change

(25-26). It is helpful for the teacher to probe the knowledge that the students have going into

the classroom beforehand and use what connections and allusions to best suit the students’ level

when working with the text, and formulating the approach before the actual reading.

The structures discussed in the analysis section have covered an individual level,

illustrated by Wallace, Jr., and Wallace; a societal level, focusing on the reporting of news and

the abiding by the rules; and the global level, as illustrated by the tendency to rely on human

logic and taking human superiority for granted. In order to understand the environmental effects

of these structures, the students must have an understanding of how the structures are not

specific for these levels but that the levels are in interplay with one another, and, that the

structures can also be seen to overlap between the levels. At all the discussed levels, an

emphasis on history regarding these structures is important in order to ensure that the students

understand the deeply rooted nature of how these structures can be said to influence our

behaviour. By focusing on the historical angle, and emphasising that human behaviour has

transformed nature since the dawn of civilisation, as illustrated by White Jr., the teaching covers

all of the three key functions of ecocriticism (39). Mazel’s functions, to encourage “ground-

level-work of saving the planet” and making sure that the students understand that

environmentalism in itself has history, are perhaps most clearly prioritised, however, depending

on what approach the teacher takes on the historical angle, attention can be brought to voices

“traditionally excluded from the discourse” (39). The excluded voices can include focusing on

the human perspective in countries that have mainly been exploited for recourses to serve the

Erneland 32

west, or, through a more holistic and biocentric perspective, focusing on organisms whose

voices we do not understand.

Bisson’s text lends itself for this type of reading due to the equivocal nature of the

structures. At a first read, it is likely that the students do not reflect heavily on anything other

than the bears and their discovery. However, as students delve deeper into the text, they can

attempt to understand the narrator’s relationship with the other characters, how they function

and reasons for it. With the help of the teacher and their prior knowledge, they can arrive at a

conclusion that structures are influencing our behaviour and the behaviour has consequences

for the climate. The equivocal nature of the structures is key in this text since they can be seen

to mirror the equivocal influencing structures of reality. They are also likely to find that similar

structures have an effect on every individual. These realisations invite a discussion regarding

influencing structures from a broader perspective and using the text, the teacher and the students

can together understand the complex history of the view of nature and how these structures are

rooted in every individual and has developed over time. An understanding of the history of both

structures and the fight against them is working with what Mazel emphasised, stating the

importance of understanding that they are “part of a discourse that itself has a history” (39). In

turn, this leads to a more nuanced understanding of a matter that is highly complex.

Lastly, regarding the structures and their classroom application, it is important to state

that this text is written with the belief that the environmental activism that the students are

engaged in ought to be encouraged. However, it is important that the young activists learn not

only what and where to direct their frustration at, but also the reasons to why dramatic change

is difficult to achieve and what is expected of us, as individuals, should the demands from

climate scientists be met.

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5.3 Biophilia in Bisson’s Story for the EFL Classroom

This section will cover the main points from the analysis regarding the biophilia

hypothesis. The main points are the mother finding solace and inner peace when immersed in

nature, her connection and resulting attraction to the bears and the narrator’s old-fashioned,

natural way of behaving as presented in Bisson’s text. Working with Bisson’s text and biophilia

does not require a complete understanding of the complexities of the biophilia hypothesis, nor

are these complexities areas that I can claim to understand fully. Therefore, for the purpose of

studying literature and improving the students’ communicative skills, a rather short introduction

with the emphasis on its similarities to ecocriticism, namely the relationship between human

and nature, and the positive effect that nature can be said to have on our well-being, would be

sufficient.

The most striking example from Bisson’s text about a human character benefitting from

the relationship with nature has been presented through the mother. Among the bears, she finds

the inner peace and the solace to finally depart this world. The inner peace and the connection

to biophilia and the possible reduction of stress and anxiety can be said to lead to her death

(Bell et al. 456). Dealing with the topic of death in the classroom can certainly create its own

problems. However, the way that this is handled in Bisson’s text, in a very undramatic yet still

humorous way, creates distance from the topic. The fact that the mother has long awaited death

but not to the extent that she is unhappy is something that ought to be addressed, though, as that

might be confusing for some students. A significant aspect of the mother’s departure and

nature’s role in her death has been presented as an immersion in a natural experience. The

immersive experience that she encounters, in contrast to the narrator, offers an interesting

discussion about being in the present and finding inner peace. The story enables a discussion

on mental well-being that starts in the text but can be expanded to cover personal experience

on the one hand and a more general discussion on life as a contemporary human on the other.

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The foremost opportunity to apply the biophilia hypothesis to classroom discussions is

via the mother’s attraction and connection to the bears. Without using the biophilia hypothesis,

one can draw the conclusion that the mother’s attraction is based on the sci-fi element in the

story as it is a surreal event in a surreal story. However, using the hypothesis as a framework to

reach an understanding of the mother’s behaviour offers the students a more complex

understanding. The understanding can start with an establishment of the mother’s connection

and be extended to involve human behaviour in a more general sense. Wilson’s suggestion that

humans do not exist in isolation to nature and other organisms but as part of a larger system

(130), can be used to further extend the discussion in its application to real life. The purpose of

such discussions is to give the students an opportunity to reflect on their own alleged connection

to nature.

In order to inspire the students to understand their own connection to nature, further

discussions using the story as a framework can be had. By understanding the biophilia

hypothesis idea regarding how a positive relationship with nature benefits the human in terms

of mental and physical health, the students gain the opportunity to reflect on to what degree

they have experienced this benefit. This discussion can potentially lead to insights regarding

the students’ own relationship with nature and over time, an openness to improving that

relationship which is a way concretising what Matthewman stated as the goal for her suggested

approach (1). Wilson’s claim that by placing a higher value in other organisms, we will place a

greater value on ourselves (2), is worthy on contemplation in the classroom and the statement

offers great possibilities in discussions using the characters as a topic for the discussion.

Furthermore, the students may, as a result of the discussions, come to reflect on what part nature

plays in their everyday life. They may realise, especially in an urban setting that forested areas,

parks and walkways are being replaced by residential complexes. They may also realise how

the green areas are being groomed in order to be more visually pleasing, resulting in less animal

Erneland 35

presence. From understanding, not only their connection to nature but also the dependency they

have on nature, the students may then gain a reason for continued activism and actual examples

of what they can demand and achieve.

Lastly, concerning the biophilia hypothesis, the narrator’s self-proclaimed old-

fashioned attitude is worthy of examination in the EFL classroom. The narrator offers a contrast

to his brother who favours comfort. Especially interesting is the statement of dying art forms in

reference to changing tires and making sorghum (Bisson). Reflecting on that statement and

other dying art forms that have been replaced by more convenient methods can lead to insights

about knowledge being lost and curiosity regarding what can be perceived as dying art forms.

Furthermore, the narrator’s noted pleasure in teaching his nephew the skills needed to provide

for himself also offers possibilities for reflection; especially in this era of technology where

video tutorials online can be considered to have taken over the role of teaching people how to

do basic tasks such as folding clothes, and tidying up, as illustrated by the popularity of Marie

Kondo. The connection to biophilia regarding the narrator’s old-fashioned ways is in itself is a

topic for discussion as is the idea of living naturally. By emphasising the evolutionary element

of the biophilia hypothesis and the suggestion that, despite the rapid change of lifestyle the last

centuries have resulted in, very little has happened biologically (Wilson 101), the student can

examine modern lifestyles in a critical manner. Furthermore, Wilson’s reflections on

knowledge can function as an introduction where the students reflect on what knowledge is

important and to what purpose knowledge serves (67). Such reflections are not to suggest a

preference for old-fashioned living, but by being critical to modern lifestyles and questioning

what is essential and what is taken for granted, the students are given an opportunity to look at

modern lifestyles with added perspectives.

In conclusion, the section on implementing the findings of the analysis in a teaching

context has covered essential elements of ecocriticism by examining representations of nature

Erneland 36

and human relationships with nature. Furthermore, an added emphasis on giving perspectives

on influencing structures with the intention of understanding the complexity of human actions

in relation to the planetary crisis has been covered. Lastly, the biophilia hypothesis has been

used with an emphasis on understanding the connection and attraction to nature. The intended

outcome of such an approach is to, in accordance with ecocriticism, raise awareness and give

perspectives on the relationship between human and nature and to encourage and add nuance

to the activism that the youth are engaging in. By implementing the biophilia hypothesis, the

students may receive a personal cause for their activism, if it is not for the abstract ‘future,’ then

perhaps for the small forested area in the close proximity to their school or home.

6. Conclusion

This paper has applied an ecocritical lens to Bears Discover Fire by Terry Bisson and

used the biophilia hypothesis to reach a deeper understanding of the characters of the story. The

result have subsequently been discussed from an EFL context. The intended goal of the

application to the EFL context was to encourage and nuance further engagement in

environmental activism, create reflection on the relationship between the student’s and nature

and inspire the students to improve their well-being in accordance with the biophilia hypothesis.

In accordance with ecocritical theory, this paper has initially looked at the representation

of nature and the relationship between the characters and nature in Bisson’s short story. In terms

of representation, a focus has been on having the story take place in human-modified

environments as it enables a discussion on the human impact on the surrounding environment.

About the relationships between the characters and nature, an emphasis has been put on the

mother as she can be considered to offer the closest relationship with nature, and the narrator

whose relationship is close, albeit in the sense of representing a natural, old-fashioned, lifestyle.

The pedagogical implication is mainly concerned with illustrating how relationships with nature

Erneland 37

is represented in the story and to create reflection on one’s personal relationship. It offers a non-

didactic way of teaching ecocriticism.

In connection with ecocriticism, the usage of structures as part of this paper has been

explained as to not only concern itself with concepts such as capitalism in order to create a less

polemical discussion of the matter. The structures have been presented to represent an

individual, a societal and a global level and concern impulsiveness and instincts, making the

extraordinary ordinary, human logic as a pinnacle, and comfortability and capitalism. They

have been presented as to not only involve systematic exploitation but rather mind-sets

problematic for the well-being of the climate. By using the structures in the classroom and

emphasising their historical roots, the intention is to bring a critical element to the reading that

can be considered to offer a more didactic approach.

The sections on biophilia have covered mainly two characters, the mother and the

narrator. The mother’s connections and attractions are more explicit than the narrator’s, but the

narrator seems to get a similar benefit from living what has been discussed as a natural life. The

main intention of implementing biophilia as part of the literary analysis is to create a deeper

understanding of the characters in the story. The pedagogical implication has the added

intention of creating an openness to one’s connection to nature. That connection and the

relationship that might follow can give the students a reason to take an interest in the immediate

environment and also to inspire them to seek out that relationship and its alleged benefits.

An important factor worthy of considering is that not all students are aspiring

environmental activists. It is important to understand the classroom climate and a willingness

to adapt in order to meet the students need. The part on biophilia and the less didactic angle of

ecocriticism lack the direct encouragement of activism and could thus be a reasonable way

forward for a group of students who are considered hesitant to the angle. However, the fact that

Erneland 38

the students will be a part of a rather polemic discourse of the future can be considered reason

enough to prepare them to be a part of it.

For future research, two areas have been perceived as somewhat inadequate, one in the

field of literary studies and another in the field of pedagogy. Firstly, biophilia is an important

part of this text, and while gathering resources in support of this paper, I realised that not many

studies had been conducted with the combination. More research on the pairing is a potential

way forward, and both ecocriticism and the biophilia hypothesis could benefit from further

cross-fertilisation. Considering the similarity between the emphasis on relationships and the

attraction to nature, the combination of the two is not unreasonable. The cross-disciplinary

possibilities of both theories is another factor that enables further studies with this combination.

Secondly, for further pedagogical research, there is a need for more empirical research

regarding what the students feel that they lack in terms of environmental teaching. With the

current state of the world, there is an undoubted need for environmental teaching, but there are

limitations to how this can be conducted in language teaching. The students are also likely to

have prior knowledge, and it is important not to make the issue ubiquitous to them.

With the severity of the issue at hand, it is easy to overlook the role artistic expression

has in favour of a more traditionally scientific angle. This text is written with the ambition to

illustrate how literature can be used in order to add perspectives for the students’ understanding

and to cultivate their relationship with nature. This relationship can be a factor in bringing a

personal claim to protect nature from continued exploitation. The role of the teacher can

sometimes be exaggerated; still, when taking into account that the students whom we teach will

be part of the future discourse on the climate, it is clear that they need to be prepared for it. It

is crucial to bring awareness to the matter. By understanding the relationship between human

and nature, as a cultural concept, and as a biological, the students not only receive added

Erneland 39

perspectives to their activism but also a stronger claim. With that in mind, adolescents will be

better prepared to take part in the global strikes for the climate in the future.

Erneland 40

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