smurfit report

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Report On The Activities

Of Jefferson Smurfit Group

In Colombia

by*

John Wann

Christine Warner

Gearid OLoingsigh

Stephen Coyne

Foreword by

Patricia McKenna, MEP

May 1999

*Smurfit Environmental and Human Rights Shareholders Group

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Dedication

We would like to dedicate this report to the memory of the Colombian

environmentalists:

Gloria Sofia Zapata

Hernando Duque

Eder Alexander

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CONTENTS

FOREWORD 6

INTRODUCTION 7

TERMINOLOGY USED 7

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 8

1. ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF COLOMBIAN EUCALYPTUS AND PINE

PLANTATIONS 14

1.1 Global Demand for Pulpwood 14

1.2 Production Forests in Colombia 14

1.3 Smurfit Cartn de Colombia (SCC) Forest Plantations 18

1.3.1 Pinus patula: 18

1.3.2 Eucalyptus grandis 19

1.4 The Puerto Isaacs Pulp Mill, Yumbo 22

1.5 SCC Recycling Operations 22

1.6 SCC and the CAMCORE Co-operative to Conserve Threatened Species

23

1.7 The SCC Breeding Programme 24

1.8 Social Investments by SCC in Colombia 25

1.9 Impact of SCC Pine and Eucalyptus Plantations on Local People

26

1.10 Environmental Management in Colombia 33

1.10.1 The Environmental Role of the Regional Autonomous Corporation

of Quindo (CRQ) 34

1.11 Environmental Impact of Pine and Eucalyptus Plantations 37

1.12 Environmental Impact of Pine and Eucalyptus on Colombian Biodiversity

38

1.12.1 Destruction of Native Forest 381.12.2 Biodiversity in Pine and Eucalyptus Plantations 42

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1.12.3 The Wetlands on SCC Land 55

1.12.4 Conservation of Old Crop Varieties 56

1.12.5 Forest Fires on SCC Land and Their Effects on Biodiversity 56

1.12.6 Water Supply and Demand in Colombia 59

1.13 The Environmental Impact of Eucalyptus and Pine Plantations on

Colombian Water Resources 60

1.14 Environmental Impact of Pine and Eucalyptus Plantations on Soil 68

1.15 The Future of Pine and Eucalyptus Plantations in Colombia 70

2.SMURFIT CARTN DE COLOMBIA IN THE RAINFORESTS OF BAJO

CALIMA: THE ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACTS

73

2.1 INTRODUCTION 73

2.2 BACKGROUND 73

2.3 INVESTIGATION 75

2.3.1. Conditions Prior to the Concession 762.3.1 (a) Condition of the environment prior to the concession 76

2.3.1 (b) Condition of the community prior to the concession 77

2.3.2 Damage Resulting from the Concession 78

2.3.2 (a) Damage to the environment during the concession 78

2.3.2 (b) Damage to the community during the concession 78

2.3.3. Possible Causes of Damage 80

2.3.3 (a) Clear-cutting system operated by Cartn de Colombia 80

2.3.3 (b) Activities of colonists 84

2.3.3 (c) Socio-economic changes brought about by the presence of

Cartn de Colombia. 84

2.3.4. Responsibility for Damage 86

2.3.4 (a) Use of an inappropriate harvesting system by Cartn de

Colombia 86

2.3.4 (b) Failure of Cartn de Colombia to monitor or control the

activities of colonists 892.3.4 (c) Failure by Cartn de Colombia to consult the local community 90

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2.4 CONCLUSIONS 92

3. THE CORPORACIN REGIONAL QUINDO 94

4. THE PEOPLES REPRESENTITIVES OPPOSE PLANTATIONS 96

4.1 Background 96

4.2 Salento 97

4.3 Role of the CRQ in Dispute with Salento 97

4.4 Trouble over the Horizon 99

5. THE PERSECUTION OF NESTOR OCAMPO 100

6. THE DISPUTE WITH THE PAEZ INDIANS 102

6.1 Background to the Dispute 102

6.2 El Diamante 103

6.3 Agroforestal - El Naya 104

6.4 Sale - Mortgage Contract 104

6.4 Joint Venture Contract 105

7. LABOUR RELATIONS 108

7.1 Penal 108

7.2 Sackings 109

7.3 Why? 112

7.4 Health and Safety 112

7.5 Unions, Health and Safety Outside Plant 113

8. HONESTY AND OPENNESS 114

CONCLUSIONS 116

RECOMMENDATIONS 119

BIBLIOGRAPHY 121

APPENDIX 125

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FOREWORD

Patricia McKenna, MEP

For many years I have been concerned about the effects of Smurfit Cartn de Colombia's(SCC) activities on the environment and local communities of Colombia. I welcomed theopportunity to go there and see first hand what was happening. I joined the delegation during

the second week of their visit. I arrived on Saturday 14th November and stayed with thedelegation until after their exit meeting with SCC on Friday 20th. I was quite disturbed by anumber of aspects regarding the activities and practices of SCC:

Our visit to the reservation of the Paez Indians was both enlightening and educational. Thekey concerns these people raised with me was the continuous pressure and intimidation theywere put under by an organization called Agroforestal. They spoke of their farms beingattacked and their crops being destroyed. These people's tradition and way of life needs to beprotected not threatened. They have much to teach us about sustainability and surviving inharmony with nature.

The Paez Indians have their own school in the area which I visited. It was in an extremely

remote part of the mountains and very difficult to get to. The school had little or no facilities.When I say facilities, I mean basic materials such as paper, pencils and school books.

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Although it is not permitted to plant within the wetland areas or close to the barrier fencing, Idid observe trees planted right up to the fencing and within the wetland areas. It was alsoevident that chemical substances were used around these trees including those in the centre ofthe wetland area. Despite being assured that SCC had not destroyed primary forests weactually visited areas where primary forests were destroyed to provide access to plantations.

Another concern raised by ecologists was that when plantations are cleared there is atendency to encroach on the primary forest. A further problem is the effect these plantationsare having on the soil. I observed that the soil within the plantations was extremely dry eventhough this was the wet season. During our exit meeting with SCC I received no reassuringevidence that the effect on the soil was being closely and carefully monitored.

In some of the areas I visited which were on very steep slopes, I believe there is a danger thatwhen the trees are cut down the soil will be totally exposed to the elements and will inevitablylead to massive soil erosion.

In some of the areas we visited local people expressed deep concern about the demand theseplantations placed on local water supplies.

There was also concern expressed about the fact that heavy vehicle activity on the routes toand from the plantations were having a negative impact on the quality of the local roads.

Finally on the issue of workers rights and labour laws, I was very disturbed by SCC'semployment practices. Apparently many people are employed through sub-contractors. Thishas raised problems for a number of people I spoke to. Some claimed that the subcontractorsdid not fulfill their social security obligations. Despite believing they were covered, it wasonly when an accident happened that they realised they were not covered.

Because they were employed by a subcontractor SCC claimed no responsibility. When thesepeople went to look for the sub-contractors they found no records available and the contractorwould have changed name. I believe this practice of using sub-contractors allows thecompany to avoid its responsibility to its workers. This practice would not be tolerated inIreland.

There also appears to be a problem with the ability of trade unions to operate in a free andunhindered fashion. Although we were told that most workers choose not to join a tradeunion, I could not help feeling that this was because they did not want to prejudice theirchance of getting a job.

INTRODUCTION

Several years ago disturbing rumours started emerging from Colombia concerning theoperations of the Jefferson Smurfit Group in that country. The rumours related to

possible adverse environmental and social effects of pine and eucalyptus plantations,

to a forestry concession on the Pacific Coast and to a land dispute with an indigenous

tribe, among other issues.

In order to investigate these matters it was decided to buy some shares in the

company, as the possession of even one share gives the right of participation in thecompanys annual general meeting and permits direct questioning of Michael Smurfit,

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the company chairman, in an open forum. This group of concerned shareholders

attended several AGMs where we pursued the issues. Smurfits then invited us to visit

their Colombian operations. We accepted this invitation and made a two week visit to

Colombia in November 1998. The first week was spent seeing and hearing Smurfits

side of the story, while the second week was spent with our own contacts. We were

joined on that second week by Patricia McKenna MEP.

This is the report of our visit.

TERMINOLOGY USED

In 1986 the Jefferson Smurfit Group took over the Colombian pulpwood company

Cartn de Colombia, which then became known as Smurfit Cartn de Colombia or

SCC.

Smurfit Cartn de Colombia sometimes operates under the names of subsidiaries, eg.

Pulpapel, Reforestadora Andina etc. However for the sake of clarity these are referred

to throughout the report as SCC or Smurfit Cartn de Colombia, unless describing

company operations prior to the acquistion by Jefferson Smurfit Group, when the

name Cartn de Colombia is used.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Smurfit Cartn de Colombia Forest Plantations

Smurfit Cartn de Colombia (SCC) has a total landholding of 58,000 hectares of

which 36,000 hectares are planted with pine (25,000 hectares) and eucalyptus (11,000hectares). Planting took place with the help of The Certificate of Incentive Forestry

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(CIF) that gives generous economic incentives to larger farmers and forest companies

to plant native or introduced species.The two main species planted by SCC for pulp

are Pinus patulaandEucalyptus grandis.

Small and medium size cultivators with up to 500 hectares can avail of the incentive.

However in order to benefit from the CIF, one has to have a forest establishment and

management plan with so many technical requirements that no campesino (farmer)

could possibly fulfill them to qualify for grant aid.

Both native and exotic tree plantations are not bad in themselves but it is the social

context and the geographical location in which they are planted that determines their

potential to have adverse environmental and social impacts.

Social and Environmental Investments by SCC

SCC are involved in a number of environmentally beneficial activities including

recycling of waste paper, conservation of threatened tree species (Pinus chiapensis

and Prumnopitys spp.)and the setting up of four Forestry and Agricultural Technical

Institutes (ITAFs) designed to offer opportunities for study, develop forestry, animal

farming and agriculture.

However in spite of such social investments, there are local people who claim that

SCC has had a negative impact on their quality of life. Since at least the early 1980s,

Colombian environmental and development organisations, Municipal Councils, local

campesinos, ecologists and the Colombian print media have questioned the planting

of pine and eucalyptus plantations on account of their potential adverse effects. These

include displacing campesinos from their land by land purchases, reducingbiodiversity and water flows and accelerating soil erosion. There is also concern that

forestry plantations provide less work than the farms that the forestry plantations

displaced.

Impact of SCC Plantations

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On August 27th1997, the Municipality of Filandia, Quindo banned pine and

eucalyptus in certain areas of the municipality. The Department of Risaralda is

considering banning the planting of pine and eucalyptus in the Department until it can

be shown without doubt that they do not adversely affect the environment. TheCorporacin Regional de Quind o (CRQ - the environmental agency for Quindo) is

involved in the establishment of commercial forestry plantations. Sometimes they are

involved in conjunction with forestry companies that they themselves are charged

with monitoring. This must be called into question. In addition, staffing levels at the

CRQ are inadequate to carry out its environmental protection role including the

monitoring of commercial forestry plantations.

Impact of SCC Plantations on Biodiversity

The major threats to biodiversity are considered to be cattle ranching, logging and

cocoa growing which have caused extensive soil degradation and loss of habitat. The

Colombian Ministry of the Environment puts deforestation rates at 150,000 hectares

per year with only 10,000 hectares replanted.

In the vicinity of Vereda El Castillo, Municipality of Calarc, members of the

Association of Graduates of the University of Quindo (Asociacion de Egresados en

Biologia de la Universidad del Quindo) found the remains of native vegetation

throughout which eucalyptus had been planted by Reforestadora Andina (subsidiary

of SCC). The respected Colombian botanist Cristina Velez confirmed that many of

these plants are components of primary forest. After environmentalists accused SCC

of the destruction of native vegetation, SCC sued for libel on two separate occasions

but the company lost their case twice.

At La Palmira Alta, SCC does not deny clearing disturbed primary forest to construct

a road to facilitate timber harvesting. We consider the clearing of any relatively

undisturbed primary forest unacceptable due to the rapid logging of native forests in

Colombia as a whole and argue that the road could have been re-routed away from the

native vegetation.

In general, the species of flora and fauna that colonise forest plantations are often

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widespread pioneer species. The plantations tend to lack the rare species with

specialist requirements. In any case, the few species that do manage to adapt to

plantations are often disturbed at the time of harvest.

On some sites that we visited, a very impoverished flora although good overall cover

under pine (Pinus patula) and eucalyptus (Eucalyptus grandis) was observed. We

visited one such plantation that was being managed for timber production. In such an

instance, pioneer species would have been given a relatively long time to colonise,

occupying light gaps formed by natural tree fall.

Plantations managed for timber production cannot be considered representative of the

majority of SCC plantations grown for pulpwood which are harvested after only 7

years in the case ofEucalyptus grandisand after 15 years in the case of Pinus patula.

Planting pine on degraded pastures may not be as environmentally benign as SCC

claims. Some species of flora and fauna are confined to these pastures, demonstrating

the need to conserve some areas of pasture within the plantation zone to maximise

species diversity. Some pasture sites may have higher overall diversity than some

planted sites depending on the plantation age and how it is managed.

Data on the impacts on the fauna and flora of site preparation, fertilisation of the trees

and timber harvesting is sparse but is currently being investigated by Colombian

researchers. It demonstrates that these issues were not examined prior to allowing the

large-scale afforestation of Colombia with exotic species.

SCC are in breach of CRQ regulations that stipulate that 30 m should be left betweenthe centre of wetlands and tree plantings at one of their plantation sites.

SCC in their involvement with various reforestation projects in areas of arable land

have failed to ensure that there is no loss of valuable crop varieties which might be of

future use in breeding new high yielding or pest resistant varieties by initiating such

an agricultural crop variety conservation programme.

Forest Fires on SCC Land

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Risaralda Department where SCC has commercial plantations of pine and eucalyptus,

(e.g. Santa Rosa de Cabal) are projected to suffer from water shortages in the long-

term. This calls into question whether the planting of pine and eucalyptus in these

areas is an appropriate land-use.

Impact of SCC Plantations on Soil

An unacceptable level of soil erosion has been a problem in Colombia from the time

of the commencement of agriculture, substantially increasing due to inappropriate

cattle-rearing practises.

The limited number of comparative studies that exist on soil erosion below crops of

eucalyptus and other types of vegetation are at times contradictory. In general, the

incidence of erosion appears to be low in lands utilised permanently under tree cover

as has been found in numerable studies (Eljk and Moreno, 1986, cited in CONIF

1998a).

However there is some evidence that mature stands ofEucalyptusspp. are not

adequate for erosion control, especially when grown in large-scale plantations, where

they were not very effective in detaining surface runoff.

The amount of soil lost from SCC land from the time of clear-cutting to the time of

replanting is not known as the company does not monitor soil losses on all its

plantation sites. The soil in SCC plantations is often left exposed for between two and

three months before planting.

SCC in the Rainforests of Bajo Calima

In 1974 the Colombian government granted Cartn de Colombia/Pulpapel a

concession of 61,600 ha. of tropical rainforest to harvest in the Pacific coast area of

Bajo Calima. In 1986, Smurfit took over the company which then became known as

Smurfit Cartn de Colombia (SCC). The concession was terminated in 1993.

The area of the concession was an area of exceptionally high biodiversity, being one

of the most species-rich areas of rainforest in the world and containing many speciesfound nowhere else on the planet: an area of immense ecological value. It is alleged

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by the local community (among others) that during the time of the concession, Cartn

de Colombia was responsible for the environmental, social, economic and cultural

devastation of the area, and furthermore, that the manner of their leaving in 1993

made the situation even worse.

We concluded that the presence of the Cartn de Colombia in Bajo Calima during the

19 years of the concession contributed, both directly and indirectly, to a serious

deterioration in the quality of life of the local community and the widespread

destruction of their environment. This is beyond dispute, attested to both by the

community itself and by independent scientific reports.

We consider therefore that Smurfit Cartn de Colombia has a moral responsibility to

repair the damage done to both the community and the forests of Bajo Calima.

The Corporacin Regional Quind o

The environmental authorities have been ineffective in monitoring and controlling the

damage done to the environment. In at least one case, that of the CRQ, they have

actively participated in an industry they are supposed to regulate.

Peoples Representatives Oppose Plantations

Many elected bodies, regional parliaments and town halls have all tried to legally halt

the spread of pine and eucalytus plantations. SCC and others have fought legal battles

to challenge the legal validity of such decisions. They have met with mixed success.

We fully support these attempts by the people to exercise their democractic rights.

We believe that SCC should listen to these elected representives and meet their

concerns rather than trying to challenge their decisions on mere technicalities.

The Persecution of Nestor Ocanpo

Those who have opposed SCC has on occasion been unsuccessfully sued for libel.

We reject these attempts to silence environmentalists.

The Dispute with the Paez Indians

The land dispute with the Paez Indians continues. Smurfits agreed to meet them to

discuss the situation but to date have not lived up to this promise made when the Paezvisited Ireland last year. As a result of our investigation we have found that the Paez

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claim of territory has some justification. It is not that SCC bought the land illegally

but that this was done under a legal regime which did not recognise the Indians. We

further found that one of the farms in dispute belongs to SCC and that they could

begin to negotiate its future now as a measure of good faith. We were not impressed

by Agroforestals version of events nor by SCCs claim that this is an independent

company over which they have no control. Legally they could solve this problem

now and we call on them to hand over the land the Indians claim and to compensate

Agroforestal. We further believe that the contracts with Agroforestal should be

revoked and new contracts drawn up which give real independence to these peasants

in their dealings with SCC.

Labour Relations

Many trade unionists have been sacked from Smurfit Cartn de Colombia without any

just cause given. Their trade union leaders have been sacked in contravention of

Colombia labour law. SCC has refused to reinstate these workers. They further

refuse to recognise these trade unionists as the elected representatives of the workers.

This despite the fact that the Ministry of Labour continues to recognise them and has

in fact fined SCC for the sackings. We call on SCC to reinstate these workers and to

withdraw the criminal charges made against their leaders

Honesty and Openness

We further found that SCC was less than open and honest with us.

CHAPTER 1

ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF COLOMBIAN EUCALYPTUS AND PINE

PLANTATIONS

1.1 Global Demand for Pulpwood

Future global increase in paper consumption is hard to quantify as it depends on such

factors as population growth, the amount of packaging around manufactured goods

and the relative costs of paper versus other packaging materials. The development of

an ethic involving reduction of paper use, the reuse of paper and the recycling ofpaper will also affect consumption. In spite of efforts at reducing paper use, the

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consumption of pulp is expected to rise substantially in the coming years. Paper

consumption in Colombia is 26 kg/person/year while in Ireland it is 100

kg/person/year. An average citizen in the richer countries can use over 155 kg/year of

paper and paperboard. In the United States, the corresponding figure is 325 kg. In the

developing world, an average citizen may use only 5 kg/year.

Presently most wood chips for pulp manufacture in Colombia as in other tropical

countries (such as Indonesia, Brazil, Thailand) have been derived from fast-growing

exotic species such as pine (Pinus spp.) or (Eucalyptusspp.) grown in commercial

plantations.

1.2 Production Forests in Colombia

Estimates of the total amount of tropical tree plantations up to the year 1990 vary

between 37.5 million hectares and 43.9 million hectares (in Carrere and Lohmann,

1996).

To feed pulp and paper mills, vast areas of pine, eucalyptus and acacia are

increasingly being established in developing countries where fast tree growth,

inexpensive land and labour and lavish government subsidies make wood production

cheap.

Fast-growing plantations amount to only about 25% of the total industrial plantation

area, but their importance to global wood supply, particularly pulpwood supply is out

of all proportion to their size.

In Indonesia some industrialists expect 3-4.6 million hectares of land to be undershort-rotation pulpwood plantations by 2003 while Thai officials envisage over 4

million hectares being put under private-sector plantations by 2020. Ethiopia has

mooted plans to plant as much as 3.5 million hectares by 2,000, Malaysia 500,,000

hectares, and Burundi 300,,000 hectares (Evans, 1991 in Carrere and Lohmann,

1996).

The most commonly planted pine species have been Pinus patula, P. caribaea, P.elliotti, P. merkusii, P. kesiyaand P. oocarpa.The most commonly planted eucalyptus

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species have beenEucalyptus grandis, E. camaldulensis, E. globulus, E. saligna, E.

tereticornis, E. robusta, E. citriodora, E. urophyllaandE. deglupta.Error: Reference

source not found Over 19 million hectares of fast-growing pine plantations and over

6 million hectares of eucalyptus are currently in existence (in Carrere and Lohmann,

1996).

Colombia has an area of 110 million hectares with a population of 38 million.

Deforestation in the country is considered high; between 350,,000-700,,000 hectares

per year depending on the source of the data. This is in contrast to the 304,206

hectares reforested up to 1993. According to IDEAM (http: //www.ideam.gov.co) for

each hectare planted 60 hectares are felled.

The National Census of Population and Housing of 1985, maintains that 35.8% of the

Colombian population depends on firewood for cooking. This has accelerated the

cutting and degradation of forests, generated soil erosion and sedimentation of water

bodies and has affected forest biodiversity. In Colombia, it was estimated that in

1995, the consumption of wood for energy was divided up among the following uses:

84.5% for cooking, 15% by the farming and mining sector and only 0.5% by the

industrial sector.

There has been a decrease in the consumption of wood due to its substitution in the

energy sector by natural gas and electric energy. The utilisation of firewood for

cooking is a very wasteful process: only 7% of the calorific value of the wood being

used with the remaining 93% being lost (http: //www.ideam.gov.co). Eucalyptus is

considered to have a high calorific value; one of the reasons why it is planted in social

forestry projects for fuelwood.

In Colombia forests for wood production have been planted since 1945. There are

three types of plantation: industrial plantations, protective forests and ornamental

forests in urban areas. The Instituto de Hidrlogia Meteorologa y Estudios

Ambientales (IDEAM) proposes as part of its forest policy to reforest 160,,000

hectares and establish 4,0000 hectares of watershed protection plantations (http:

//www.ideam.gov.co) with the help of an economic instrument called the Certificateof Incentive Forestry (CIF).

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The Certificate of Incentive Forestry was established under Law 139, 1994 which

came into effect in 1995. It gives generous economic incentives to larger farmers and

forest companies to plant native or introduced species. The support measures provide

75% of the costs of establishing native species and 50% of the establishment costs for

introduced species. The upkeep of the trees for the first five years is also funded. The

funding is the same whether it is an introduced or a native species. The farmer or

forest company can exploit these plantations when they mature. Up to December

1997, $10 thousand million pesos had been paid.

In 1997, a CIF was created for the conservation of natural forests but up to 1998 no

fund had been established to finance this scheme that would be of immense

environmental value (Broderick, 1998).The Certificate of Incentive Forestry was

established under Law 139, 1994 which came into effect in 1995. It gives generous

economic incentives to larger farmers and forest companies to plant native or

introduced species. Indeed according to Cecilia Lpez Montao, ex minister of

agriculture, the explicit intention of Law 139 was to give an incentive to reforestation

activity in the country with the proposition of supplying industry with forest products

provided from cultivated forests.

Small and medium size cultivators with up to 500 hectares can avail of the incentive.

However according to Jos Romero Aguilln, director of the organisation

Fedecaucho, in order to benefit from the CIF, one has to have a forest establishment

and management plan with so many technical requirements that no campesino

(farmer) could possibly fulfill them to qualify for grant aid (Broderick, 1998).

According to the Instituto Geografico Augustin Codazzi, large areas of land currentlyused for agriculture and livestock are not suitable for these purposes but are suitable

for forestry (Instituto Geogrfico Augustin Codazzi , 1998). In Colombia, 12.7% of

land is considered suitable for cultivation. But only 38% of this potential is being used

representing 4.66% of the national territory. The total amount of land suitable for

agricultural use can diminish rapidly due to the degradation of the soil by erosion,

desertification and salinization.

Lands under forest cover occupy 49% of the national territory of which 68.5% are

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considered suitable for forests. Colombian forests have been divided into three main

categories:

Primary forest: natural forest occupying 44.87% of the national territory.Supervised forest: forest that has been utilised by man for production of forest

products totalling 4.01% of the country.

Planted forest: sown and managed forest occupying 0.12% of the nations area.

(Instituto Geografico Augustin Codazzi, 1998)

According to the Atlas of Colombia (Instituto Geogrfico Agustin Codazzi, 1998),production forests in the Andean region are found in zones with a humid and rainy

climate, generally undulating relief of slopes less than 25% and shallow acid stony

soils. These areas are found in very localised areas, in the colder climatic zones. The

surface covered by production forests in the Andean region is 111,051 hectares that

represents 0.38% of the land area of the region.

The International Tropical Timber Organisation (ITTO) considers that exotic species

often have initial superior performance and management advantages but that they may

lack long-term adaptation to the soil and climatic conditions of the site. It states that

forest managers and planners should therefore not assume that the initial growth

advantages of exotic species would be maintained without additional management

inputs over time.

Given the choice however, plantations are rarely established on degraded land as the

objective is to grow trees quickly to maximise profits which requires a certain level of

fertility and water supply; areas which have been used by Colombian campesinos for

agriculture.

Plantations are a high-risk venture in that if economic circumstances change, the

chances of maintaining essential management inputs are reduced. Government

subsidies such as the aforementioned Certificate of Incentive Forestry reduce these

risks. Tropical forest plantations are costly to establish and so the Colombian

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government has tended to heavily subsidise them with the Colombian taxpayers

money.

Both native and exotic tree plantations are not bad in themselves but it is the social

context and the geographical location where they are planted that determines their

potential to have adverse environmental and social impacts. Pandey (1992, in Carrere

and Lohmann, 1996) calculated that there were 180,,000 hectares of tree plantations

in Colombia of which 31,,000 were eucalyptus and 88,,000 were pine.

1.3 Smurfit Cartn de Colombia (SCC) Forest Plantations

Smurfit Cartn de Colombia plants and manages pine and eucalyptus plantations in

the Departments of Cauca, Valle, Tolima, Quindo, Caldas and Risaralda. The total

SCC land holding amounts to 58,,000 hectares of which 36,,000 hectares are planted

with pine (25,,000 hectares) and eucalyptus (11,,000 hectares). The remainder is

natural forest totalling 18,,000 hectares. Infrastructure such as forest roads amount to

4,,000 hectares. The two main species planted by SCC for pulp are Pinus patulaand

Eucalyptus grandis. The characteristics of these species are outlined below.

1.3.1 Pinus patula:

There are 28370 hectares of commercial plantations of Pinus patulain Colombia.

Pinus patulais native to the north-east and south-east of Mexico. It is widely planted

in Ecuador, Africa and New Zealand. In Colombia, Pinus patulagrows between 800-

3300m, with an annual precipitation of 1,000-3,000 mm and average temperatures

between 8-22C. It develops well in deep humid neutral or acid, well-drained sandy-

clay soils, derived form volcanic ash. This pine can reach 20-30m in height and adiameter of 1 m.

It is the most important introduced species used in Colombian commercial

reforestation, owing to its rapid growth, and diversity of uses. It has been used for the

recuperation of degraded soils and as part of a silvo-pastoral system where individual

trees are planted in pastureland. Its wood is used for saw-wood, cases, chests,

construction, floors, posts, turned products and pulp for paper (Tokura et. al, 1996).

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When establishing Pinus patula plantations, the grasses and herbaceous plants around

the planted trees are eradicated using the herbicide glyphosate. Planted at a distance of

3 x 3 m, 1111 trees per hectare are obtained. Total weed control is carried out each

time that the weeds reach 50 cm in height or two thirds of the height of the tree; an

operation that is repeated in the second and third years.

Pinus patulais very susceptible to deficiencies of boron and phosphorous.

Independent of the analysis of the soil, 50-70 g of NPK and 10-15 g of 68% Borax per

tree is applied. SCC has the largest area of commercial Pinus patulain Colombia

totalling 7044 hectares in 1995 (CONIF, 1998a).Pinus patulais inoculated with a

mixture of mycorrhizae. These are fungi that help the trees to utilise soil nutrients.

Fungi employed in the inoculation process are:Boletussp.,Rhizopogon sp. and

Pisolithus tinctorius. Inoculation is carried out in the seedbed using fruiting bodies,

mycelia or infected earth.

Pruning is carried out between the fourth and fifth years with as much as 50% of the

crown removed. The second pruning in the rotation takes place between years eight

and nine to a maximum height of 6-7 m. Growth rates in good soil can reach 35

m/ha/year, with an average yield of 20 m/ha/year.

1.3.2 Eucalyptus grandis

Eucalyptus grandisis native to the coastal region of Queensland and New South

Wales, Australia. In Australia it is called Flooded Gum. It is adapted to an altitude

range of 1,000-2200 m, precipitation between 1,000-3,000mm/year and temperatures

from 10-35C, corresponding to the following life zones of Holdridge (1967): Humid

Premontane Forest, Humid Tropical Forest, Tropical Dry Forest, Very HumidPremontane Forest, and Very Humid Lower Montane Forest.

Eucalyptus grandiscan reach heights of 25-50 m and trunk diameters of 2 m It

requires deep well-drained soils of variable texture but preferably open clays, neutral

to acid pH and high fertility. It is sensitive to the boron deficiency which is

characteristic of the volcanic soils found under some of the landholdings of SCC.

These volcanic soils are also deficient in phosphorous. The fertility of these volcanicsoils is a function of the age of the volcanic eruption. At planting, 70 g of NPK and 10

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g of 68% Borax, is applied independent of the analysis of the soil with a further 70 g

of NPK at random in the second year and 15 g of 68% Borax in the third year.

It is the most commonly planted eucalyptus species in the world as a result of its high

volumetric output. In Colombia yields can reach between 24 and 38m/ha/year. Its

wood is used for cabinets and joinery, telephone and electric posts, fences,

construction of housing, floors and panels, pulp for the manufacture of paper and

firewood. Its use for firewood is due to its high calorific value and pulp for paper

(Tokura et al., 1996). It has been used to recuperate zones degraded by bad livestock-

rearing practices. SCC and other entities have promoted the use of Eucalyptus

grandisfor live fences (Uribe & Marn, 1996).

Eucalyptus grandisis widely used to make pulp because it has a whitish wood with a

low lignin content and therefore it requires less bleaching than other woods. It also

has relatively short wood fibres of 2mm ideal for pulp making.

Management involves the total cleaning of the land of grasses and other herbaceous

plants prior to planting as it cannot tolerate competition. Weeding is very important

for the first two years. If the slope is less than 30%, ploughing and raking of the land

is carried out to permit rapid growth.

Mycorrhizae are fundamental to the achievement of the high growth rates of

Eucalyptus grandis.These are fungi that form a relationship with plant roots

enhancing nutrient uptake. The fungi used are Scleroderma sp.andLaccaria laccata.

The fungi are cut up and made into a soup which is supplied to the seedlings a few

weeks after they germination. There is a separate inoculation area ofEucalyptus

grandisin the Restrepo nursery that provides supplementary supplies of the fruiting

bodies of Scleroderma. The fungi are also collected from the wild.Eucalyptus

grandisdoes not require pruning except when it is being coppiced.

The following private companies or public entities have plantedEucalyptus grandis:

Sociedad Cafetera del Valle, SCC, the Regional Autonomous Corporation of Valle del

Cauca (CVC), Ciprses de Colombia and the Regional Autonomous Corporation of

Risaralda (CARDER). Out of all these entities, SCC has by far the most land under

E. grandisin Colombia. In 1996, out of a total of 9007 hectares of commercialE.grandisplantations in Colombia (CONIF, 1998a), SCC has 8651 hectares of

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commercial plantations ofE. grandis.

In Colombia marginal soils that have performed poorly under pasture and arable land

can be productive for forestry plantations where yields of pine and eucalyptus exceed

25 m/ha/year (Ladrach & Zobel, 1986).

Pasturelands occupy 35.11% of the national territory but only 16.8% are suitable for

this activity. Pastures may be of several types including:

Managed pastures corresponding to pastures that have been subjected to some

type of technical management. These occupy 4.54% of the country.

Natural pastures occupying 23.11% of the national area

Weedy pastures consisting of areas of varied vegetation with a predominance of

pasture. This pasture type occupies 7.46% of the national area.

Between 1980-89, Colombia increased the land area under pasture by 35% from 30

million hectares in 1980 to 40.2 million hectares in 1989. This was the highest

increase of all countries in the Latin American and the Caribbean region. In the same

period however, cattle population only increased 2% from 24.7 million heads of cattle

in 1980 to 25.2 million in 1989 with a reduction in meat production per hectare from

20 kg/ha in 1980 to 16 kg/ha in 1989. This data shows the magnitude of this activity

in Colombia but also the inefficiency of cattle rearing activity in Colombia.

Scrub regeneration on the cattle pasture is often cleared by the campesinos by burning

it in the summer. During the rest of the year, it is cut by machete. Sometimes the cattle

themselves are used in scrub clearance. They are driven through the scrub so that they

can flatten the vegetation.

SCC claims to only plant on degraded pastureland containing such grasses as yaragu

mixed with kikuyu (Ladrach, 1983) on slopes as steep as 30-40%. Kikuyu

(Pennisetum clandestinum) is a commonly used pasture grass that was introduced

from Africa as packing material.

Pastureland degraded by cattle due to inappropriate farming practices may still be

important for the conservation of biodiversity in that it may contain unique species

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characteristic of open grassland habitats.

Some of the cattle farms purchased by SCC has exceeded 100 hectares. SCC claim

not to have brought any new land since 1994. Land purchase has been and continues

to be a controversial issue as will be discussed below.

Quindo is one of the Departments where SCC plants pine and eucalyptus. It is one of

the smallest departments in Colombia. It is situated at the heart of thezona cafetera

(the coffee producer zone) with a relatively high standard of living in the rural areas.

Land use in Quindo Department is divided up as follows: natural forest 34%, pastures

30%, coffee 27% (53,602 hectares), forestry 3%, other crops 2%, urban areas 1%,

bare land and glaciers 3%.

Natural forests cover 34% of Quindo, pastures (30%), and coffee (27%). Forestry

plantations take up 3% of the land area. The land holdings of SCC amount to 3.6% or

7104 hectares of the Department of which 2% are plantations and 1.6% are protected

natural forests inherited from the previous owners.

Most of the land owned by SCC in Quindo is centred around Salento (3645 hectares)

and Pijao (2510 hectares). Plantations also occur around Calarc and Filandia. SCC

employs 230 in Quindo, has built 70 km of new roads, maintains 40 km/year and

harvests 25,000 tons of wood per year.

We were brought on guided tours of the following: the SCC nursery and a social

investment project at Restrepo, Valle del Cauca Department, eucalyptus and pineplantations in Quindo Department and the Puerto Isaacs pulp-mill, Yumbo. We were

also given presentations on SCC activities.

1.4 The Puerto Isaacs Pulp Mill, Yumbo

At the Yumbo Pulp Mill north of Cali, there is a pulp plant, four paper and board

machines, and one corrugated packaging machine and one sack machine. Other mills

in Bogot, Medelln and Barranquilla have each got one corrugated packaging plant.The debarked logs are chipped. The lignin in the wood chips is then removed as it

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causes paper to yellow with age. The lignin is then burned to generate energy for the

needs of the mill. The cellulose fibres that remain after removing the lignin are

converted into pulp by the Kraft process that is then used as the raw material for the

manufacture of packaging. Wastepaper collected from businesses is added to the

pulping process.

Waste sludge from the effluent treatment plant and coal ash from the power station is

taken to the landfill site and dumped. SCC claim that they were one of the first Latin

American companies to use oxygen bleaches to produce TCF papers. This was

probably due to developments in Scandinavia where there had been a move to

chlorine-free processes in response to greater environmental awareness.

SCC sales in 1997 amounted to 224,000 tons of paper and packaging products

utilising 18,0000 tons of softwood, 362,000 tons of hardwood, wastepaper

consumption 95,000 tons. SCC directly employs 2065.

1.5 SCC Recycling Operations

Colombias apparent paper and board consumption is close to 1 million tons of which

70% is produced in Colombia. In 1998, SCC collected and recycled 80,000 tons of

waste paper consisting of trimmings from the paper and board industry, and

packaging from shopping centres, stores and supermarkets. Forty-three percent of the

80,000 tons came from industrial sources, 52% from commerce and 5% from houses.

This activity employed 250 people. The recovered material is collected, sorted and

bailed and then transported to the pulp-mills in Bogot, Cali, Medelln and

Barranquilla to be used in the manufacture of paper products.

SCC buys waste paper from 130 Colombian companies. Most of the money received

is given to hospitals and charities. The programme is helping to build up a recycling

culture and is to be welcomed. They have developed recycling centres in conjunction

with xito department stores where the public can deposit their waste paper, glass and

cans. Again the money received is used for charity and social activities.

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1.6 SCC and the CAMCORE Co-operative to Conserve Threatened Species

CAMCORE was founded in 1980 to conserve forest genetic resources for breeding

and conservation purposes and is based at North Carolina State University in Raleigh,

N.C. CAMCORE strives to protect and improve rare and threatened forest species in

Mexico and Central America and other countries. For species of high conservation

value but low economic potential, e.g. Pinus chiapensis, it maintains conservation

banks to maintain the genetic diversity of its wild populations. CAMCORE has

collected seed from 32 species.

Recent conservation efforts have focused on such species as Pinus patula, P.

jaliscana, P. maximartineziiand P. chiapensisin Mexico, Gmelina arboreain

Myanmar (Burma) andEucalyptus urophyllain Indonesia. It has the largest database

on tropical and subtropical pines in the world. The seed of Pinus chiapensis, a

threatened 3-5 needle pine species native to Chiapas, Mexico has been collected and

stored at the Yumbo site. There is a fine example growing in the grounds of the ITAF

Smurfit Social Foundation school.

Until very recently little work has been done to avoid the extinction of species of the

conifer family Podocarpaceae as a result of deforestation and their use for timber.

Eight members of the Podocarpaceae in three genera (Podocarpus, Prumnopitys and

Retrophyllum) have been recorded in Colombia. SCC has supported research on the

ecology and silviculture of the Colombian members of the Podocarpaceae involving

the gathering together of all the information on this theme including various

investigations and experiments carried out in their two nurseries: La Florida nursery,

Popayn, Cauca and the Rancho Grande, nursery Restrepo, Valle.

Forestry trials were carried out on a number of farms in the Departments of Valle del

Cauca, Cauca, Quindo, Caldas and Risaralda at altitudes between 1700-2100m. The

areas involved ranged between 0.5 and 1.5 hectares (Marn Vlez, 1998).

The Prumnopitysspp. conservation project has been going on for five years. In the

wild, male trees are very rare due to logging and therefore the trees have had to be

produced from cuttings. SCC has tried different concentrations of the same hormoneto get the cuttings to root. They are also trying controlled cross-pollination to augment

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populations. SCC has discovered that the trees require shade in their initial stages of

growth.

1.7 The SCC Breeding Programme

The research budget of SCC amounts to US $1,000,000. The plant improvement

process involves species adaptation, tree improvement and the establishment of clone

plantations. The clones are selected for high growth rates and disease resistance.

Various clones of eucalyptus have been selectively breed and multiplied up through

the rooting of cuttings. Clone gardens are produced from cuttings. The cloning

process involves cutting down the selected trees and allowing the cut stumps to

sprout. The cuttings are reduced to one or two leaves and are then dipped in a mixture

of talc obtained locally and 6,000 ppm Indole Butyric Acid (from Sigma Chemicals)

to facilitate the development of adventitious roots from the nodes. A 92% rooting

success rate has been obtained on 1.5 million cuttings per year. The rooting method

has also worked well for native species.

All clones are kept in a clonal archive outside the laboratory in blocks of 20 hectares.

Duplicates occur in trial plantations. Tissue cultures are not used to maintain the

clones in the long-term. The newer clones have increased yields by 40%. In other

words 40% less land is needed to produce the same amount of wood.

An agreement has been reached with the Colombian Coffee Federation to produce

Cordia alliodoraas a shade tree. This species is also good for furniture, flooring,

panelling and ceilings. It has a growth rate of 2-3m per year. In years 1-5 it has a

growth rate of 3 cm/year after which the rate of growth slows down.

Most plants are sold on the local market. Some projects involve planting on private

land where the community provides the land and SCC plants it up and prepares the

soil.

Excess plants of various species from SCC nurseries are donated to various groups.

Native plants are grown when there is a demand for them. Some such as Alnus

acuminataare sold at cost to private landowners and government institutions. Trees

are also grown for ornamental use in SCC installations, e.g. Tabebuia chrysantha,Jacaranda caucana.

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As part of the plant breeding process, SCC buys seed from commercial dealers,

exchanges seed with 35 other countries or collects it themselves from their seed

orchards. In the early days when seed was in short supply, some seed was collected

from street trees in Cali.

The tree improvement program must produce stock which will grow at a wide range

of SCC sites at altitudes between 1,000-2,800 m, average annual temperatures

between 16-27C and annual rainfall between 1,000 and 4,000 mm/year. There is no

frost at the plantation sites while temperatures rarely exceed 35-38C.

1.8 Social Investments by SCC in Colombia

SCC has a number of social investments in the areas where they have their plantations

but we have not seen any independent evaluation of these projects to determine how

effective they have been in improving the quality of life of the participants.

SCC has set up four Forestry and Agricultural Technical Institutes (ITAFs) which are

designed to offer opportunities for study, develop forestry, animal farming and

agriculture. Two ITAFs are situated in Cauca Department and two in Valle del Cauca

Department. They also claim to promote a good use of agricultural, forestry and farm

animal production that generates income in rural areas thus helping to slow rural

migration to the cities.

The total student population at the four ITAFs is 415. The ITAF at Restrepo, Valle del

Cauca, hasa school garden where various agricultural crops are raised: beans, taro orcoco-yam (Colocasia esculenta). The leaves of taro are fed to fish and chickens while

its roots are fed to humans, pigs and fish. The leguminous treeLeucaena

leucocephalabordered the vegetable plots. It is a tree commonly used as a live fence

and for firewood while its leaves and fruit are used for animal feed. The coffee was

grown under the partial shade of banana trees as coffee needs a mixture of shade and

light throughout the day. There is a Colombian coffee variety that can be grown in full

sunlight conditions where there is land with no tree cover.

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Banana plants and the tree Cordia alliodoraare often used to shade coffee in

Colombia. In other areas coffee is grown in the shade of canopy trees in natural forest.

The banana plants give the farmer income until the coffee plants start to produce fruit

(beans).

The students eat some of the vegetables and fish produced at the school while the

surplus is sold in the market. The students breed good land races for the local

community. There is a fish-pond containing mirror carp that are fed with produce

from the farm (plantain banana, papaya) and kitchen waste. The grassBrachiariasp.

is grown as a forage crop the seeds of which attract such seed-eating birds as the

Yellow-bellied seedeater.

However in spite of such social investments, there are local people who claim that

SCC has had a negative impact on their quality of life as will be outlined below.

1.9 Impact of SCC Pine and Eucalyptus Plantations on Local People

In Thailand since the mid-1980s, small farmers have protested against eucalyptus

plantations by petitioning district officials, members of parliament and cabinet

members, spoken out at national level seminars, blocking roads and marching on

government offices. Failing that, eucalyptus seedlings have been ripped out, trees

chopped down, bulldozers prevented from working and forest nurseries and

equipment burnt.

Such actions have been spurred on by claims that the eucalyptus trees take too many

nutrients, are useless for fodder, supply little firewood to the community, can lower

water levels in nearby ponds, wells and woodlands and deposit sand in neighbouring

fields by erosion. In effect, the trees have provided few of the benefits that thecommunity woodlands displaced by the eucalyptus plantations have provided (Carrere

& Lohmann, 1996). Thai villagers have demanded individual land rights, community

rights to local forests and the right to veto commercial plantation schemes in their

locality.

North-eastern villagers and their NGO allies have muted alternatives to eucalyptus

including multi-purpose native trees which provide food, construction materials andmedicines. They have launched native tree planting on degraded lands and designated

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new areas as community forest.

A recent study in Chile has shown that pine plantations are less attractive to tourists

than areas of native forests (CODEFF, 1992 cited in Carrere and Lohmann, 1996). In

this regard, if tourism takes off in Colombia, it is pertinent to ask, What will be the

reaction of future tourists to Colombia to the pine and eucalyptus plantations being

promoted by the Certificate of Incentive Forestry.

Plantation trees especially those with roots which extend several metres horizontally

can compete with neighbouring crops for nutrients, water and sunlight. As a result,

Uruguay has enacted laws requiring that the outermost line of trees in a plantation

must be a certain distance from neighbouring land (Carrere & Lohmann, 1996).

SCC has caused a lot of controversy in Colombia since it started to buy up land for

pine, cypress and eucalyptus plantations. SCC began to buy land in Risaralda in

1989-1990. They have land around Santa Rosa and Guatica. Local people have

accused the company of damaging public roads. This was denied by the company who

claimed that they maintain the roads.

In Risaralda Department, farms have been brought up to plant pine and eucalyptus. At

meetings with campesinos and environmental groups in Quindo and Risaralda,

comments were made with regard to SCC and pine and eucalyptus plantations:

Campesino:Cattle ranches and arable land that once grew wheat and beans have

been brought up (by SCC).

Even if the land was degraded pastureland, some campesinos and ecologically

concerned individuals believe that improved livestock rearing techniques couldreduce or reverse degradation. Unfortunately many landowners did not have the

financial or technical help for these improvements at the time they were under

pressure to sell their land to SCC. Although SCC currently has a policy of not

purchasing land at the present time, we consider that this should be the permanent

policy of SCC.

The campesinos were also concerned that forestry plantations provided less work thanthe farms that the forestry plantations displaced.

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Campesino:The plantations dont generate the same level of work as agricultural

activities the majority of the workers were subcontractors brought in from outside.

Ladrach and Zobel (1986) calculate that forestry plantations employ over four times

more people than a typical farm of 900 hectares with 1.3 animal units per hectare,

producing a combination of meat and milk. However, Carrere and Lohmann (1996)

maintain that there appear to be general agreement that forestry plantations cannot

employ as many people as conventional agriculture particularly family farms. It is

likely that each case should be considered on its merits, the number employed on a

farm varying with the type of agriculture (arable, livestock, mixed) and the intensity

of management. Further investigations in this area are required. Other comments

made by the campesinos were:

Campesino:There is pressure on landowners to sell their land.

Campesino:Smurfit started to buy land about 20 years ago in the high parts of the

Ro Consuba San Pablo watershed. They only brought up the larger farms from the

bigger campesinos. There are now rumours that they want to buy out small farmers.

Campesino:The farming practices were lost so that all they can do now is extract

timber.

Campesino:Smurfit came into the Darin and Ro Fro areas displacing peasants

from arable land in 1983-84. They also moved to Restrepo and then north up to

Sevilla, Calarc, Salento, Santa Rosa, Guatica and Riosucio. They bought up large

farms affecting people attached to these farms; five or six people were displaced from

each of these farms. They are finishing off the Andean peasant culture and the native

forest by planting with pine and eucalyptus.Campesino:At La Selva Farm situated at 2550m, around 200 species have been

displaced from the area.

Colombian environmentalist:In the high parts of the Ro Quindo watershed,

natural forest occurs above 2,000 m. Under 2,000 m, the forest has been reduced to

scattered fragments. Until about 20 years ago, the region was important for potato

growing until pine began to appear. It is a 19,000-hectare watershed with 8,000

hectares of forest, 5500 hectares of fields, 12700 hectares of pramo and 2700hectares of commercial plantations. The plantations have been planted in the middle

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of fields and native forest. We have lost the capacity for agricultural production, lost

native vegetation, while people have been displaced from their land.

Colombian environmentalist:The Cruz Gorda watershed around Salento has a

population of 3500 people. Less than 30% of the area is natural vegetation. This is

found largely at the higher elevations at 2600 m where the rare and threatened

Spectacled Bear lives. Smaller forest fragments occur at lower altitudes. The water

supply is regulated by wetlands; the largest being 2,000 m. The first part of the

watershed that was brought up was 80 hectares at La Bolivia Farm. Today the area is

very dry with some rivers and streams having dried up. Two years ago, two farms

constituting 50% of the watershed were brought up. There has been soil erosion and

loss of soil fertility. Rather than being planted on, the degraded pastureland could be

improved by modifying the existing agricultural techniques

Campesino:In Risaralda there is a civic environmental monitoring body that was set

up by an ordinance of the Departmental Assembly. This civil observation body is

made up of representatives from the black and Indian populations and other NGOs.

The law relating to civil monitoring is concerned with the defence of biodiversity and

culture, altitudinal biodiversity and tropical Andean forest. Therefore the law is in

direct conflict with pine plantations.

Colombian Environmentalist:The management plan for La Selva Farm

recommended to cut the trees in chequer-board fashion but this was not done. Instead,

their concept of chequer-board was one of clear-cutting.

Although we were not able to inspect the environmental damage alleged above, in the

Department of Riseralda, the similarity of the comments gives cause for concern there

may be some truth in the allegation that at least some people have been adversely

affected by the planting of pine and eucalyptus plantations. We call for an independentinvestigation of such claims.

Since at least the early 1980s, other Colombian environmental and development

organisations have questioned the planting of pine and eucalyptus plantations on

account of their potential effects on soil, flora, fauna and water supplies.

A letter dated August 26th, 1981 to Dr. Julio Cesar Turbay Ayala, then president of

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Colombia from the Municipal Council of Salento outlined the problems associated

with reforestation by the CRQ (the environmental agency for Quindo, Bavaria and

SCC.

The Municipal Council denounced the indiscriminate buying of 28 farms totalling

over 3,0000 hectares in Quindo. They were concerned with the sowing of seed on

land of agricultural and cattle-rearing vocation that generates agricultural

employment, and the leaching of nitrogen into water for human consumption with the

resulting formation of cancer-forming nitrosamines. They argued that pine plantations

do not guarantee the regulation and control of water flow as little vegetation grows

under them thus increasing soil erosion through increased runoff. The CRQ wanted to

overturn the findings of the Municipality of Salento with regard to commercial

plantations but were ruled against by the Colombian legal authorities.

In September 1982, an open letter signed by a number of organisations in the

municipality of Calima-Darin, Valle del Cauca was sent to the then President of

Colombia (Dr Belisario Betancur). The signatories included the Municipal Committee

of Coffee-growers, the Body of Voluntary Firefighters and Traders Associations. They

outlined their concern at the advance of SCC in the area without evaluating future

socio-economic consequences. They continue to say that they recognise the

importance of industrial forestry and expansion in the country but are against its siting

in areas with potential for the production of food and crops with a high capacity for

employment generation (Broderick, 1998).

In 1983, at the first regional forum on the cultivation of pine in Calima-El Darin

Valle del Cauca, Dr. Guillermo Castaa Arcila, president of the Ecological Council ofthe Western Central Region of Colombia, expressed the concerns of the ecological

movement on the planting of pine.

On the 16thAugust 1990, La Patria, a daily newspaper with a regional circulation in

the zona cafetera ran an article criticising pine for its effect on campesinos that have

sold their land to big multinationals. The money obtained by the campesinos often has

not been invested in other activities but has been but into banks or has simply been

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squandered (La Patria: 16 August, 1990). In September 1993, the newspaper El

Tiempo reported how Fundacin Eclogica Cosmos sent a letter to the CRQ

denouncing abusive coniferisation.

On August 27th1997, the Municipality of Filandia, Quindo banned pine and

eucalyptus in certain areas of the municipality; the very plantations that are so heavily

subsidised by the Colombian taxpayer in the form of the Certificate of Incentive

Forestry. Some argue that this money could be better spent at least in some areas on

improving agricultural techniques thereby increasing the income of campesinos so

that they would not be under pressure to sell their land.

The local government of Risaralda has asked the governor to stop all reforestation

with pine and eucalyptus. The acting governor of Risaralda Department outlined what

is going on in Risaralda with regard to its environmental activities and its concerns

over the planting of forestry plantations:

Acting governor:Environmental legislation is quite thin on the ground as the

Ministry of the Environment was only set up two years ago. People are not very well

informed. We are very conscious of the need to protect the environment.

This Department is rich in natural resources. The city of Pereira has 300 hectares of

natural forest which are used as dumps by local people. Agriculture accounts for 30%

of the GDP in Risaralda. We have 1 million hectares of coffee plantations. In the

coffee zone of Quindo, Caldas and Risaralda, 15,000 hectares is planted with pine.

When a small insect called Broca that burrows into the coffee bean attacked the

coffee, the small landowners couldnt afford the pesticides needed to control it. Their

land was brought by large landowners including forestry companies.

We thought that we would plantJuglans neotropica(a native tree species grown for

its edible fruits, source of dye and construction wood) giving economic stability to our

peasants. We feel that it is important to use biological control in pest management.

The Department of Risaralda has a project calledRisaralda and the Forests for the

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World. We have carried out some modest environmental campaigns. We want to use

these forests as corridors and botanical gardens that would be integrated into the city.

We want to recycle and create links with existing institutions.

We visited Ro San Ramon situated at 2,000m altitude near Santa Rosa de Cabal,

Risaralda Department to be told that in one case, SCC had closed off all the roads

leading to two public and one private spring. According to the Colombian

constitution, these springs constitute heritage. An appeal was made to allow access to

these springs. The case was won, but to the best of our knowledge the appeal decision

was not complied with.

According to Colombian environmentalists, the municipal body agreed to prohibit the

planting of pine and eucalyptus until an environmental impact assessment was carried

out. The mayor objected to this but his decision was over-ruled by the president of the

municipal body. However it was once again not complied with.

A Deputy in the Departmental Assembly of Risaralda outlined his objections to the

planting of pine and eucalyptus:

Deputy:I am against the concentration of land in the hands of multinationals with

huge investment budgets. The central government gives tax breaks to the forestry

companies, as it wants to reforest Colombia. The budget of three of these companies

amounts to 16,000 million pesos. We are looking for a ban on the planting of pine and

eucalyptus in Risaralda Department. In the municipality of Salento, Quindo, they

own 9.7% of all land. They have not purchased new land recently but have come to an

arrangement with landowners whereby SCC (or its subsidiaries) plant up land while

the landowner gets a certain percentage of the harvest. In general, the landowner cansell 25% of the timber.

Local communities receive the most direct beneficial and detrimental impacts of

commercial forestry plantations. A CONIF report on the socio-economic effects of

commercial plantations is in preparation that should make interesting reading. We

consider that community consultation over the planting of commercial tree plantations

in their areas is very important. Attention to possible impacts on archaeological,cultural or spiritual sites at the local, national and global levels is paramount.

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Consideration must be given to the impacts of commercial plantations on the

disruption of legal or customary land rights and patterns of land use, and reduction of

cultural values.

Although local communities can raise objections to the establishment of a commercial

plantation through the Regional Autonomous Corporations, there has been no formal

community consultation mechanism established by SCC with regard to decisions

relating to planting, managing and harvesting of commercial plantations. We

recommend that such a consultation body be set up. The body would consist of

community leaders, environmental non-governmental organisations and SCC staff.

Local communities should have access to an easy information retrieval system on all

current and future activities. The training of SCC staff in the importance of

environmental protection, community consultation, conservation of archaeological,

spiritual or cultural sites, the conservation of soil, biodiversity and genetic resources is

paramount.

At the same time as arable and pastureland was being extensively planted by SCC and

other forestry companies, 70% of Colombian food was being imported. We consider

that at least some of the financial resources currently subsidising commercial

plantations through the Certificate of Incentive Forestry that only benefits large forest

companies should be directed towards supporting Colombian agriculture or social

forestry that would reap benefits to a greater number of people.

With increased access to credit and technical assistance, the lands currently been

planted with commercial plantations could have their agricultural vocation

recuperated to prevent the migration of small farmers to the cities or villages. A goodforestry policy cannot be divorced from agricultural policy nor economic policy in

general (Broderick, 1998).

The concept of social forestry involves planting trees which are widely accepted by

local communities and which reap multiple benefits for such communities such as

provision of fodder, fuel wood, medicines, building materials, green manure and

fruits. Both native and exotic species can be suited to social forestry if they are welladapted to the site, grow well and supply products that are needed by local people.

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A range of different species may be needed at different times of the year to obtain the

same product e.g. a range of different fire woods with different drying rates, sizes and

burning qualities allows flexibility in use. In India and Nepal, farmers depend on a

large number of different tree species lopped at different times to fulfil their livestock

feed and bedding requirements (Hughes, 1988). Social forestry does not necessarily

exclude the use of eucalyptus for live fences or fuelwood. Many inhabitants of the

Andean valleys of Ecuador and Peru would regardEucalyptus globulus(Tasmanian

Blue Gum) as an integral part of the Andean landscape so complete has been its

cultivation, spread and use.

A useful model of community participation might use the PACOFOR (Proyecto de

Desarrollo de la Participacion Comunitaria en el Sector Forestal) project as a model.

This is a joint initiative between four Regional Autonomous Corporations

(CORPOCALDAS, CARDER, CRQ, CORTOLIMA), the Food and Agriculture

Organisation of the UN (FAO) and the Dutch government.

The PACOFOR project encourages men and women to work together to direct their

physical, intellectual and emotional resources towards individual and community

growth through the satisfaction of community needs identified by the communities

themselves. It undertakes to identify, execute and evaluate forestry and agroforestry

projects in order to protect, conserve and use natural resources in a sustainable fashion

through the provision of live fences, mixed gardens and agroforestry and firewood

plots.

It must be recognised that fibres to make paper products whether from wood, bagasse

(from sugarcane), kenaf (an African plant) or seaweed will be needed for theforeseeable future, due to population growth and until such time as a global recycling

ethic is well-accepted. Pine and eucalyptus should only be used to satisfy the needs of

wood and firewood of the population of the municipalities, in situations where they do

least social and environmental damage e.g. in flat sites or those of low inclination.

Where commercial plantations are established, local communities should share in the

benefits of the forestry plantations, e.g. free firewood, inter-cropping between trees,share of the timber harvest.

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Pine and eucalyptus plantations in unfavourable locations (hills or mountains that play

a role in the infiltration of subterranean water, on very steep slopes and on relatively

delicate soils) should be removed. In their place one could allow the expansion of

native vegetation by natural regeneration. However when replacing pine and

eucalyptus plantations from these locations on steep slopes, it is recommended to

replace the plantations little by little to prevent massive soil erosion due to increased

run-off on bare slopes.

1.10 Environmental Management in Colombia

A number of functions are assigned to the 36 Regional Autonomous Corporations

(Corporaciones Autnomas Regionales):

The execution of the environmental policies, plans and national programmes,

defined by the law that approved the National Development Plan and the

National Plan of Investments or by the Ministry of the Environment within the

ambit of its jurisdiction.

To promote and encourage community participation in environmental protection

programmes, sustainable development and sound management of renewable

natural resources.

To give advice to the departments, districts and municipalities found within their

territory in the drawing up of environmental development plans and

environmental protection programmes and projects in such a manner that

assures the harmony and coherence of the policies and actions adopted by the

distinct territorial entities.

To participate with other organisations in its jurisdiction in planning taking into

consideration the environment in all the decisions that they take.

To give advice to the territorial entities in the formulation of formal

environmental education plans and in the execution of formal programmes of

environmental education, which conform to national policies.

To establish norms and directives for the management of hydrographic

watersheds situated within the area of its jurisdiction, conforming to national

policies.

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To bring forward in co-ordination with the indigenous community authorities and

in lands traditionally inhabited by the black communities to which Law 70,

1993 refers, programmes and projects of sustainable development and

management, use and conservation of natural resources and the environment.When a Regional Autonomous Corporation, has as its principal objective the

defence and protection of the urban environment it will raise with the

municipal or district administrations, programmes of adaptation of urban areas

in zones of high risk, such as erosion control, management of watersheds and

reforestation. In the same way it will administer, manage, operate and

maintain the executed works or those that the municipalities or districts carry

out.

(Instituto Geografico Augustin Codazzi, 1998).

The 1991 Constitution mentions the planning and management of natural resources.

In some instances, the new 1991 constitution has to be tested in the courts. Law 99 of

1993 also mentions sustainable development. This law tends to be strong in some

areas but poorly enforced.

We visited the headquarters of the Regional Autonomous Corporation of Quindo

(CRQ), the highest environmental body of Quindo Department.

1.10.1 The Environmental Role of the Regional Autonomous Corporation of

Quindo (CRQ)

Central government funding of the CRQ and all other departmental environmental

protection agencies is very low. It is mainly funded by property taxes. The municipal

authorities have the power to set and collect property tax that can vary between 1.5

and 2.5% of the value of the property. This is then passed on to the Regional

Autonomous Corporations such as the CRQ.

The CRQ has a sub-director of natural resources, a secretary general of the

corporation and a sub-director of environmental quality. It is the highest public entity

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charged with carrying out environmental policies and environmental administration

within Quindo. It strives to embrace sustainable development in the region. Its area

of jurisdiction takes in the twelve municipalities in Quindo.

The highest authority of the CRQ is the corporate assembly. The mayors of the 12

municipalities elect four from among themselves to sit on the corporate assembly. The

governor of Quindo Department is the president of the executive council. The

executive council elects the director general who can run for a second term. A

representative of the president of the republic, a representative of the Ministry of the

Environment, two representatives from an environmental NGO elected from amongst

themselves, two representatives of the business associations and one representative

from the indigenous communities also sit on the corporate assembly.

The NGO representatives in the Corporate Assembly are from La Fundacin Herencia

Verde and Fundacin Verde Andina. The Indian representative is a member of the

Emera Cham people.

We had a meeting with the CRQ to discuss their policies on pine and eucalyptus

plantations in Quindo. They maintained that they dont consider any plant exotic in

nature and that pine and eucalyptus have adapted well to the Colombian environment.

We consider that it is true that every plant has a natural range and so in this sense no

plant is exotic. However using widely accepted definitions, pine and eucalyptus are

exotic species in Colombia as they are being grown outside their natural range.

The CRQ can sanction groups for environmental violations by issuing fines. The

person responsible is called to answer and then the corporation imposes a sanction,e.g. financial or they are asked to sow trees, normally native species. They can go

further and issue penal proceedings. The violator of environmental laws can be fined

0-300 times the minimum salary. The fine depends on whether the violator had a

previous conviction. The CRQ normally ask for damage to be repaired. In 1994-1995

there was a 500% increase in the number of environmental infractions. Out of 350-

400 licences every year, 25-30 licensees commit infractions. For example a forestry

company can be sanctioned for not leaving a margin not than 30 m on either side ofpermanent or temporary water bodies free of planted trees. This regulation has been

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the norm since 1986.

Many licences are given for the cultivation of guadua (Guadua angustifolia). Guadua

is a type of bamboo which can reaches 25 m in height. It is considered to have a

thousand uses ranging from stakes, waterpipes, housing, crafts and paper pulp. One

of the problems with guadua is that its seeds have a low germination rate and so

guadua is usually propagated asexually using sections of the stem, parts of its

branches or rhizomes.

The CRQ only gives felling licences for dying trees. Three people assess licence

applications while ten people are responsible for control and follow-up. The CRQ

claims to monitor plantations from the time of planting right through to harvesting.

Considering the size of Quindo, we consider the staffing levels at the CRQ

inadequate to carry out its environmental protection role.

Since 1991, the CRQ has considered forestry plantations as a crop on an equal footing

with agricultural and fishing. Under Decree 1753, 1994 an environmental licence is

explicitly required. The licensing system has now been replaced by a register system.

In order to register a plantation, a forestry company has to present to the registry a

forest establishment and management plan. The forest establishment and management

plan allows the CRQ or other Autonomous Regional Corporation to make a decision

on whether to grant permission to establish a plantation. We asked to see some of

these plans in order to evaluate their effectiveness in assessing the environmental

impact of such plantations. The CRQ initially said that they would give us copies of

some of the plans. These were however not sent. We had hoped to compare the

content of such plans with what was expected in a typical environmental impactstatement required for forestry developments in Europe under the European Unions

Directive on Environmental Impact Assessment (EC EIA Directive 85/337/EEC).

The public can object to the establishment of a plantation. When a project is mooted,

the town hall of the community in which the project is being carried out puts up a

notice and also in the CRQ office informing the public of the project. The public has

the right of petition and must reply within 10 days.

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We asked what criteria are used to access the suitability of establishing a plantation in

a particular area? The CRQ replied that in general the CRQ bases its policies on

existing law. As afforestation constitutes the establishment of a crop, they impose

certain measures, e.g. no planting must occur within 100 metres of the source of a

river and within 30m on either side of the river. In addition, no harvesting is allowed

within 30 m of a watercourse. However, they can plant within 30 m of a watercourse

if the plantation is for protective purposes. The involvement of the CRQ not to

mention CRQ employee Dr Jaramillo in the establishment of forestry plantations

sometimes in conjunction with forestry companies that they themselves are charged

with monitoring must be called into question. We call for a legal separation of the

function of the CRQ in environmental monitoring and public entities involved in the

establishment of forestry plantations.

1.11 Environmental Impact of Pine and Eucalyptus Plantations

In studying the environmental impacts of pine and eucalyptus one must compare the

pre-existing land-use before plantation establishment with the site after plantation

establishment. For example one cannot compare soil erosion rates under native forest

with those under forest plantations, if the site was previously under pasture.

The stage of plantation development and the end-use of the timber is also important in

determining environmental impacts. Site preparation methods at the time of planting,

the growth phase of the plantation (young, intermediate and mature stages) and

harvesting activities can all determine what impacts the plantations have on soil,

water and wildlife.

The species used is also important. For example, different species will allow varyingamounts of light to reach the forest floor as a result of having different architectures

manifested in varying amounts of spacing between the branches and the orientation of

the needles or leaves in space. The different light regimes have an effect on forest

understorey development. Pine and eucalyptus trees planted at wide spacings in

agroforestry systems may have different impacts compared to closely spaced

intensively managed monocultures of the same species.

As a result of the projected growth of commercial forestry in Colombia in the coming

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years, CONIF and the Ministry of the Environment with the help of the World Bank

initiated the Programme for the Evaluation of the Environmental Impact of

Commercial Forestry Plantations in Colombia (PIAF). The programme was designed

to examine in a systematic manner the possible environmental impacts of commercial

forestry plantations, to homogenise concepts of measurement, and to provide

territorial entities with parameters that will help in the issuing of environmental

licences.

1.12. Environmental Impact of Pine and Eucalyptus on Colombian Biodiversity

1.12.1 Destruction of Native Forest

Population growth has contributed to the invasion of colonists in some areas that

ought to be protected, accelerating the processes of deforestation, expanding the

agricultural frontier in the Colombian Andes and contributing to the deterioration of

natural resources such as biodiversity. The major threats to biodiversity are considered

to be cattle ranching, logging and cocoa growing which have caused extensive soil

degradation and loss of habitat.

There is an urgent need to provide economic incentives to encourage sustainable

forest management. According to the World Conservation M

smurfit report

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