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Nyan Taw, Ph.D.Senior Technical Advisor/Vice President P.T. Central Pertiwi Bahari SHS Building, Second Floor Jl Ancol Barat Block A5E No.10 Jakarta, Indonesianyan.taw@cpbahari.com

nyantaw@yahoo.comThe shrimp-farming industry

developed strongly in Indonesia inthe late 1980s, initially in East Java.Specific pathogen-free (SPF) pacificwhite shrimp, Litopenaeus vanna-mei, were introduced in Indonesiain 2002. Now shrimp farming hasspread throughout the country,from Sumbawa to the east andSouth Sumatra to the west to Kali-mantan, Sulawesi, and Maluku tothe north.

Indonesian shrimp-farming prac-tices vary from region to region de-pending on the environmental con-ditions and financial pressures. Asin other major shrimp-farmingcountries, the Indonesian industryhas evolved due to environmentaland human health issues (mangroves, effluents, antibi-otics, chemicals), as well as such social, political, legal,and economic elements as antidumping and bioterror-ism. The production technology has also evolved due tothe effects of bacterial and viral diseases, new technolo-gies, and changing market demands.

Water SystemsAbout five variations of recirculation and flow-

though water systems are used by the shrimp farms inIndonesia. Most were developed during the late 1980s andearly 1990s before the emergence of various viral dis-eases in the mid-1990s. Since then, many farms have beenmodified with reservoirs and incoming/outgoing watertreatment systems.

RecirculationOutside Indonesia, farms like the Red Sea Shrimp

Farm in Saudi Arabia and Belize Aquaculture in Belizepractice very efficient water utilization with a balance of reservoirs, production ponds, and settling basins. In In-donesia, the farm design that most closely resembles theabove examples is operated by the Charoen Pokphandgroup at P.T. Central Pertiwi Bahari (CPB) in Lampung,South Sumatra.

The farm operates on a modular basis, where eachmodule consists of 40-60 square, 0.5-ha ponds with itsown reservoirs and effluent treatment ponds, including arecirculating canal from the production ponds that flowsto the sedimentation ponds. The water surface area of

the reservoirs/sedimentation ponds is 20-25% that of theproduction ponds.

This arrangement was a possible factor during dis-ease outbreaks after facility start-up. Since mid-2001,the farm systems have been redesigned with minimumor zero water exchange at certain periods of the cul-ture cycle.

At the P.T. Central Pertiwi Bahari farm in Lampung, production modules cyclewater from clusters of growout ponds (top) to treatment reservoirs (foreground).

Summary:Indonesian shrimp-

farming practices vary somewhat from regionto region depending onthe local conditions and financial pressures. Ingeneral, however, theintroduction of SPF L.vannamei to Indonesia

prompted moves to-ward less water ex-change, higher stocking densities, greater bio-security, and the use

of concrete- or HDPE-lined ponds.

Production

Shrimp Farming in IndonesiaEvolving Industry

Responds to

Varied Issues

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Flow-Through SystemsFlow-through systems pump in sea water for use in

production ponds, treat it, and finally discharge it backinto the sea. Flow-through culture systems are widelyimplemented in Indonesia at various levels of applica-tion. In Lampung, the CPB farm is one of few farms thathave a complete flow-through system.

Most shrimp farms in Java have modified the originalflow-through design to include reservoirs, but generally

still do not have effluent treatment facilities. The accu-mulated effluent sediments in production ponds are nor-mally dried, collected, and discarded away from the farmarea. Effluent water from production ponds is dischargedaway from the main farm inlets into river estuaries orback to the ocean.

In Bali and elsewhere, newly established shrimp farmsuse sea water directly and discharge effluents back intothe ocean. Similar practices exist in the southern part of West Java. However, the SEKAR shrimp farm at WestSumbawa uses sea water directly for production ponds,but has efficient effluent treatment with settling, whereeffluents are treated before discharge back to the ocean.

Pond ConstructionThere are six types of ponds in Indonesia (Table 1).The most common type uses concrete dikes and exposedbottom soils. At large integrated shrimp farms in Lam-pung, most production ponds are lined with high-densitypolyethylene plastic (HDPE).

At a shrimp farm recently built in Bali, ponds especial-ly built for L. vannamei culture are fully lined with con-crete and even have ramps to allow access by small trucksduring pond preparation and maintenance activities.These deep ponds have operational water levels over 2 m.

Another type is the biocrete-lined pond, which wasstarted a few years ago in Indonesia. The dikes are builtwith concrete, and the pond bottoms are lined with local-ly available polyethylene plastic tugged onto the dikes.Layers of sand are spread on the plastic to keep it in place.

With the recent introduction of L. vannamei , shrimpproductivity in HDPE- or concrete-lined ponds with suf-ficient supplemental aeration can nearly double that of typical earthen ponds. The carrying capacity of linedponds has also increased at least 25%.

The typical carrying capacity of earthen ponds withboth normal- and high-density culture is about 430 kgshrimp/hp of energy input, but carrying capacity of over560 kg/hp has been achieved in semilined ponds withoutfloc. During recent trials in fully lined ponds at high stock-ing density, a maximum carrying capacity of 631 kg/hp – almost that of a bacterial floc system – was achieved.

Production performance in earthen ponds is basedlargely on soil condition and pond preparation. If pond

soil is of good quality and can be cleaned, oxidized, andcompacted after each operation, pond carrying capacity inearthen ponds can be as high as that of fully lined ponds.

Regular pond bottom maintenance is possible forsmall farms, but not feasible for large farms, especiallyduring the wet season, when compacting pond bottomsand dikes with rollers becomes impossible. With the grow-ing importance of biosecurity and introduction of SPF

L. vannamei , new facilities are investing in ponds linedwith HDPE or concrete.

Culture TechnologyWith the arrival of SPF L. vannamei in Indonesia, a

number of technologies have emerged to take advantage

of their wide range of tolerance and adaptability. Vari-ous technologies and production strategies have beentried (Table 2), including monoculture with normal andhigh density, partial harvesting, polyculture of L. van-namei and P. monodon , two-step culture with minimumwater exchange, and zero-water-exchange bacterial flocsystems for L. vannamei .

L. vannamei can withstand very high stocking densi-ty as long as production ponds are deep and of high qual-ity. Monoculture systems with paddlewheel aerators andcompressed air diffusers can produce up to 30 mt/ha. Inbacterial floc systems, production as high as 49.7 mt/hahas been recorded.

Table 1. Types of production pondconstruction in Indonesia.

Construction Type Specifications

Earthen Earthen dikes and bottomFully HDPE-lined HDPE dikes and bottomPartially HDPE-lined Dikes and 75% of bottom lined

with 25% of bottom center soilexposed

Concrete-lined Concrete dikes and bottomConcrete-/HDPE-lined Concrete dikes lined with HDPE,dikes bottom soil exposedBiocrete-lined Concrete dikes, bottom lined

with plastic covered with sand

Many farms use earthen production ponds linedwith high-density polyethylene plastic.

The most common pond typeuses concrete dikes andexposed bottom soils.

With the introduction of SPF L. vannamei to Indonesia,a number of technologies haveemerged to take advantageof their wide range of toleranceand adaptability.

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Partial harvesting is a methodthat can greatly increase pond pro-duction and quality of shrimp whenculturing L. vannamei. Polyculture of

L. vannamei and P. monodon has alsobeen studied at P.T. Central PertiwiBahari – amid criticism because onespecies is SPF and the other is not.However, a number of tests success-fully implemented the polyculturewith consistent results. The ap-proach capitalizes on the differenthabitat use and behavior of L. van-

namei and P. monodon , thus utilizingthe whole pond water environment toincrease overall pond productivity.

Table 2. Characteristics of various shrimp culture technologies used in Indonesia.

System Objective Achievements (Source)

L. vannamei

MonocultureNormal stocking density 60-80/m 2/16-20 hp energyHigh stocking density 100-150/m 2/24-34 hp energy

Monoculture partial harvestStocking density 200-260/m 2/28-30 hp energy

Bacterial floc (zero water exchange)Stocking density 130-150/m 2/30-32 hp energy

L. vannamei and P. monodonTwo-step culture

Minimum water exchange

Polyculture ( L. vannamei and P. monodon )Stocking density 70/m 2 (40-50 vannamei ,20-30 monodon

Sustainable productionIncrease pond productivity withincreased energy input (aeratorsor air diffusers)

Increase pond productivity

Increase biosecurity, productivity,and efficiency

High survival through nursery phase

Increase biosecurity

Utilize 100% of pond water columnand bottom area to increase pondproductivity

8.0-10.0 mt/ha, 16-20 g sizes14.0-30.0 mt/ha, 14-18 g sizes(Java, Bali, Lombok, CPB)

25.0-35.0 mt/ha. 12-20 g sizes(Lampung, CPB trials)

20-24 mt/ha, 16-20 g sizesRecord: 49.7 mt/ha after stocking at280/m2 (CPB)

Higher survival (CPB)

Higher biosecurity (CPB)

7.5 vannamei , 3.5 monodon mt/ha(Lampung, CPB trials)

The most common pond construction in Indonesia uses concrete dikes and exposed bottom soils. This pond in northern Bali, which has a central drain and compressed air aeration, is fully lined with concrete. Photo courtesy of Tommy Chandra.