SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

SLA studies how L2 learners gain linguistic and communicative competence in L2.

What is Second Language Acquisition?

The Main Theories in SLA

Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH)

Error Analysis (EA) and Inter-language (IL)

Monitor Model Hypothesis

Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH)

Gass and Selinker (1994) It is a way of comparing

languages in order to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in a second language learning situation.

Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH)

It focuses on the differences and similarities between the L1 and the Second Language (L2).

This means that the similarities and differences between L1 and L2 play a crucial role in learners’ production.

Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH)

Saville-Troike (2006) also points out that there will be a transfer of elements acquired in the L1 to the target L2.

Error Analysis (EA) Inter-language (IL)

MITCHELL AND MYLES

SAVILLE AND TROIKE

Error Analysis (EA)

Mitchell and Myles (2004) consider this approach to be influenced by behaviorism through the use of fundamental distinctions between the learners’ first and second languages to predict errors, adding that EA showed that CA was not able to predict most errors.

Error Analysis (EA)

Troike (2006) observes that EA distinguishes between systematic errors, which are due to a lack of L2 knowledge and mistakes, which are made when the knowledge has been processed.

Error Analysis (EA)

Some shortcomings of EA

1. Some people do not make errors because of L1 interface.

2. Focusing only on errors does not provide information regarding what the learner has acquired.

3. Learners may not produce errors because they avoid difficult structures.

For example, Arab students avoid using models auxiliaries since they have difficulties in understanding their role in each sentence. They may use I want…, I need …., instead of could I have, I would like ……..?

Inter-language (IL)

Saville-Troike (2006) states that the term IL was introduced by Selinker in 1972, “to refer to the intermediate states (or interim grammars) of a learner’s language as it moves toward the target L2″.

Inter-language (IL)1. One form for multi-functions e.g., I live in

Manchester, last year I live in London, next year I live in Amman.

2. Some forms have been acquired e.g. I live in Manchester, last year I lived in London, next year I lived in Amman.

3. The various forms start to be used systematically. Here the student may write the forms correctly but still use the incorrect forms when speaking.

4. The student uses the forms correctly and consistently.

The Monitor Model Theory1. Acquisition-Learning Theory2. Monitor Hypothesis3. Natural Order Hypothesis4. Input Hypothesis

5. Affective Filter Hypothesis STEPHEN KRASHEN

Psychologist named Stephen Krashen transformed language teaching. He had been developing his ideas over a number of years, but several books he published in the 1980s received widespread acceptance.

Five main hypotheses

• The acquisition learning hypothesis• the monitor hypothesis,• the natural order hypothesis, • the input hypothesis, and • the affective filter hypothesis.

AcquisitionSubconscious process where individual is not aware. One is unaware of the process as it is happening and when the new knowledge is acquired, the acquirer generally does not realize that he or she possesses any new knowledge.

According to Krashen, both adults and children can subconsciously acquire language, and either written or oral language can be acquired. This process is similar to the process that children undergo when learning their native language.

Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the target language, during which the acquirer is focused on meaning rather than form.

Learning

Learning a language, on the other hand, is a conscious process, much like what one experiences in school. New knowledge or language forms are represented consciously in the learner's mind, frequently in the form of language "rules" and "grammar" and the process often involves error correction. Language learning involves formal instruction, and according to Krashen, is less effective than acquisition.

Learning

acquisition

conscious

subconscious

knowing about

pick up

The Acquisition – Learning Distinction

AcquisitionSub-conscious

by environment(Ex: games,

Movies, radio)

Picking up words

LearningConscious by

instructorsCorrect errors

Knowing aboutGrammar rules

SLA

The Monitor hypothesis explains the relationship between acquisition and learning. The monitoring function is the practical result of the learned grammar. According to Krashen, for the Monitor to be successfully used, three conditions must be met:

The acquirer/learner must know the rule: This is a very difficult condition to meet because it means that the speaker must have had explicit instruction.

The acquirer must be focused on correctness: He or she must be thinking about form, and it is difficult to focus on meaning and form at the same time.

Having time to use the monitor: The speaker is then focused on form rather than meaning, resulting in the production and exchange of less information.

Due to these difficulties, Krashen recommends using the monitor at times when it does not interfere with communication, such as while writing.

THE NATURAL ORDER HYPOTHESIS

The acquisition of grammatical structures follows a “natural order” which is predictable.

English is perhaps the most studied language as far as natural order hypothesis is concerned, and of all structures of English, morphology is the most studied.

FIRST MORPHEMES ACQUIRED:

The progressive marker –ing Plural marker /s/

ACQUIRED LATER

Third person singular marker The possessive /s/

The order of acquisition for second language is not the same as the order of acquisition for first language, but these are some similarities.

Krashen believes that the implication of the natural order hypothesis is not that our syllabi should be based on the order found in the studies.

He rejects grammatical sequencing in all cases where the goal is language acquisition.

The only instance in which the teaching of grammar can result in language acquisition (and proficiency) is when the students are interested in the subject and the target language is used as a medium of instruction.

The Affective Fi lter hypothesis, embodies Krashen's view that a number of 'affective variables' play a facilitative, but non-causal, role in second language acquisition.

These variables include: motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. Low motivation, low self-esteem, and debilitating anxiety can combine

to 'raise' the affective filter and form a 'mental block' that prevents comprehensible input from being used for acquisition. In other words, when the filter is 'up' it impedes language acquisition.

Krashen claims that learners with high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image, and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in second language acquisition.

THE INPUT HYPOTHESIS

We acquire language only when we understand language that contains structure that is “a little beyond” where we are now.

This is possible because we use more than our linguistic competence to help us understand.

The input hypothesis says that we acquire by “going for meaning” first, and as a result, we acquire structure.

It also states that speaking fluency cannot be taught directly. It emerges over time, on its own.

The best way to teach speaking, according to this view, is simply to provide comprehensible input.

Accuracy develops over time as the acquirer hears and understands more input.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Krashen, Stephen D.  Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition.  Prentice-Hall International, 1987.

Krashen, Stephen D.  Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning.  Prentice-Hall International, 1988.