Short story

For the Gershwin piano and violin piece, see Short Story(music).

A short story is a brief work of literature, usuallywritten in narrative prose.[1] Emerging from earlier oralstorytelling traditions in the 17th century, the short storyhas grown to encompass a body of work so diverse asto defy easy characterization. At its most prototypicalthe short story features a small cast of named characters,and focuses on a self-contained incident with the intentof evoking a “single effect” or mood.[2] In doing so, shortstories make use of plot, resonance, and other dynamiccomponents to a far greater degree than is typical of ananecdote, yet to a far lesser degree than a novel. Whilethe short story is largely distinct from the novel, authorsof both generally draw from a common pool of literarytechniques.Short stories have no set length. In terms of word countthere is no official demarcation between an anecdote, ashort story, and a novel. Rather, the form’s parametersare given by the rhetorical and practical context in whicha given story is produced and considered, so that whatconstitutes a short story may differ between genres, coun-tries, eras, and commentators.[3] Like the novel, the shortstory’s predominant shape reflects the demands of theavailable markets for publication, and the evolution of theform seems closely tied to the evolution of the publishingindustry and the submission guidelines of its constituenthouses.[4]

The short story has been considered both an apprentice-ship form preceding more lengthy works, and a craftedform in its own right, collected together in books of sim-ilar length, price, and distribution as novels. Short storywriters may define their works as part of the artistic andpersonal expression of the form. They may also attemptto resist categorization by genre and fixed formation.

1 Length

See the article novella for related debate about length.

Determining what exactly separates a short story fromlonger fictional formats is problematic. A classic defi-nition of a short story is that one should be able to readit in one sitting, a point most notably made in Edgar Al-lan Poe's essay "Thomas LeMoineau (LeMoile)" (1846).Interpreting this standard nowadays is problematic, sincethe expected length of “one sitting” may now be briefer

than it was in Poe’s era. Other definitions place the max-imum word count of the short story at anywhere from1,000 to 4,000. In contemporary usage, the term shortstory most often refers to a work of fiction no shorterthan 1,000 and no longer than 20,000 words. Storiesof fewer than 1,000 words are sometimes referred to as“short short stories”,[5] or "flash fiction.”As a point of reference for the genre writer, the ScienceFiction and FantasyWriters of America define short storylength in the Nebula Awards for science fiction submis-sion guidelines as having a word count of fewer than7,500.[6]

Longer stories that cannot be called novels are sometimesconsidered “novellas” or novelettes and, like short stories,may be collected into the more marketable form of “col-lections”, often containing previously unpublished sto-ries. Sometimes, authors who do not have the time ormoney to write a novella or novel decide to write shortstories instead, working out a deal with a popular websiteor magazine to publish them for profit.

2 Characteristics

As a concentrated form of narrative prose fiction, theshort story has been theorised through the traditional el-ements of dramatic structure: exposition (the introduc-tion of setting, situation and main characters), compli-cation (the event that introduces the conflict), rising ac-tion, crisis (the decisive moment for the protagonist andhis commitment to a course of action), climax (the pointof highest interest in terms of the conflict and the pointwith the most action) and resolution (the point when theconflict is resolved). Because of their length, short storiesmay or may not follow this pattern. For example, modernshort stories only occasionally have an exposition, moretypically beginning in the middle of the action (in me-dias res). As with longer stories, plots of short storiesalso have a climax, crisis, or turning point. However, theendings of many short stories are abrupt and open andmay or may not have a moral or practical lesson. As withany art form, the exact characteristics of a short story willvary by creator. Short stories tend to be less complexthan novels. Usually a short story focuses on one inci-dent; has a single plot, a single setting, and a small num-ber of characters; and covers a short period of time. Themodern short story form emerged from oral story-tellingtraditions, the brief moralistic narratives of parables andfables, and the prose anecdote, all of these being forms

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2 3 HISTORY

of a swiftly sketched situation that quickly comes to itspoint. With the rise of the realistic novel, the short storyevolved in a parallel tradition, with some of its first dis-tinctive examples in the tales of E. T. A. Hoffmann. Thecharacter of the form developed particularly with authorsknown for their short fiction, either by choice (they wrotenothing else) or by critical regard, which acknowledgedthe focus and craft required in the short form. An exam-ple is Jorge Luis Borges, who won American fame with"The Garden of Forking Paths", published in the August1948 Ellery Queen’s Mystery Magazine. Another exam-ple is O. Henry (author of "Gift of the Magi"), for whomthe O. Henry Award is named. American examples in-clude Flannery O'Connor, John Cheever, and RaymondCarver.

3 History

3.1 Predecessors

Short stories date back to oral storytelling traditionswhich originally produced epics such as Homer's Iliad andOdyssey. Oral narratives were often told in the form ofrhyming or rhythmic verse, often including recurring sec-tions or, in the case of Homer, Homeric epithets. Suchstylistic devices often acted as mnemonics for easier re-call, rendition and adaptation of the story. Short sectionsof verse might focus on individual narratives that couldbe told at one sitting. The overall arc of the tale wouldemerge only through the telling of multiple such sections.Fables, succinct tales with an explicit “moral,” were saidby the Greek historian Herodotus to have been inventedin the 6th century BCE by a Greek slave named Aesop,though other times and nationalities have also been givenfor him. These ancient fables are today known as Aesop’sFables.The other ancient form of short story, the anecdote, waspopular under the Roman Empire. Anecdotes functionedas a sort of parable, a brief realistic narrative that em-bodies a point. Many surviving Roman anecdotes werecollected in the 13th or 14th century as the Gesta Ro-manorum. Anecdotes remained popular in Europe wellinto the 18th century, when the fictional anecdotal lettersof Sir Roger de Coverley were published.In Europe, the oral story-telling tradition began to de-velop into written stories in the early 14th century, mostnotably with Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales andGiovanni Boccaccio's Decameron. Both of these booksare composed of individual short stories (which rangefrom farce or humorous anecdotes to well-crafted liter-ary fictions) set within a larger narrative story (a framestory), although the frame-tale device was not adoptedby all writers. At the end of the 16th century, some ofthe most popular short stories in Europe were the darklytragic "novella" of Matteo Bandello (especially in their

French translation).The mid 17th century in France saw the development ofa refined short novel, the “nouvelle”, by such authors asMadame de Lafayette. In the 1690s, traditional fairy talesbegan to be published (one of the most famous collectionswas by Charles Perrault). The appearance of AntoineGalland's first modern translation of the Thousand andOne Nights (or Arabian Nights) (from 1704; anothertranslation appeared in 1710–12) would have an enor-mous influence on the 18th-century European short sto-ries of Voltaire, Diderot and others.

3.2 1790–1850

There are early examples of short stories published sep-arately between 1790 and 1810, but the first true collec-tions of short stories appeared between 1810 and 1830 inseveral countries around the same period.[7]

The first short stories in the United Kingdom were gothictales like Richard Cumberland's “remarkable narrative”“The Poisoner of Montremos” (1791).[8] Great novelistslike SirWalter Scott andCharles Dickens also wrote someshort stories.One of the earliest short stories in the United States wasCharles Brockden Brown's “Somnambulism” from 1805.Washington Irving wrote mysterious tales including "Ripvan Winkle" (1819) and "The Legend of Sleepy Hol-low" (1820). Nathaniel Hawthorne published the firstpart of his Twice-Told Tales in 1837. Edgar Allan Poewrote his tales of mystery and imagination between 1832and 1849. Classic stories are "The Fall of the House ofUsher", "The Tell-Tale Heart", "The Cask of Amontil-lado", "The Pit and the Pendulum", and the first detectivestory, "TheMurders in the RueMorgue". In "The Philos-ophy of Composition" (1846) Poe argued that a literarywork should be short enough for a reader to finish in onesitting.[9]

In Germany, the first collection of short stories was byHeinrich von Kleist in 1810 and 1811. The BrothersGrimm published their first volume of collected fairytales in 1812. E. T. A. Hoffmann followed with his ownoriginal fantasy tales, of which "The Nutcracker and theMouse King" (1816) is the most famous.In France, Prosper Mérimée wrote Mateo Falcone in1829.

3.3 1850–1900

In the latter 19th century, the growth of print magazinesand journals created a strong demand for short fiction ofbetween 3,000 and 15,000 words.In the United Kingdom, Thomas Hardy wrote dozens ofshort stories, including "The Three Strangers" (1883), "AMere Interlude" (1885) and "Barbara of the House of

3.4 1900–1945 3

Grebe" (1890). Rudyard Kipling published short storycollections for grown-ups, e.g. Plain Tales from theHills (1888), as well as for children, e.g. The JungleBook (1894). In 1892 Arthur Conan Doyle brought thedetective story to a new height with The Adventures ofSherlock Holmes. H. G. Wells wrote his first science fic-tion stories in the 1880s. One of his best known is "TheCountry of the Blind" (1904).In the United States, HermanMelville published his storycollection The Piazza Tales in 1856. "The CelebratedJumping Frog of Calaveras County" was the title storyof Mark Twain's first book one year later. In 1884,Brander Matthews, the first American professor of dra-matic literature, published The Philosophy of the Short-Story. At that same year, Matthews was the first one toname the emerging genre “short story”. Another theoristof narrative fiction was Henry James. James wrote a lot ofshort stories himself, including "The Real Thing" (1892),“Maud-Evelyn” and The Beast in the Jungle (1903). Inthe 1890s Kate Chopin published short stories in severalmagazines.The most prolific French author of short stories was Guyde Maupassant. Stories like "Boule de Suif" (“Ball ofFat”, 1880) and "L'Inutile Beauté" (“TheUseless Beauty”,1890) are good examples of French realism.In Russia, Ivan Turgenev gained recognition with hisstory collection A Sportsman’s Sketches. Nikolai Leskovcreated his first short stories in the 1860s. Late in hislife Fyodor Dostoyevski wrote "The Meek One" (1876)and "The Dream of a Ridiculous Man" (1877), two sto-ries with great psychological and philosophical depth.Leo Tolstoy handled ethical questions in his short sto-ries, for example in "Ivan the Fool" (1885), "How MuchLand Does a Man Need?" (1886) and "Alyosha the Pot"(1905). The greatest specialist of the Russian short storyhowever was Anton Chekhov. Classic examples of his re-alistic prose are "The Bet" (1889), “Ward No. 6” (1892),and "The Lady with the Dog" (1899). Maxim Gorky'sbest known short story is "Twenty-six Men and a Girl"(1899).The prolific Indian author of short stories Munshi Prem-chand, pioneered the genre in the Hindustani language,writing a substantial body of short stories and novels in astyle characterized by realism and an unsentimental andauthentic introspection into the complexities of Indian so-ciety. Premchand's work, including his over 200 shortstories (such as the story “Lottery”) and his novel Godaanremain substantial works.A master of the short story, the Urdu language writerSaadat HasanManto, is revered for his exceptional depth,irony and sardonic humour. The author of some 250 shortstories, radio plays, essays, reminiscences and a novel,Manto is widely admired for his analyses of violence, big-otry, prejudice and the relationships between reason andunreason. Combining realism with surrealism and irony,Manto’s works such as the celebrated short story Toba

Tek Singh are aesthetic masterpieces which continue togive profound insight into the nature of human loss, vio-lence and devastation.In India, Rabindranath Tagore published short stories,on the lives of the poor and oppressed such as peasants,Women and villagers under colonial misrule and exploita-tion.In Poland, Bolesław Prus was the most important authorof short stories. In 1888 he wrote "A Legend of OldEgypt".Machado de Assis, one of the majors novelist from Brazilwas the most important short story writer from his coun-try at the time, under influences (among others) of Xavierde Maistre, Lawrence Sterne, Guy de Maupassant. Inthe end of the 19 th century the writer João do Rio be-came popular by short stories about the bohemianism.Writing about the former slaves, and very ironical aboutnationalism, Lima Barreto died almost forgotten, but be-came very popular in the 20th century.In Portuguese literature, the major names of the time areAlmeida Garrett and the historian and novelist AlexandreHerculano. Still influential, Eça de Queiroz producedsome short stories with a style influenced by Émile Zola,Balzac and Dickens.

3.4 1900–1945

In the United Kingdom, periodicals like The Strand Mag-azine and Story-Teller contributed to the popularity ofthe short story. Hector Hugh Munro (1870–1916), alsoknown by his pen name of Saki, wrote satirical short sto-ries about Edwardian England. W. Somerset Maugham,who wrote over a hundred short stories, was one of themost popular authors of his time. P. G. Wodehouse pub-lished his first collection of comical stories about valetJeeves in 1917. Many detective stories were written byG. K. Chesterton, Agatha Christie and Dorothy L. Say-ers. Short stories by Virginia Woolf are "Kew Gardens"(1919) and “Solid Objects,” about a politician with men-tal problems. GrahamGreene wrote his Twenty-One Sto-ries between 1929 and 1954. A specialist of the shortstory was V. S. Pritchett, whose first collection appearedin 1932. Arthur C. Clarke published his first science fic-tion story, "Travel by Wire!" in 1937.In Ireland, James Joyce published his short story collec-tion Dubliners in 1914. These stories, written in a moreaccessible style than his later novels, are based on carefulobservation of the inhabitants of his birth city.In the first half of the 20th century, a number of high-profile Americanmagazines such asThe AtlanticMonthly,Harper’s Magazine, The New Yorker Scribner’s, The Sat-urday Evening Post, Esquire, and The Bookman publishedshort stories in each issue. The demand for quality shortstories was so great and the money paid for such sowell that F. Scott Fitzgerald repeatedly turned to short-

4 3 HISTORY

story (as Matthews preferred to write it) writing to payhis numerous debts. His first collection Flappers andPhilosophers appeared in book form in 1920. WilliamFaulkner wrote over one hundred short stories. GoDown,Moses, a collection of seven stories, appeared in 1941.Ernest Hemingway's concise writing style was perfectlyfit for shorter fiction. Stories like "A Clean, Well-LightedPlace" (1926), "Hills Like White Elephants" (1927) and"The Snows of Kilimanjaro" (1936) are only a few pageslong, but carefully crafted. Dorothy Parker's bittersweetstory “Big Blonde” debuted in 1929. A popular sciencefiction story is "Nightfall" by Isaac Asimov.Katherine Mansfield from New Zealand wrote many ofshort stories between 1912 and her death in 1923. "TheDoll’s House" (1922) treats the topic of social inequity.Two important authors of short stories in the German lan-guage were Thomas Mann and Franz Kafka. In 1922 thelatter wrote "A Hunger Artist", about a man who fasts forseveral days.Ryūnosuke Akutagawa (1892-1927) is called the Fatherof the Japanese short story.In Brazil, the most famous modern short story writer isMário de Andrade. At the time, Paulistan writer Antóniode AlcantâraMachado became very popular from his col-lection of short stories titled, Brás, Bexiga e Barra Funda(1928), about several Italian neighborhoods, but now heis mostly read in just São Paulo. Also, novelist GracilianoRamos and poet Carlos Drummond de Andrade have sig-nificant short story works.Portuguese writers like Mário de Sá-Carneiro, FlorbelaEspanca and Fernando Pessoa wrote well-known shortstories, although their major genre was poetry.

3.5 After 1945

The period following World War II saw a great flower-ing of literary short fiction in the United States. The NewYorker continued to publish the works of the form’s lead-ing mid-century practitioners, including Shirley Jackson,whose story, "The Lottery", published in 1948, elicitedthe strongest response in the magazine’s history to thattime. Other frequent contributors during the last 1940sincluded John Cheever, John Steinbeck, Jean Stafford,and EudoraWelty. J. D. Salinger'sNine Stories (1953) ex-perimented with point of view and voice, while FlanneryO'Connor's story "A Good Man is Hard to Find" (1955)reinvigorated the Southern Gothic style. Cultural and so-cial identity played a considerable role in much of theshort fiction of the 1960s. Philip Roth and Grace Pa-ley cultivated distinctive Jewish-American voices. TillieOlsen’s "I Stand Here Ironing" (1961) adopted a con-sciously feminist perspective. James Baldwin’s collectionGoing to Meet the Man (1965) told stories of African-American life. Frank O'Connor’s The Lonely Voice, anexploration of the short story, appeared in 1963. Wallace

Stegner's short stories are primarily set in the Ameri-can West. Stephen King published many short storiesin men’s magazines in the 1960s and after. The 1970ssaw the rise of the postmodern short story in the worksof Donald Barthelme and John Barth. Traditionalists in-cluding John Updike and Joyce Carol Oates maintainedsignificant influence on the form. Minimalism gainedwidespread influence in the 1980s, most notably in thework of Raymond Carver and Ann Beattie.Canadian short story writers include Alice Munro, MavisGallant, and Lynn Coady.In the United Kingdom, Daphne du Maurier wrotesuspense stories like "The Birds" (1952) and "Don't LookNow" (1971). Roald Dahl was the master of the twist-in-the-tale. Short story collections like Lamb to the Slaughter(1953) and Kiss Kiss (1960) illustrate his dark humour.In Italy, Italo Calvino published the short story collectionMarcovaldo, about a poor man in a city, in 1963.In Brazil, the short story became popular among femalewriters like Clarice Lispector, Lygia Fagundes Telles,Adélia Prado, who wrote about their society from a femi-nine viewpoint, although the genre has great male writerslike Dalton Trevisan, Autran Dourado Moacyr Scliar andCarlos Heitor Cony too. Also, writing about poverty andthe favelas, João Antonio became a well known writer.Other post-modern short fiction authors include writersHilda Hilst and Caio Fernando Abreu. Detective litera-ture was led by Rubem Fonseca. It is also necessary tomention João Guimarães Rosa, wrote short stories in thebook Sagarana using a complex, experimental languagebased on tales of oral traditional.Portuguese writers like Virgílo Ferreira, FernandoGoncalves Namora and Sophia de Mello Breyner An-dresen are among the most influential short story writ-ers from 20th-century Portuguese language literature.Manuel da Silva Ramos is one of the most well-knownnames of postmodernism in the country. Nobel Prize-winner José Saramago published few short stories, butbecame popular from his novels.The Angolan writer José Luandino Vieira is one of themost well-known writers from his country and has severalshort stories. José Eduardo Agualusa is also increasinglyread in Portuguese-speaking countries.Mozambican Mia Couto is a widely known writer of postmodern prose, and he is read even in non-Portuguesespeaking countries. Other Mozambican writers such asSuleiman Cassamo, Paulina Chiziane and EduardoWhiteare gaining popularity with Portuguese-speakers too.The Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges is one of the mostfamous writers of short stories in the Spanish language."The Library of Babel" (1941) and "The Aleph" (1945)handle difficult subjects like infinity. Two of the mostrepresentative writers of the Magical realism genre arealso widely known Argentinan short story writers: AdolfoBioy Casares and Julio Cortázar.

5

The Uruguayan writer Juan Carlos Onetti is known as oneof the most important magical realist writer from LatinAmerica.In Colombia, the Nobel prize laureate author GabrielGarcia Marquez is the main novelist and short storywriter, known by his magical realist stories and his de-fense of the Communist Party in his country.The Peruvian writer Mario Vargas Llosa, also a Nobelprize winner, has significant short story works.The Egyptian Nobel Prize-winner Naguib Mafouz is themost well-known author from his country, but has only afew short stories.Japanese world-known short story writers includeKenzaburō Ōe (Nobel prize winner of 1994), YukioMishima and Haruki Murakami.

4 eShort

• Jamie Krakover defined eshorts in The Writers’Lens:[10]

" For those unfamiliar with eshorts, theyare short stories ranging from 12-150 pages,usually linked to a series. They vary in pricefrom free to $3.99 and are available in elec-tronic format only. The stories told in eshortsare often told from a perspective other thanthe main character in a series or tell of a sideevent that is loosely linked to the overall story.They are a great way for readers to revisit theirfavorite stories and characters in a new light.Stories of this nature normally would requirea collection before they could be printed butbecause of the emergence of ebooks and theirpricing scheme, they are available almost asquickly as authors write them.”

5 Recognition

Alice Munro, “master of the contemporary short story”according to her citation for the 2013 Nobel Prize in Lit-erature, said she hopes the award would bring readershipfor the short story in general.[11]

6 Adaptations

Short stories have frequently been adapted for:

• Radio dramas, as on NBC Presents: Short Story(1951–52). A popular example of this is "TheHitch-Hiker", read by Orson Welles.

• Short films, often rewritten by other people, andeven as feature-length films, such is the case of"Children of the Corn", "The Shawshank Redemp-tion", "The Birds", "Brokeback Mountain", "WhoGoes There?", "Duel", "A Sound of Thunder", "TheBody", "Total Recall", "The Lawnmower Man","Hearts in Atlantis", and "The Secret Life of WalterMitty".

• Television specials, such as "12:01 PM" (1993 tele-vision movie), "Nightmare at 20,000 Feet" (October11, 1963, on The Twilight Zone), "The Lottery", and"Button, Button" (on The Twilight Zone).

7 See also• Anthology

• Conte cruel

• Drabble

• Essay

• Flash fiction (also called microfiction)

• Irish short story

• Literary journal

• Mini saga

• Novella

• Sketch story

• Tall tale

• Vignette

8 References[1] “Short story”. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 2012-05-27.

[2] Poe, Edgar Allan (1984). Edgar Allan Poe: Essays andReviews. Library of America. pp. 569–77.

[3] Cuddon, J. A. (1999). The Penguin Dictionary of LiteraryTerms and Literary Theory (3rd ed.). London: Penguin.p. 864.

[4] Abrams, M. H. (1999). Glossary of Literary Terms (7thed.). Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace. pp. 286–287. ISBN0-155-05452-X.

[5] Deirdre Fulton (2008-06-11). “Who reads short shorts?".thePhoneix.com. Retrieved 2013-06-06. each of their(less-than-1000-word) stories

[6] “Complete Nebula Awards Rules Including the Ray Brad-bury and Andre Norton Awards (Revised & Updated)".sfwa.org. Retrieved 2012-02-17.

6 10 EXTERNAL LINKS

[7] Short Story in Jacob E. Safra e.a., The New Encyclopæ-dia Britannica, 15th edition, Micropaedia volume 10,Chicago, 1998.

[8] Internet Book List :: Book Information: Oxford Book ofGothic Tales.

[9] “Poe’s The Philosophy of Composition: a Study Guide”.Cummingsstudyguides.net. Retrieved 2013-04-22.

[10] Krakover, Jamie (April 4, 2012). “The Eshort Phe-nomenon”. The Writers’ Lens.

[11] Munro (2013). “Telephone”. Nobel Prize.

9 Bibliography

• Browns, Julie, ed. (1997). Ethnicity and the Ameri-can Short Story. New York: Garland.

• Goyet, Florence (2014). The Classic Short Story,1870-1925: Theory of a Genre. Cambridge U.K.:Open Book Publishers.

• Gelfant, Blanche and Lawrence Graver, ed. (2000).The Columbia Companion to the Twentieth-CenturyAmerican Short Story. Columbia University Press.

• Hart, James and Phillip Leininger, ed. (1995). Ox-ford Companion to American Literature. OxfordUniversity Press.

• Ibáñez, José R, José Francisco Fernández and Car-men M. Bretones, ed. (2007). , Contemporary De-bates on the Short Story. Bern: Lang.

• Iftekharrudin, Farhat, Joseph Boyden, JosephLongo and Mary Rohrberger, ed. (2003). Postmod-ern Approaches to the Short Story. Westport, CN:Praeger.

• Kennedy, Gerald J., ed. (2011). Modern AmericanShort Story Sequences: Composite Fictions and Fic-tive Communities. Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-sity Press.

• Lohafer, Susan (2003). Reading for Storyness: Pre-closure Theory, Empirical Poetics, and Culture in theShort Story. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Univer-sity Press.

• Magill, Frank, ed. (1997). Short Story Writers.Pasadena, California: Salem Press.

• Patea, Viorica, ed. (2012). Short Story Theories:A Twenty-First-Century Perspective. Amsterdam:Rodopi.

• Scofield, Martin, ed. (2006). The Cambridge In-troduction to the American Short Story. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.

• Watson, Noelle, ed. (1994). Reference Guide toShort Fiction. Detroit: St. James Press.

• Winther, Per, Jakob Lothe, and Hans H. Skei, ed.(2004). The Art of Brevity: Excursions in Short Fic-tion Theory and Analysis. Columbia, SC: Universityof South Carolina Press.

9.1 Still often cited

• Eikhenbaum, Boris, “How Gogol’s ‘Overcoat’ isMade” in Elizabeth Trahan (ed.) (1982). Gogol’s“Overcoat” : An Anthology of Critical Essays,. AnnArbor, MI: Ardis.

• Hanson, Clare (1985). Short Stories and Short Fic-tions, 1880-1980. New York: St. Martin’s Press.

• LoCicero, Donald (1970). Novellentheorie: ThePracticality of the Theoretical. (About the Germantheories of the Short Story) The Hague: Mouton.

• Lohafer, Susan and Jo Ellyn Clarey, ed. (1990).Short Story Theory at a Crossroads. Baton Rouge,LA: Louisiana State University Press.

• Mann, Susan Garland (1989). The Short Story Cy-cle: A Genre Companion and Reference Guide. NewYork: Greenwood Press.

• O’Connor, Frank (1963). The Lonely Voice: A Studyof the Short Story. Cleveland, OH:World PublishingCompany.

• O’FAOLÁIN, Seán (1951). The short story. Cork:Mercier, 1948; New York, Devin-Adair.

• Rohrberger, Mary (1966). Hawthorne and the Mod-ern Short Story: A Study in Genre. The Hague: Mou-ton.

10 External links• The Short History of the Short Story byWilliamBoyd

• The Contemporary Short Story (1957 - 2013) chart

• The Classic Short Story, 1870-1925. Theory of aGenreOpen Book Publishers, Cambridge UK, 2014

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11 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

11.1 Text• Short story Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_story?oldid=682854611 Contributors: The Epopt, Zundark, The Anome, Jeron-imo, Trimalchio, Ttraub, Nate Silva, SimonP, Kevinbasil, Jahsonic, Gabbe, Minesweeper, Ducker, Ahoerstemeier, Александър, Goblin,Nikai, Sethmahoney, John K, Gavri, Nedward, Magnus.de, Wik, Maximus Rex, Davichito, Furrykef, Mowgli~enwiki, Wetman, Mor-domo, Chuunen Baka, Gentgeen, Robbot, Naddy, Lowellian, Postdlf, Rfc1394, David Edgar, Cordell, Alan Liefting, Gtrmp, Lupin,Enkrates, Siroxo, Neilc, Utcursch, Andycjp, Antandrus, HorsePunchKid, Bringa, Vanished user 1234567890, Heman, Rdsmith4, Tothebar-ricades.tk, Kevin B12, Ukexpat, The stuart, Thorwald, DanielCD, Discospinster, ESkog, Kbh3rd, Kaisershatner, Lankiveil, Kwamikagami,RoyBoy, Zebs, Krstin~enwiki, Prsephone1674, Sole Soul, Bobo192, Longhair, Smalljim, John Vandenberg, Filiocht, Viriditas, Maur-reen, Shereth, Sam Korn, Ranveig, Danski14, Alansohn, Chino, Mo0, Nesbitt, ABCD, Truthaboutchabad, Melaen, Velella, Benson85,SidP, RJFJR, RainbowOfLight, Mikeo, Computerjoe, Ghirlandajo, Richwales, Hijiri88, Woohookitty, LOL, Unixer, Tabletop, Dmol, Ste-fanomione, Marudubshinki, Graham87, BD2412, FreplySpang, Edison, Search4Lancer, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Koavf, Vary,Vegaswikian, Bhadani, Yamamoto Ichiro, Fish and karate, Saksham, Titoxd, Shimottawa, Wangoed, SouthernNights, Gurch, TeaDrinker,SilverSteelWolf, DVdm, NSR, Skoosh, Gwernol, YurikBot, Sachinketkar, Wavelength, Sceptre, Pip2andahalf, Zafiroblue05, Pigman,Asgeirr, Stephenb, Ihope127, Pseudomonas, Ugur Basak, NawlinWiki, Irishguy, Moe Epsilon, RL0919, Xompanthy, Wangi, Haemo,Dv82matt, Wknight94, Tetracube, Zzuuzz, Trilemma, PTSE, Open2universe, Bhumiya, Jacklee, Theda, Closedmouth, E Wing, NYArt-snWords, GraemeL, CWenger, ArielGold, Red Darwin, Iago Dali, Wizofaus, SmackBot, MattieTK, Dweller, Espresso Addict, Moeron,Hydrogen Iodide, McGeddon, Bomac, Stephensuleeman, Delldot, Srnec, Sebesta, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Hmains, Betacommand, Christhe speller, Mazeface, Quinsareth, Happyface162, MalafayaBot, Greatgavini, Jottce, SchfiftyThree, JoeBlogsDord, Deli nk, Sadads, Dlo-hcierekim’s sock, Octahedron80, Darth Panda, AntiVan, Eliezg, Moho, Sephiroth BCR, Onorem, Rrburke, Mbertsch, COMPFUNK2, Jid-disch~enwiki, “alyosha”, Bejnar, Skinnyweed, Wilt, The undertow, Saccerzd, Gryffon, Microchip08, Bagel7, FrozenMan, Steppenvalve,Vghghhi, Ckatz, The Man in Question, Eivind F Øyangen, EarlWestheimer, George The Dragon, Dicklyon, SandyGeorgia, Dr.K., Djlarz,Hu12, MikeWazowski, Emx~enwiki, White Ash, Woodroar, Shoeofdeath, Llydawr, W0lfie, Twas Now, Lenoxus, Beno1000, Tawker-bot2, JForget, Ale jrb, ZICO, Rawling, Jekteir, Nunquam Dormio, Maximilli, ShelfSkewed, Brandon.macuser, ScipioAfricans, Fletcher,Senorelroboto, Abdennour driss, ProfessorPaul, Necessary Evil, Cydebot, Schmorgluck, Registered user 92, Theycallmebruce, Gogo Dodo,Acs4b, DumbBOT, Chrislk02, Optimist on the run, Jordanzed, Ebrahim, Freak in the bunnysuit, Lo2u, Omnimalevolent, Jimcripps, Inocu-latedcities, JamesAM, Epbr123, CynicalMe, Mojo Hand, Mr pand, AuthorRDK, Christopherjfoster, JustAGal, J. 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11.2 Images• File:Book_collection.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Book_collection.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

8 11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svgLicense: CC0 Contributors: http://www.openclipart.org/cgi-bin/navigate/education/books (note: the link no longer works since reorga-nization of the OpenClipArt website). Original artist: Original author: AJ Ashton (on OpenClipArt). Code fixed by verdy_p for XMLconformance, and MediaWiki compatibility, using a stricter subset of SVG without the extensions of SVG editors, also cleaned up manyunnecessary CSS attributes, or factorized them for faster performance and smaller size. All the variants linked below are based on thisimage.

• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

• File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau

11.3 Content license• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0