slide 5.1 bernard burnes, managing change, 5 th edition, © pearson education limited 2009 culture,...

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Bernard Burnes, Managing Change, 5th Edition, © Pearson Education Limited 2009

Culture, power, politics and choiceCulture, power, politics and choice(Chapter 5)(Chapter 5)

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Organisational cultureOrganisational culture

ImportanceImportance We do not work in a vacuum. The way we work and We do not work in a vacuum. The way we work and

behave is shaped, directed and tempered by the behave is shaped, directed and tempered by the culture of the organisation to which we belong.culture of the organisation to which we belong.

Organisations are miniature societies.Organisations are miniature societies.

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The Current fascination with cultureThe Current fascination with culture

Arose in the 1980s from the work of:Arose in the 1980s from the work of: Peters and Waterman (1982)Peters and Waterman (1982) Allen and Kraft (1982)Allen and Kraft (1982) Deal and Kennedy (1982)Deal and Kennedy (1982)

However,However,

Blake and Mouton (1969) had linked culture and Blake and Mouton (1969) had linked culture and performance in the 1960s.performance in the 1960s.

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Why the ‘Culture Craze’Why the ‘Culture Craze’of the 1980s?of the 1980s?

The decline of the West The decline of the West The rise of Japan.The rise of Japan.

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What is culture?What is culture?

Culture is ‘how things are doneCulture is ‘how things are done

around here’. It is what is typical ofaround here’. It is what is typical of

the organization, the habits, thethe organization, the habits, the

prevailing attitudes, the grown-upprevailing attitudes, the grown-up

pattern of accepted behaviour.pattern of accepted behaviour.

(Drennan, 1992:3)(Drennan, 1992:3)

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A few more definitionsA few more definitions

The culture of the factory is its customary and traditional way of The culture of the factory is its customary and traditional way of thinking and doing things, which is shared to a greater or lesser thinking and doing things, which is shared to a greater or lesser degree by all its members and which new members must learn, degree by all its members and which new members must learn, and at least partially accept, in order to be accepted into and at least partially accept, in order to be accepted into service in the firm. (Jacques, 1952: 251)service in the firm. (Jacques, 1952: 251)

Culture ... is a pattern of beliefs and expectations shared by the Culture ... is a pattern of beliefs and expectations shared by the organization’s members. These beliefs and expectations organization’s members. These beliefs and expectations produce norms and powerfully shape the behaviour of produce norms and powerfully shape the behaviour of individuals and groups in the organization. (Schwartz and individuals and groups in the organization. (Schwartz and Davis, 1981: 33)Davis, 1981: 33)

A quality of perceived organizational specialness – that itA quality of perceived organizational specialness – that itpossesses some unusual quality that distinguishes it from possesses some unusual quality that distinguishes it from others in the field. (Gold, 1982: 571–572)others in the field. (Gold, 1982: 571–572)

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A few more definitions (Continued)A few more definitions (Continued)

By culture I mean the shared beliefs top managers in a By culture I mean the shared beliefs top managers in a company have about how they should manage company have about how they should manage themselves and other employees, and how they should themselves and other employees, and how they should conduct business(es). (Lorsch, 1986:95)conduct business(es). (Lorsch, 1986:95)

Culture represents an interdependent set of values and Culture represents an interdependent set of values and ways of behaving that are common in a community and ways of behaving that are common in a community and that tend to perpetuate themselves, sometimes over long that tend to perpetuate themselves, sometimes over long periods of time. (Kotterand Hesketh, 1992: 141)periods of time. (Kotterand Hesketh, 1992: 141)

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Why is culture important?

Culture shapes behaviour Friendly or AggressiveFriendly or Aggressive• Proactive or PassiveProactive or Passive • Concerned or Not BotheredConcerned or Not Bothered Teamworker or Solo PlayerTeamworker or Solo Player Rule Follower or Rule Breaker.Rule Follower or Rule Breaker.

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Implications of cultureImplications of culture

Behaviour is not shaped by extrinsic and Behaviour is not shaped by extrinsic and intrinsic motivators but by values, beliefs andintrinsic motivators but by values, beliefs and

assumptions.assumptions. Culture guides actions but only when it isCulture guides actions but only when it is strong and unchallenged.strong and unchallenged. Some cultures are better than others.Some cultures are better than others. If values, beliefs and attitudes can be learned,If values, beliefs and attitudes can be learned,

they can also be changed.they can also be changed.

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Handy’s four types of cultureHandy’s four types of culture

PersonPerson – – The individual is the central focus. Found amongst The individual is the central focus. Found amongst artists, performers, barristers, architects.artists, performers, barristers, architects.

PowerPower – – Power radiates out from the centre like a Power radiates out from the centre like a spider’s web. Found in small spider’s web. Found in small

entrepreneurial entrepreneurial companies, family companies, family dominated companies, etc.dominated companies, etc.

RoleRole – – Found in bureaucracies where the main emphasis Found in bureaucracies where the main emphasis is on compliance with rules and procedures.is on compliance with rules and procedures.

TaskTask – – The emphasis is on completing the job or project. The emphasis is on completing the job or project. Found in organisations which require teamwork, Found in organisations which require teamwork,

flexibility and speed, such as advertising flexibility and speed, such as advertising agencies.agencies.

Main cultures in the UK = Role and TaskMain cultures in the UK = Role and TaskHandy (1986)Handy (1986)

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Deal and Kennedy’s four types of Deal and Kennedy’s four types of cultureculture

The The Tough GuyTough Guy, , Macho cultureMacho culture, characterised by , characterised by individualism and risk-taking, e.g. a police force.individualism and risk-taking, e.g. a police force.

The The Work-Hard/Play-Hard cultureWork-Hard/Play-Hard culture, characterised by , characterised by low risks and quick feedback on performance, e.g. low risks and quick feedback on performance, e.g. McDonald’s.McDonald’s.

The The Bet-Your-Company cultureBet-Your-Company culture, characterised by , characterised by high risks and very long feedback time, e.g. aircraft high risks and very long feedback time, e.g. aircraft companies.companies.

The The Process cultureProcess culture, characterised by low risks and , characterised by low risks and slow feedback, e.g. insurance companies.slow feedback, e.g. insurance companies.

Deal and Kennedy (1982)Deal and Kennedy (1982)

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Quinn and McGrath’s four types of Quinn and McGrath’s four types of cultureculture

The The MarketMarket, characterised by rational decision-making , characterised by rational decision-making and goal-orientated employees, e.g. GEC under Arnold and goal-orientated employees, e.g. GEC under Arnold Weinstock.Weinstock.

The The AdhocracyAdhocracy, characterised by risk-orientated and , characterised by risk-orientated and charismatic leaders and value-driven organisations, e.g. charismatic leaders and value-driven organisations, e.g. Apple and Microsoft in their early days.Apple and Microsoft in their early days.

The The ClanClan, characterised by participation, consensus and , characterised by participation, consensus and concern for others, e.g. voluntary organisations.concern for others, e.g. voluntary organisations.

The The HierarchyHierarchy, characterised by hierarchical, rule-based , characterised by hierarchical, rule-based authority that values stability and risk avoidance, e.g. authority that values stability and risk avoidance, e.g. government bureaucracies.government bureaucracies.

Quinn and McGrath (1985) Quinn and McGrath (1985)

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Organisational CultureOrganisational CultureInventory classificationsInventory classifications

Constructive cultures. Constructive cultures. Cultures in which members are Cultures in which members are encouraged to interact with others and approach tasks in ways encouraged to interact with others and approach tasks in ways that will help them to meet their higher-order satisfaction needs that will help them to meet their higher-order satisfaction needs (includes Achievement, Self-Actualization, Humanistic-(includes Achievement, Self-Actualization, Humanistic-Encouraging and Affiliative cultures).Encouraging and Affiliative cultures).

Passive/Defensive cultures. Passive/Defensive cultures. Cultures in which members believe Cultures in which members believe that they must interact with people in defensive ways that will not that they must interact with people in defensive ways that will not threaten their own security (includes Approval, Conventional, threaten their own security (includes Approval, Conventional, Dependent and Avoidance cultures).Dependent and Avoidance cultures).

Aggressive/Defensive cultures. Aggressive/Defensive cultures. Cultures in which members are Cultures in which members are expected to approach tasks in forceful ways to protect their status expected to approach tasks in forceful ways to protect their status and security (includesand security (includes Oppositional, Power, Competitive and Oppositional, Power, Competitive and Perfectionist cultures).Perfectionist cultures).

(Jones (Jones et al,et al, 2006: 18) 2006: 18)

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Hofstede’s national clusters Hofstede’s national clusters

Scandinavia (primarily Denmark, Sweden and Norway): Scandinavia (primarily Denmark, Sweden and Norway): these cultures are based upon values of collectivity, these cultures are based upon values of collectivity, consensus and decentralisation.consensus and decentralisation.

West Germany (prior to unification), Switzerland and West Germany (prior to unification), Switzerland and Austria: these are grouped together largely as valuing Austria: these are grouped together largely as valuing efficiency – the well-oiled machine – and seeking to efficiency – the well-oiled machine – and seeking to reduce uncertainty.reduce uncertainty.

Great Britain, Canada, the USA, New Zealand, Australia Great Britain, Canada, the USA, New Zealand, Australia and the Netherlands: these lie somewhere between 1 and the Netherlands: these lie somewhere between 1 and 2 but cluster on the value they place on strong and 2 but cluster on the value they place on strong individuals and achievers in society.individuals and achievers in society.

Japan, France, Belgium, Spain and Italy: these are Japan, France, Belgium, Spain and Italy: these are clustered on bureaucratic tendencies – the pyramid clustered on bureaucratic tendencies – the pyramid structure – favouring a large power distance.structure – favouring a large power distance.

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Dobson’s guide to changing culture Dobson’s guide to changing culture

Step 1Step 1 Change recruitment, selection and redundancy policies to alter the Change recruitment, selection and redundancy policies to alter the composition of the workforce so that promotion and employment composition of the workforce so that promotion and employment prospects are dependent on those concerned possessing or displaying prospects are dependent on those concerned possessing or displaying the beliefs and values the organisation wishes to promote.the beliefs and values the organisation wishes to promote.

Step 2Step 2 Reorganise the workforce to ensure that those employees and Reorganise the workforce to ensure that those employees and managers displaying the required traits occupy positions of influence.managers displaying the required traits occupy positions of influence.

Step 3Step 3 Effectively communicate the new values. This is done using a Effectively communicate the new values. This is done using a variety of methods such as one-to-one interviews, briefing groups, variety of methods such as one-to-one interviews, briefing groups, quality circles, house journals, etc. However, the example of senior quality circles, house journals, etc. However, the example of senior managers exhibiting the new beliefs and values is seen as particularly managers exhibiting the new beliefs and values is seen as particularly important.important.

Step 4Step 4 Change systems, procedures and personnel policies, especially Change systems, procedures and personnel policies, especially those concerned with rewards and appraisal.those concerned with rewards and appraisal.

Dobson (1988) Dobson (1988)

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Guidelines for changing culture Guidelines for changing culture

1.1. Formulate a clear strategic vision. Formulate a clear strategic vision.

2.2. Display top-management commitment.Display top-management commitment.

3.3. Model culture change at the highest level. Model culture change at the highest level.

4.4. Modify the organisation to supportModify the organisation to support

organisational changes.organisational changes.

5.5. Select and socialise newcomers and terminate Select and socialise newcomers and terminate deviants.deviants.

6.6. Develop ethical and legal sensitivity. Develop ethical and legal sensitivity.

(Cummings and Worley, 2001: 509 – 511)(Cummings and Worley, 2001: 509 – 511)

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Wilson’s culture perspectivesWilson’s culture perspectives

The integration perspective:The integration perspective: This portrays a strong or desirable This portrays a strong or desirable culture as one where there is organisation-wide consensus and culture as one where there is organisation-wide consensus and consistency. consistency.

The differentiation perspective:The differentiation perspective: This emphasises that rather than This emphasises that rather than consensus being organisation-wide, it only occurs within the boundaries consensus being organisation-wide, it only occurs within the boundaries of a subculture. At the organisational level, differentiated subcultures of a subculture. At the organisational level, differentiated subcultures may co-exist in harmony, conflict or indifference to each other. may co-exist in harmony, conflict or indifference to each other.

The fragmentation perspective:The fragmentation perspective: This approach views ambiguity as the This approach views ambiguity as the norm, with consensus and dissension co-existing in a constantly norm, with consensus and dissension co-existing in a constantly fluctuating pattern influenced by events and specific areas of decision- fluctuating pattern influenced by events and specific areas of decision- making (e.g. Frost making (e.g. Frost et alet al, 1991). Rather than the clear unity of the , 1991). Rather than the clear unity of the integration perspective, or the clear conflicts of the differentiation integration perspective, or the clear conflicts of the differentiation viewpoint, fragmentation focuses on that which is unclear.viewpoint, fragmentation focuses on that which is unclear.

(Wilson, 2001: 357)(Wilson, 2001: 357)

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Figure 5.1 The major elements of cultureSource: From CUMMINGS/WORLEY. Powerpoint® (IRCD only) for Cummings/Worley’s Organization Development and Change, 9 th, 9E. © 2009 South Western, a part of Cengage Learning, Inc. Reproduced by permission. www. cengage.com/permissions

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Figure 5.2 A structure–culture continuum

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Figure 5.3 A structure–culture–environment continuum

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Figure 5.4 A structure–culture mismatch

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What is politics?What is politics?

[Politics is the] ... [Politics is the] ... efforts of organizational members to efforts of organizational members to mobilize support for or against policies, rules, goals, or mobilize support for or against policies, rules, goals, or other decisions in which the outcome will have some other decisions in which the outcome will have some effect on them. Politics, therefore, is essentially the effect on them. Politics, therefore, is essentially the exercise of power.exercise of power.

(Robbins, 1987 : 194)

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Three perspectives on culture Three perspectives on culture

Optimists – culture can be changed, e.g. Peters Optimists – culture can be changed, e.g. Peters and Waterman (1982).and Waterman (1982).

Pessimist – culture cannot be changed, e.g. Pessimist – culture cannot be changed, e.g. Hatch (1997)Hatch (1997)

Realists – parts of culture can be changed, e.g. Realists – parts of culture can be changed, e.g. Meek 1988).Meek 1988).

Ogbonna and Harris (2002)Ogbonna and Harris (2002)

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Warning Warning

Culture as a whole cannot be manipulated, turned on or off, Culture as a whole cannot be manipulated, turned on or off, although it needs to be recognised that some although it needs to be recognised that some

[organisations] are in a better position than others to [organisations] are in a better position than others to intentionally influence aspects of it.... culture should be intentionally influence aspects of it.... culture should be

regarded as something an organisation ‘is’, not regarded as something an organisation ‘is’, not something it ‘has’: it is not an independent variable nor something it ‘has’: it is not an independent variable nor

can it be created, discovered or destroyed by the whims can it be created, discovered or destroyed by the whims of managementof management..

(Meek, 1988:469–(Meek, 1988:469–470)470)

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CriticismsCriticisms

Strong cultures can make organisations resistant to Strong cultures can make organisations resistant to certain types of change.certain types of change.

Strong cultures may only suit organisations at Strong cultures may only suit organisations at certain stages in their development.certain stages in their development.

Can bring short-term benefits but may also bring Can bring short-term benefits but may also bring long-term stagnation and decline.long-term stagnation and decline.

Organisations also have sub-cultures.Organisations also have sub-cultures. Timescale for changing culture: 6 to 15 years.Timescale for changing culture: 6 to 15 years. Ethics: should we seek to control or manipulate Ethics: should we seek to control or manipulate

people’s emotions?people’s emotions? Culture cannot be controlled. Culture cannot be controlled.

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CultureCultureConclusionsConclusions

There is no clear agreement about the nature or the There is no clear agreement about the nature or the malleability of culture.malleability of culture.

Managers must make choices based on their own Managers must make choices based on their own circumstances and perceived options.circumstances and perceived options.

Without strong or appropriate cultures, managers Without strong or appropriate cultures, managers may find it difficult to agree among themselves or may find it difficult to agree among themselves or gain compliance from others. In such situations, gain compliance from others. In such situations, there is a tendency for conflict and power battles to there is a tendency for conflict and power battles to occur.occur.

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Power and politicsPower and politics

It is difficult to think of situations in which goals are so It is difficult to think of situations in which goals are so congruent, or the facts so clear-cut that judgment and congruent, or the facts so clear-cut that judgment and compromise are not involved. What is rational from compromise are not involved. What is rational from one point of view is irrational from another one point of view is irrational from another Organizations are political systems, coalitions of Organizations are political systems, coalitions of interests, and rationality is defined only with respect to interests, and rationality is defined only with respect to unitary and consistent ordering of preferences.unitary and consistent ordering of preferences.

(Pfeffer, 1978 : 11–12)

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What is power?What is power?

... ... we defined authority as the right to act, or command we defined authority as the right to act, or command others to act, toward the attainment of organizational others to act, toward the attainment of organizational goals. Its unique characteristic, we said, was that this goals. Its unique characteristic, we said, was that this right had legitimacy based on the authority figure’s right had legitimacy based on the authority figure’s position in the organization. Authority goes with the position in the organization. Authority goes with the job.... When we use the term power we mean an job.... When we use the term power we mean an individual’s capacity to influence decisions.. .the ability individual’s capacity to influence decisions.. .the ability to influence based on an individual’s legitimate to influence based on an individual’s legitimate position can affect decisions, but one does not require position can affect decisions, but one does not require authority to have such influence.authority to have such influence.

(Robbins, 1987 : 186)

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Some definitionsSome definitions

Authority:Authority: The right to act.The right to act.

Power:Power: The capacity to influence decisions.The capacity to influence decisions.

Politics:Politics: The exercise of power.The exercise of power.

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Definitions (Continued)Definitions (Continued)

Politics:Politics: The exercise of power.The exercise of power.

Legitimate use of politics:Legitimate use of politics: The exercise of power by those entitled to in the The exercise of power by those entitled to in the

interests of the organisation.interests of the organisation. Illegitimate use of politics:Illegitimate use of politics:

The exercise of power in pursuit of personal interests The exercise of power in pursuit of personal interests or by those not entitled to.or by those not entitled to.

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… a political view can explain much of, what may seem to be, irrational behaviour in organizations. It can help to explain, for

instance, why employees withhold information, restrict output, attempt to ‘build empires’ ...

(Robbins, 1986: 283)

The political view of organisationsThe political view of organisations

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…virtually all [writers] agree that for politics to occur, certain conditions must exist. There must be two or more parties (individuals, groups or large entities), some form of interdependence between the parties, and a perception on the part of at least one of the parties that divergent interests exist between them such that there is, or may potentially arise, conflict between the parties. Once these conditions exist, the subsequent actions of the parties involved will be deemed ‘political.’

(Bradshaw-Camball and Murray, 1991: 380)

The conditions for political behaviourThe conditions for political behaviour

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• Reason – facts and information are used selectively to mount seemingly logical or rational arguments.

• Friendliness – the use of flattery, creation of goodwill, etc., prior to making a request.

• Coalition – joining forces with others so as to increase one’s own influence.

• Bargaining – exchanging benefits and favours in order to achieve a particular outcome.

• Assertiveness – being forceful in making requests and demanding compliance.

• Higher authority – gaining the support of superiors for a particular course of action.

• Sanctions – using the promise of rewards or the threat of punishment to force compliance.

Kipnis et al (1980, 1984), Schilit and Locke (1982)

Political ploys

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• Decide what your goals are, what you are trying to accomplish.• Diagnose patterns of dependence and interdependence; what

individuals are influential and important in your achieving your goal?• What are their points of view likely to be? How will they feel about

what you are trying to do?• What are their power bases? Which of them is more influential in the

decision?• What are your bases of power and influence? What bases of

influence can you develop to gain more control over the situation?• Which of the various strategies and tactics for exercising power

seem most appropriate and are likely to be effective, given the situation you confront?

• Based on the above, choose a course of action to get something done.

(Pfeffer, 1992: 29)

Using power and politics

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1. Coercive power – the threat of negative consequences (including physical sanctions or force) should compliance not be forthcoming.

2. Remunerative power – the promise of material rewards as inducements to cooperate.

3. Normative power – the allocation and manipulation of symbolic rewards, such as status symbols, as inducements to obey.

4. Knowledge power – the control of information.Etzioni (1975), Robbins (1986)

The four main types of power

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Favourite influencing strategiesFavourite influencing strategies

For influencing up (managers) – the use of For influencing up (managers) – the use of reason.reason.

For influencing across (co-workers) – the use of For influencing across (co-workers) – the use of friendliness.friendliness.

For influencing down (subordinates) – the use of For influencing down (subordinates) – the use of reason.reason.

Huczynski and Buchanan (2001)Huczynski and Buchanan (2001)

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• Image building – action that enhances a person’s standing, such as backing the ‘right’ causes.

• Selective information – withhold unfavourable information from superiors.

• Scapegoating – blame someone else.• Formal alliances – form or join a coalition of the strong.• Networking – make friends with those in power.• Compromise – be prepared to give in on unimportant issues in

order to win on the important ones.• Rule manipulation – interpret rules selectively to favour

friends and thwart opponents.• Other tactics – if all else fails, use dirty tricks such as

coercion, undermining the expertise of others, playing one group off against another, and get others to ‘fire the bullet’.

(Buchanan and Badham, 1999: 27–29)

Power tactics

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Political behaviourPolitical behaviour

Minimised when there is:Minimised when there is: StabilityStability Agreement about goalsAgreement about goals Openness.Openness.

Maximised when there is:Maximised when there is: UncertaintyUncertainty Conflict over goalsConflict over goals Secrecy.Secrecy.

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Organisational changeOrganisational change

Can:Can: Create instabilityCreate instability Challenge cultureChallenge culture Threaten existing power relationsThreaten existing power relations Promote political behaviour.Promote political behaviour.

But it can also:But it can also: Restore stabilityRestore stability Recreate or support cultureRecreate or support culture Maintain existing power relationsMaintain existing power relations Reduce conflict.Reduce conflict.

It depends on the context.It depends on the context.

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Supplementary material Supplementary material from Senior & Fleming from Senior & Fleming

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Organizational politicsOrganizational politics

Buchanan and Huczynski (2004, p. 828)Buchanan and Huczynski (2004, p. 828) Power concerns the Power concerns the capacity of individuals to exert their will over others. Political capacity of individuals to exert their will over others. Political behaviour is the practical domain of power in action, worked behaviour is the practical domain of power in action, worked out through the use of techniques of influence and other out through the use of techniques of influence and other tactics.tactics.

Robbins (2005, pp. 400-1)Robbins (2005, pp. 400-1) For our purposes, we shall define For our purposes, we shall define political behaviour in organizations as those activities that are political behaviour in organizations as those activities that are not required as part of one’s formal role in the organization, not required as part of one’s formal role in the organization, but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organization.advantages and disadvantages within the organization.

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Morgan 1997Morgan 1997Organizations and modes of political ruleOrganizations and modes of political rule

AutocracyAutocracy BureaucracyBureaucracy TechnocracyTechnocracy Co-determinationCo-determination Representative democracyRepresentative democracy Direct democracyDirect democracy

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Power in organizationsPower in organizationsThe characteristics of power:The characteristics of power:

Power influences who gets what, when and how.Power influences who gets what, when and how.Morgan 1997 – p.170Morgan 1997 – p.170

Power is defined as the potential ability to influence behaviour, to change Power is defined as the potential ability to influence behaviour, to change the course of events, to overcome resistance, and to get people to do things the course of events, to overcome resistance, and to get people to do things that they would otherwise not do.that they would otherwise not do.

Pfeffer 1993 – pp. 204Pfeffer 1993 – pp. 204

Power refers to the capacity that A has to influence the behaviour of B, so Power refers to the capacity that A has to influence the behaviour of B, so that B acts in accordance with A’s wishes.that B acts in accordance with A’s wishes.

Robbins 2005 – p. 390Robbins 2005 – p. 390

––55

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Handy 1993Handy 1993

Sources of individual powerSources of individual power Physical powerPhysical power Resource powerResource power Position powerPosition power Expert powerExpert power Personal PowerPersonal Power Negative PowerNegative Power

The relationship between power The relationship between power and influenceand influence

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The relationship between power The relationship between power and influence (continued)and influence (continued)

Handy 1993Handy 1993

Methods of influenceMethods of influence ForceForce Rules and proceduresRules and procedures ExchangeExchange PersuasionPersuasion EcologyEcology MagnetismMagnetism

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Robbin’s (2005) Formal and personal powerRobbin’s (2005) Formal and personal power

FormalFormal

Coercive powerCoercive power Reward powerReward power Legitimate powerLegitimate power Information powerInformation power

PersonalPersonal

Expert powerExpert power Referent powerReferent power Charismatic powerCharismatic power

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Position power and the control of resourcesPosition power and the control of resources

Resource powerResource power

Invisible powerInvisible power

Non–decision-making powerNon–decision-making power

Personal powerPersonal power

Expert or knowledge powerExpert or knowledge power

Symbolic powerSymbolic power

Individual powerIndividual power

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The politics of powerlessnessThe politics of powerlessness

Women’s lack of powerWomen’s lack of power

Powerlessness because of cultural differencesPowerlessness because of cultural differences

Positions of powerlessnessPositions of powerlessness

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The link between politics, power and conflictThe link between politics, power and conflict

The unitarist view relating to The unitarist view relating to

InterestsInterests

ConflictConflict

PowerPower The pluralist view relating toThe pluralist view relating to

InterestsInterests

ConflictConflict

PowerPower

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Conflict in organizationsConflict in organizations

The nature of conflictThe nature of conflict

InterdependenceInterdependence Organizational structuresOrganizational structures Rules and regulationsRules and regulations Limited resourcesLimited resources Cultural differencesCultural differences Environmental changeEnvironmental change Approaches to conflictApproaches to conflict

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Conflict-handling styles – Thomas 1976Conflict-handling styles – Thomas 1976

CompetingCompeting

CollaboratingCollaborating

CompromisingCompromising

AvoidingAvoiding

AccommodatingAccommodating

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QuotesQuotes

Buchanan and Badham (1999, p. 56)Buchanan and Badham (1999, p. 56)

1.1. Power is the Power is the property of individualsproperty of individuals, defined across a number of , defined across a number of identifiable power sources or bases, some structural, some individual, and identifiable power sources or bases, some structural, some individual, and exercised in attempts to influence othersexercised in attempts to influence others

2.2. Power is a Power is a property of relationshipsproperty of relationships between members of an organization, between members of an organization, identified by the extent to which some individuals believe, or do not identified by the extent to which some individuals believe, or do not believe, that others possess particular power basesbelieve, that others possess particular power bases

3.3. Power is an Power is an embedded propertyembedded property of the structures, regulations, relationships of the structures, regulations, relationships and norms of the organization, perpetuating existing routines and power and norms of the organization, perpetuating existing routines and power inequalitiesinequalities

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Case StudyCase Study

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