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INTRODUCTION A skyscraper is a very tall, building. The minimum height requirement currently to be

accepted as skyscraper is 800 feet (244 meters). The word skyscraper was first known to such

buildings in the late 19th century, which reflects public amazement at the tall buildings that

are being built in New York City. The structural definition of the word skyscraper was later

refined by architectural, historians, based on engineering developments of the 1880s that had

enabled construction of tall multi-story buildings. This definition was based on the steel

skeleton as opposed to constructions of load-bearing masonry, which passed their practical

limit in 1891 with Chicago's Monadnock Building. The steel frame developed in stages of

increasing self-sufficiency, with several buildings in New York and Chicago advancing the

technology that allowed the steel frame to carry a building on its own. Today, however, many

of the tallest skyscrapers are built more or less entirely with reinforced concrete. In the United

States today, it is a loose convention to draw the lower limit on what is a skyscraper at 153

metres (500 feet). Thus, calling a building a skyscraper will usually, but not always, imply

pride and achievement. Though never made famous, the Incans made a feeble attempt to build

the first skyscraper. This skyscraper, was to be called "UtzaInti" which can be translated to

"road to the sun god Inti." In 1440 the Incan emperor Bhutilishus II commissioned 2,000

slaves from the nearby province of Uhrhythrah to begin a 1000 foot tower. The tower was to

have one room called a LintzaTianu. Construction began in approximately 1442 under the

royal architect, whom priests called Tahmihpohn Puhpuhsi or, "builder of our empire."

Construction on the building occurred for three years until an earthquake destroyed the base of

the structure. All efforts to rebuild the tower were ignored.

A skyscraper taller than 305 metres (1,000 feet) may sometimes be referred to as a supertall.

The crucial developments for skyscrapers were steel, reinforced concrete, water pumps, and

elevators. Until the 19th century, buildings of over six stories were rare. So many flights of

stairs were impractical for inhabitants, and water pressure was usually insufficient to supply

running water above about 15 metres (50 feet). [2]

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ABSTRACT Skyscrapers are known to be super tall building either residential, work place or of mix use.

They are now tends to coincide with major downturns in the economy. Today the number of

skyscrapers that are being built all around the world are increasing where the land is highly

expensive (as in big / metropolitan cities) as they provide high ratio of floor space to be used

to per unit area of available land. They are not built just for the economy of space, they are

considered to be symbol of city’s economic power. They do not only define the skyline but

also defines the city’s identity. In many places exceptionally tall skyscrapers have been built

not just because of necessity of space but to define the city’s identity and presence of power as

a city. The first skyscrapers would have been typically an office building of more than 10

storeys. The concept was undoubtedly originated in the USA, in Chicago and in New York,

where space was limited and where the best option was to increase the height of the buildings.

The crucial developments for skyscrapers were steel, reinforced concrete, water pumps, and

elevators. Until the 19th century, buildings of over six stories were rare. So many flights of

stairs were impractical for inhabitants, and water pressure was usually insufficient to supply

running water above about 15 metres (50 feet). The weight-bearing components of skyscrapers

differ substantially from those of other buildings. Buildings up to about four stories can be

supported by their walls, while skyscrapers are larger buildings that must be supported by a

skeletal frame.

Review of Literature

DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN SKYSCRAPERS

In the late 19th century, the first skyscrapers would have been typically an office building of

more than 10 storeys. The concept was undoubtedly originated in the USA, in Chicago and in

New York, where space was limited and where the best option was to increase the height of the

buildings. The Home Insurance Building in Chicago was perhaps the first skyscraper in the

world. Built in 1884-1885 its height was 42 m/10 storeys. Designed by Major William Le Baron

Jenney, a graduate of l’EcoleCentrale des Arts et Manufactures de Paris, the structural skeleton

was a bolted steel frame without bracing supporting the loads coming from the walls and the

slabs, founded on a raft. This led to what is known as the “Chicago Skeleton”. [1]

.

Methodology

STRUCTURE, MATERIAL AND BUILDING TECHNIQUE

Foundations and the Excavation Pit

Skyscraper foundations are considerably more complex than those for normal buildings. The

complexity brought is just because of their height and weight and can be further depend on the

certain specific factors such as nature of soil, exposure to wind , earthquake and their location in

relation to surrounding property. Depending on the nature of the structure, the type of foundation

and the characteristics of the ground, the value of the foundation / excavation can be as much as

the 7.5% of the total project value.

The foundation is the supporting layer of a structure. The main purpose of the foundation is to

transfer the various loads (wind, seismic, dead and live) from the structure into the ground.

Different factors can influence the type and dimension of the foundations; soil type and

stiffness, water content, void ratio, bulk density, angle of repose, cohesion, porosity to name but

a few. Characteristics of the ground can also experience change due to the geological history or

previous construction activities. [8]

There are many different types of retaining walls:

• Interlocking sheet piles; these can be temporary or permanent

• Contiguous, secant piled walls, the latter more likely to be used in soft/wet soils

• Diaphragm walls; particularly used in soft ground with high groundwater and/or adjacent

to other structures

• Crosswalls; often used in addition to one of the above where is a particularly high

exposure to adjacent properties

Typically in the case of coverage for skyscrapers clauses should be considered which address the

following specific areas:

• Piling

• Dewatering

• Vibration, weakening or removal of support

• Dilapidation

Figure 1: Shanghai, China : Possible failure of the foundation

Figure 2: Moscow, Russia: Excavation / cantilevered walls

Structure of the Main Skeleton, Design and Material

Of the 100 tallest buildings the number using steel has reduced by at least 15% each decade since

1970, and in 2010 only 22% of the tallest building is steel.

The key issues with high performance concrete (high performance concrete is reinforced

concrete with a compressive strength at 28 days in excess of 50 MPa) relate to the quality of the

material and the expertise of the contractors. Only a few of whom are familiar with these

concretes. The controls on site must be quite strict and without compromise. The columns of The

Coeur Defense towers in the business district of Paris have a diameter of 1,10m and used a high

performance concrete of 80 MPa.

When it comes to steel, the quality of the material is with the suppliers. On site the main concern

will be on the various assemblies. This is like giant meccano, however as often these projects

take place in a confined urban environment, logistics and third party exposures are an important

consideration.[8]

In respect of structural systems, it is possible to define 6 categories:

1. The framed tube: system of rigid frames (flatiron building in 1903)

2. The bundled tube: combination of framed tubes (Sears towers, 1974)

3. Tube in tube: central and peripheral tubes (World Trade Centre in NY, 1972)

4. Diagonalised: stressed tubes, diagrids/braced frames (Alcoa bld. in Chicago)

5. Core plus outrigger: central lateral system linked to the perimeter system through

outriggers (PETRONAS Tower, 1999 –Taipei 101, 2003 )

It is however important for a construction underwriter to look at the problems emerging from

these loads (earthquake or wind) during the various construction stages. The wind analysis is

very often conducted with a view to understanding how the building will behave when it is

completed. However for example the cladding of the building may require further tests to make

sure that during the construction stages, the wind load distribution will not generate unexpected

problems.[8]

Various types of skeleton structures:

Superframe Steel frame Vertical

Truss

Tube in Tube

Bundled tube

Exterior braced

frame tube

Steel tube

Steel Frame/Belts Tuned Mass Damper

System

The façade / cladding systems comprise the external building envelope or the outer finish. These

have evolved over time to reflect the ambitions of the developers and the creative and innovative

talents of the modern architects.

Key factors which will affect the characteristics of the cladding / façade systems include;

climatic conditions, support and anchorage systems, owner’s “taste”, maintenance services,

ventilation or air-circulation system. The dimensions of the individual external wall elements,

forming part of the external building envelope, are designed to fit between two respective

structural floors, the main objectives being:

• Water-tightness, Aesthetics, Wind, Privacy

• Thermal protection (including control of sunlight entry),

• Reduction in noise-level, and Strength / durability.

There are four different groups and their sub-groups of Façade systems / Cladding systems

existing. They are (though not an exhaustive list):

• Traditional

- Brick façade (e.g. Empire State building, Chrysler building, etc.)

- Marble panel system

• Ventilated Façade

- Aluminum, stone, ceramics, fibre reinforced concrete

• (Non-load bearing) Curtain wall

• Glass

Material Weights

Flat glass used for window panels – the weight depends on the glass thickness:

¼ of an inch thick glass weighs about 3lbs/ft²

½ of an inch thick glass weighs about 6.4lbs/ft²

Adding coatings to the glass in order to protect it and tint, would also increase the weight of the

glass panel.[8]

Building Material

• Aluminum – has become the material-of-choice for the outer frames.

• Window Panes – made of high-grade glass filled with noble gases and a surface coating

in order to reflect infrared light.

• Laminated Glass

• “Sandwich” Panels – one of the primary materials used in façade systems of a building

are so called “sandwich” panels or also known as “composite” panels.

- Sandwich or Composite panels are thermal insulating material. These panels

consist of two thin metal facings/sheets (i.e. outer “skin”), usually steel or

aluminum, bonded to an inner core of thermal insulating material of varying

thickness. This system includes joints and supports. The combustible panels

include:Expanded Polystyrene (EPS), Extruded Polystyrene (XPS), Polyurethane

(PUR), Polyisocyanurate (PIR), Phenolic Foam (PF)

- The non-combustible panels include: Mineral Wool, Rock Fibre (MWRF), Glass

fibre (MWGF), Foamed Glass (Cellular Glass)

• There is great interest in the combustible-type panels because they are the most widely

used in buildings like apartment/residential, hotels, office/commercial, hospitals.

• The combustible panels are widely used / installed in countries situated in the Middle

East and the Arabian Gulf peninsula due to the harsh climatic conditions, characterized

by high temperature all year-long especially between June and September. The most

widely used panels are the polystyrene and the polyurethane panels for many reasons, to

name a few (a) low installation cost, (b) easy in handling and installation, and (c)

strength/durability. [8]

WIND LOADS

Wind engineering analyzes effects of wind in the natural and the built environment and studies

the possible damage, inconvenience or benefits which may result from wind. In the field of

structural engineering it includes strong winds, which may cause discomfort, as well as extreme

winds, such as in a tornado, hurricane or heavy storm, which may cause widespread destruction.

In the fields of wind energy and air pollution it also includes low and moderate winds as these

are relevant to electricity production resp. dispersion of contaminants.

Wind engineering draws upon meteorology, fluid dynamics, mechanics, geographic information

systems and a number of specialist engineering disciplines including aerodynamics,

and structural dynamics.

Wind engineering involves, among other topics:

• Wind impact on structures (buildings, bridges, towers).

• Wind comfort near buildings.

• Effects of wind on the ventilation system in a building.

• Wind climate for wind energy.

• Air pollution near buildings.

Wind engineering may be considered by structural engineers to be closely related to earthquake

engineering and explosion protection.[8]

SEISMIC LOADING

Seismic loading is one of the basic concepts of earthquake engineering which means application

of an earthquake-generated agitation to a structure. It happens at contact surfaces of a

structure either with the ground, or with adjacent structures, or with gravity waves from tsunami.

Seismic loading depends, primarily, on:

• Anticipated earthquake's parameters at the site - known as seismic hazard

• Geotechnical parameters of the site

• Structure's parameters

• Characteristics of the anticipated gravity waves from tsunami (if applicable).

Sometimes, seismic load exceeds ability of a

or completely. Due to their mutual

astructure are intimately related.

SEIS

MIC PERFORMANCE

Earthquake or seismic performancesuch as its safety and serviceability

normally, considered safe if it does not endanger the lives and well

by partially or completely collapsing. A structure may be considered

fulfill its operational functions for which it was designed.

Basic concepts of the earthquake engineering, implemented in the ma

that a building should survive a rare, very severe earthquake by sustaining significant damage

but without globally collapsing

frequent, but less severe seismic events.

Sometimes, seismic load exceeds ability of a structure to resist it without being broken, partially

Due to their mutual interaction; seismic loading and seismic performance

are intimately related. [10]

seismic performance defines a structure's ability to sustain its main functions,

serviceability, at and after a particular earthquake exposure. A structure is,

if it does not endanger the lives and well-being of those in or around it

by partially or completely collapsing. A structure may be considered serviceable

fulfill its operational functions for which it was designed.

Basic concepts of the earthquake engineering, implemented in the major building codes, assume

that a building should survive a rare, very severe earthquake by sustaining significant damage

but without globally collapsing. On the other hand, it should remain operational for more

frequent, but less severe seismic events.

to resist it without being broken, partially

seismic performance of

defines a structure's ability to sustain its main functions,

a particular earthquake exposure. A structure is,

eing of those in or around it

serviceable if it is able to

jor building codes, assume

that a building should survive a rare, very severe earthquake by sustaining significant damage

On the other hand, it should remain operational for more

VIBRATION CONTROL

In earthquake engineering, vibration control is a set of technical means aimed to

mitigate seismic impacts in building and non-building structures.

All seismic vibration control devices may be classified as passive, active or hybrid where:

• Passive control devices have no feedback capability between them, structural elements and

the ground;

• Hybrid control devices have combined features of active and passive control systems.

When ground seismic waves reach up and start to penetrate a base of a building, their energy

flow density, due to reflections, reduces dramatically: usually, up to 90%.

• To dissipate the wave energy inside a superstructure with properly engineered dampers;

• To disperse the wave energy between a wider range of frequencies;

• To absorb the resonant portions of the whole wave frequencies band with the help of so-

called mass dampers.

Devices of the last kind, abbreviated correspondingly as TMD for the tuned (passive), as AMD

for the active, and as HMD for the hybrid mass dampers, have been studied and installed in high-

rise buildings, predominantly in Japan, for a quarter of a century.

In refineries or plants snubbers are often used for vibration control. Snubbers come in two

different variations: hydraulic snubber and a mechanical snubber.

• Hydraulic snubbers are used on piping systems when restrained thermal movement is

allowed.

• Mechanical snubbers operate on the standards of restricting acceleration of any pipe

movements to a threshold of 0.2 g's, which is the maximum acceleration that the snubber will

permit the piping.[10]

CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

The weight of a skyscraper mainly consists of dead load, the load exerted by the building itself.

Any extra weight from people, furniture, vehicles, etc. is known as live load. In addition, wind

and other unexpected sources can be load providers. The design of a skyscraper is mainly

dictated by how the total load is to be distributed. Skyscraper designs are categorized as steel

frames, shear walls, concrete core, or tube designs.

SHEAR WALLS

In a shear wall design, the weight of the structure

is distributed through the walls. These structures

are often made of steel reinforced brick or cinder

block–materials with high compressive strength.

The shear wall design is primarily used in small

projects such as urban brownstones or suburban

housing. As the load exerted on the building

increases, shear walls must increase in bulk,

meaning skyscrapers would need considerably large walls. Because of this, for tall buildings, this

system is only used in conjunction with other supporting systems.

STEEL FRAME

When one thinks of low-rise skyscrapers, the steel frame design comes to mind. This design is

characterized by a large steel box, containing smaller steel boxes inside. This 3D grid is simple

and efficient for most low-rises, but has its’ drawbacks for high-rise structures. As the building’s

height increases, the space between steel beams must decrease to compensate for the extra

weight, resulting in less office space and the need for more material.

TUBE FRAME

The tube design is a recent innovation used to maximize floor space and increase resistance to

lateral force in any direction. The buildings skin (outside) consists of closely aligned supporting

columns. This design only leaves about one-half of the building’s exterior left for windows.

Depending on the designer’s outlook, this can be an advantage or disadvantage. The decreased

window space helps those who suffer acrophobia (a fear of heights) comfortably occupy the

space; however, it decreases the visibility and openness offered by other designs.

The tube frame design was made popular by the World Trade Centers, whose ultimate failure;

some believe was due to the tube frame design[8]

CONCRETE CORE

This is the most common design for modern skyscrapers as it

is fast to build and provides a strong center. All the utilities,

elevators, and stairwells are centralized in this design,

making it easier for building modifications and repair. This

design can be dangerous. If a part of the core is damaged,

everything above that section will be cut off from ground

access. This happened in the World Trade Center towers

during the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, making it

impossible for many people to escape the burning towers.

EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT CONSTRUCTION

REINFORCED MASONRY STRUCTURES

A construction system where steel reinforcement is embedded in the mortar joints of masonry or

placed in holes and after filled with concrete or grout is called reinforced masonry.

The devastating 1933 Long Beach earthquake revealed that masonry construction should be

improved immediately. Then, the California State Code made the reinforced masonry mandatory.

To achieve a ductile behavior of masonry, it is necessary that the shear strength of the wall is

greater than the flexural strength.

Reinforced hollow masoary wall

Reinforced Concrete Structures

Reinforced concrete is concrete in which steel reinforcement bars (rebars) or fibers have been

incorporated to strengthen a material that would otherwise be brittle. It can be used to

produce beams, columns, floors or bridges.

Prestressed concrete is a kind of reinforced concrete used for overcoming concrete's natural

weakness in tension. It can be applied to beams, floors or bridges with a longer span than is

practical with ordinary reinforced concrete. Prestressing tendons (generally of high tensile steel

cable or rods) are used to provide a clamping load which produces a compressive stress that

offsets the tensile stress that the concrete compression member would, otherwise, experience due

to a bending load.[10][11]

Stressed Ribbon pedestrian bridge over the Rogue River, Grants Pass, Oregon

Prestressed concrete cable-stayed bridge over Yangtze river

PRESTRESSED STRUCTURES

Prestressed structure is the one whose overall integrity, stability and security depend, primarily,

on prestressing. Prestressing means the intentional creation of permanent stresses in a structure

for the purpose of improving its performance under various service conditions.

Naturally pre-compressed exterior wall of Coliseum, Rome

There are the following basic types of prestressing:

• Pre-compression (mostly, with the own weight of a structure)

• Pretensioning with high-strength embedded tendons

• Post-tensioning with high-strength bonded or unbonded tendons

Today, the concept of prestressed structure is widely engaged in design of buildings,

underground structures, TV towers, power stations, floating storage and offshore

facilities, nuclear reactor vessels, and numerous kinds of bridge systems.

STEEL STRUCTURES

Steel structures are considered mostly earthquake resistant but this isn't always the case. A great

number of welded Steel Moment Resisting Frame buildings, which looked earthquake-proof,

surprisingly experienced brittle behavior and were hazardously damaged in the 1994 Northridge

earthquake. After that, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) initiated

development of repair techniques and new design approaches to minimize damage to steel

moment frame buildings in future earthquakes. For structural steel seismic design based on Load

and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) approach, it is very important to assess ability of a

structure to develop and maintain its bearing resistance in the inelastic range. A measure of this

ability is ductility, which may be observed in a material itself, in a structural element, or to

a whole structure.

PREFABRICATION

Prefabrication is the practice of assembling components of a structure in a factory or

other manufacturing site, and transporting complete assemblies or sub-assemblies to

the construction site where the structure is to be located. The term is used to distinguish this

process from the more conventional construction practice of transporting the basic materials to

the construction site where all assembly is carried out.

The term prefabrication also applies to the manufacturing of things other than structures at a

fixed site. It is frequently used when fabrication of a section of a machine or any movable

structure is shifted from the main manufacturing site to another location, and the section is

supplied assembled and ready to fit. It is not generally used to refer to electrical or electronic

components of a machine, or mechanical parts such as pumps, gearboxes and compressors which

are usually supplied as separate items, but to sections of the body of the machine which in the

past were fabricated with the whole machine. Prefabricated parts of the body of the machine may

be called 'sub-assemblies' to distinguish them from the other components.[10][11]

Advantages of Prefabrication

1. Self-supporting ready-made components are used, so the need for formwork, shuttering

and scaffolding is greatly reduced.

2. Construction time is reduced and buildings are completed sooner, allowing an earlier

return of the capital invested.

3. On-site construction and congestion is minimized.

4. Less waste may occur

5. Advanced materials such

as sandwich-structured

composite can be easily

used, improving thermal and

sound insulation and air

tightness.[11]

BurjKhalifa – Dubai (2010) 829 m

Key Facts: -

• Constructed in 6 years.

• World’s tallest building.

• 163 Storeys.

• 45,000 square meters of concrete

weighing 110,000 tonnes

• 12,000 workers.

• Cost USD $1.5billion.

• Tallest service elevator.

• Tallest free standing structure

• 31,400 metric tonne of steel used.

• Construction started in 2004

• 58 number of elevators

• Top elevator speed 10m/s

• 900 number of apartments

• Previously known as Burj Dubai.

• Highest outdoor observation Deck

(440m)

• Peak Electricity demand of tower is 5

MVA

• 946,000 litres of water used every day.

• The tower’s architect and engineer is Skidmore, Owings and Merrill (Chicago).

Discussion

Dubai (2010) 829 m

Constructed in 6 years.

World’s tallest building.

45,000 square meters of concrete

weighing 110,000 tonnes

Cost USD $1.5billion.

Tallest service elevator.

structure

31,400 metric tonne of steel used.

Construction started in 2004

58 number of elevators

Top elevator speed 10m/s

900 number of apartments

Previously known as Burj Dubai.

Highest outdoor observation Deck

Peak Electricity demand of tower is 50

946,000 litres of water used every day.

The tower’s architect and engineer is Skidmore, Owings and Merrill (Chicago).

The tower’s architect and engineer is Skidmore, Owings and Merrill (Chicago).[3][4]

The Imperial II (Mumbai) 2010 254m

Key Facts:-

• Tallest building in India

• Tallest Residential Building in India.

• Also called as SD Towers orTardeo Twin

Towers.

• 60 floors.

• Construction started in 2005

• #189 tallest in World

• #17 Elevators.

• Top elevator speed 6m/s.

• A private observation deck is present at the

top of each building by the cone spires.

• Use of M50 grade cement which is usually

used in building dams and bridges.

• 228 luxury homes.

• Fe 500 iron used instead of regular Fe 450

to give the slabs added tensile strength

allowing longer spans in between the

beams.

• Clear ceiling height of 10.8 and 11.8 feet.

• A grand triple height lobby.[8]

SKYSCRAPERS – IMPLICATIONS Advantages of Skyscrapers

Throughout the world, the population of the major cities are increasing at a fast rate and where

land for building is not available; there is a pressure to build upward rather than sideways.

The main advantage of building higher building is that they can take pressure of the need to build

just outside large cities, thus preventing the spread outwards and the destruction of the

countryside. In smaller countries, land is very expensive and so it makes a sense to build

upwards. In London for example property prices are rising rapidly and will continue to do so for

years to come unless more homes are built. Options, building in the greenbelt area around the

city and constructing skyscrapers are controversial, but tall buildings are the less damaging

alternative. Here are few more advantages of Skyscrapers.

• Skyscrapers are known as modern answer for lack of space.

• Each Skyscraper has their own unique architectural feature.

• These features often made the skyscrapers the icon of their city.

• These skyscrapers attract millions of tourist each year, and bring profit to local business.

• Radio, television and cell phones require signal receivers from broadcasters.

• By placing an antenna at a highest point in the city broadcasters can send a power full

signal for many miles.

• Skyscrapers provide excellent site for antenna and other equipment.

Disadvantages Of Skyscrapers

People have been building towers for as long as there have been cities. From the watchtowers

and temple spires of ancient cities to the skyscrapers and radio towers that form the most modern

skylines, towers represent the on-going evolution of architectural and engineering techniques.

The structures offer some major advantages but also pose serious challenges to designers and

builders.

• High cost of investment, construction, maintenance, and operation.

• Negative effect on indoor and outdoor environment.

• Destruction of natural environment.

• Noise pollution.

• Poor Ventilation.

• Rely on Elevators.

• Fireproofing Problem.

• Evacuation difficulty when fire broke out.

• Poor Fire resistance of Steel Structure System.

• Land Subsidence.

• The development of high rise buildings destroyed the harmony of the local cultural

landscape.

• The last reason is economy; the skyscrapers can’t be cleaned or repaired by normal

people.

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CONCLUSION

Why were these buildings suddenly getting bigger and who was actually occupying them? The

answer is that there was this huge social change in the office world in the early twentieth century.

The need for office workers was expanding at a spectacular rate as businesses like banking,

insurance, and law firms hired more people, not only the partners at these firms but huge

numbers of office workers too. Both men and women were being hired and so they needed more

space.

In addition to the large businesses, there were many smaller support businesses that rented small

offices in these speculative office buildings. But the number of these businesses expanded

enormously. If business had not been expanding, this skyscraper development would never have

occurred because these are money generators. The builders of these skyscrapers wanted to make

a profit and they had to know that there was an office market out there to rent the space, because

if there was no office market, what was the point of investing money in constructing such a large

building if it was just going to remain vacant? So it was the expansion of the office market that

went hand in hand with the expansion of the skyscraper.

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RECOMMENDATION

I would like to say that it is a great technology in Construction Engineering. With this

technology very light and durable structure is possible with a lot more space for activities.

But, we have to take care of the environment and surroundings also so that the materials and the

technologies used should be green and have minimum impact on the environment. They are not

just built for the economy of space but they are considered as a symbol of a city’s Economic

Power.

Now, as we see all the different types of buildings and structures in our own city, we will have a

greater knowledge about the materials used to build them, their strength and safety, and the

serious thought that went into their design and construction.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. www.imia.com/downloads/imia_papers/WGP76_2012.pdf

2. http://www.burjkhalifa.ae/en/TheTower/FactsFigures.aspx

3. http://yeinjee.com/burj-khalifa-dubai-facts-figures/

4. http://history1900s.about.com/od/1930s/a/empirefacts.htm

5. http://www.allaboutskyscrapers.com/culture/skyscraper_design

6. http://www.skyscrapercenter.com/mumbai/the-imperial-ii/

7. Mark Thorton’s Skyscrapers and Business Cycle Edition 2005.

8. CTBUH Height Criteria". Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat

9. Skyscrapers by Andres Lepik 2004

10. Man made Wonders Skyscrapers by Jason Cooper Rourkee Enterprise

11. Skyscraper (building)". Britannica.com. 11 September 2001