so far, so functional? examining functional and counter-functional dynamics in authoritarian...

7/23/2019 So Far, So Functional? Examining Functional and Counter-Functional Dynamics in Authoritarian Regional Cooperation

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Dys Ah R C

Edwd Sddd

N. 68 | D 2015

WORKING PAPER



2 | KFG Working Paper No. 68| December 2015

KFG Working Paper Series

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Th KFG W P Ss svs dss h sh ss f h K-Fsh y

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So Far, So Functional? | 3

So Far, So Functional?

Examining Functional and Counter-Functional Dynamics in

Authoritarian Regional Cooperation

Ew S

Abstract

R , y h sv f ds, s w s y s h-

zd y y. Idd, h ds sy y, v

h s f h s. Wh h f hs ds sdy f -

-d s, h x f E vhss shds h -

dy dy wh hs w . Idd, s wh y d d-s

E , h s s dv y f dds s f h

d ss f h s. Hwv, v d dys (sh s h s

s f dy d y sss), whh , s y ss.

Ths -f dys y -d s s xd y

. Ths xs h y w f dds d -f-

dys h x f ‘v ss’ Es, h Gf, d Ws Af. As s s zd, wh s s s s f sh f h ss, h

dys d dy s f sh js sy .

T A

D Ew S s L I Rs d

Cy Sy h Uvsy f Psh. Bw

O 2014 d S 2015 h ws Psd Rsh

Fw h Rsh C (KFG) ‘Tsfv Pw f

E’ h F Uvsä B. Hs sh ss d

v s, svv/s, d

y h ss.




C

1. Id 5

2. Ex Rs: F d C-F Dys 6

3. M Ld Ass Ods 8

3.1 Cases: Limited Access Regions 10 3.2 Under Pressure: Collecve Challenges and Regional Autocrac

Protecon Funcons in the Gulf, Eurasia, and West Africa 10 3.2.1 Polical Control 11 3.2.2 Economic Control 14 3.2.3 Legimang Control 17

4. C-F Tds Es, h Gf, d Ws Af 21

5. Css 24

Rfs 26




1. I

Ov h s dd, d f s ss h , h ss hv

sy d js. F L A h Gf, ds hv sh d ‘v’ ss s hs h s h s (As 2008;

L 2007; Vdh 2008; Js 2010; Kv 2011). A v, h -

s js , f s, vy d f h jy f ss h Ws. R

E, f x, ws vd y dss ssh d dy h

s f d E ss hh h f svy. Ah s,

y s, s sss dy, svy, d s y ss. Ths df-

fs d s s f h . S ds h ‘Nw Rs’

sh f hh, f x, hv dd h v h s – dd

s, fs dsds f s E – ds vy x w

-Ws ss f s (Shz . 2001: 3; Söd 2015; Söd 2016). M

dy, ‘d-d’ vws f I Rs hv qsd h vdy f y sy

‘-’ s d shs dvd f h ‘ Nh/Ws’ h ‘Sh/-Ws’

(Hs 2012; Ny/S 2010). Hwv, hs sss h, ds ds h f

d jvs f , s shs h dv f h

s dw f h x f s E. Idd, sv shs f

h w d d s hs hf dsd ss f s sd

f h Ws (Wh-L 2006). As ws h s wh y d-s s E,

w h ss s s ss dds f f ss

shd s (Böz/Rss 2016; Böz 2011: 12). Js s ss (sh s hs h EU) fd, y s sss h ssd h d f v ,

ss s f ( d) sss h sy .

Hwv, wh f dd-sd hs hv v x

(y h h f -fs d v hs f E ),

y -f dys hv d s wf v fs d -

v xs f s E. Idd, h E s, s h

post -f dys (sy sd s d vd y ds) h hv

d, , ss E s (Hh/Ms 2009). Idd, h

E x hs shd f f permissive consensus constraining dissensus, wh sv-

h -f dys (w z, s s f dy, d y

ds) y d , vy , h ss (Hh/Ms 2009: 5).

Wh dvs wds h xd w y f dd-sd

hs, -f dys h y h h

s s f ss. Wh h f jvs d -f-

dvs h xs , f s, y d f h E x,

h dy f s s h s. Ths s dys h -Ws ss ds-

ssd hs y ( xsvy) -d s s

(whh h y h E s). Hwv, ss vs wds




exacerbate or focus hs -xs -f ss. Sh dy-

s s sd f E ds h v yh f s s, s hs w

ss hv h d f h E x d s h jvs

h E ws y s f . Fh, hs s sj y f hsame ‘d-z’ ds h E hs fd (Ks 2009: 222). Ths sss s h

s f dy d d z d y -ss f s h E d

h s.

T h, hs s h fs fs d -fs ss h

h s s shs x d -

sss s h ss d s w-s hs

d sd f E – sy s hhy ss s s -

s s sy. Ths xs hs sss h x f h js

s hzd y h s f h ss: h Gf, Es, d Ws Af. T d s, h

s dvdd f ss. Th s s dssss h f f d -f-

s s, fs sy h f/s-f ss s

E. Th sd s xs hw h ‘v’ h h h

s s s dy ss ( h ss f y )

f dd. Hwv, h f dds f h s q d-

f hs f h ds f d, - s. As sh, hs xs

hw h s dv y ds h s d f sss

dv f h ‘d ss d’ (Nh . 2007) hss f h syss. Th s

s sds s f h v -f dys h h h ss.

2. E R: F C-F D

Wh s shs f h ‘Nw Rs’ sh f hh hv d h ss f -

s sd f h Ws dfy x hh v fws sd h x

f h ‘ Nh’ (Shz . 2001; s s Ky 2007: 201f), hs s swh d

. As dsssd w, sss h s f h s fundamental dynamics s h E

s x s s ss f s s. As Wh-L (2006:

750) hs shw, h d w w d d hs xd; wh h

d f hs h draw on respecve shs f wh w ‘s-dvss’ f h s

sh . Idd, shs f w s (sh s fs dy d y) hv

w d sds f EU s d y (Hh/Ms 2009; Sddd 2015). As h

s f hs s, f h s dy dys f EU – h s w

f s d -f s (dy, y, d z)

– s s, dy, ss f h s sd f h Ws h

h fs f w s. Ov, hs ss w s hs

y sdy -Ws f fs sv whs




v -f d dys. Wh hs ss -f (h h

sy s-f) y -Ws ss, h f s s s ss d hs

hs ss, wh h s f Wh-L (2006), fh d h

dvds w h w hs.

A s v, h s h sy s w -

h ss. Js h ds f -d ss (sy vy y ss f

s), s s dvs f, dy -v ss v,

s s. Th f h hs d h sss vs, f s, h

dy s s. Fs1 fs ontological tenet f /-

hy h ss s vd f ss v s.

H, h s d wh s hy x f , h

d f f hs. I h E x, h N-fs d

L Ivs s (y) fs h ss s qs

f v ss s s (Böz/Rss 2009: 217). N-fs s h

dvs f s s d s s sh ss

s s f s ( ) s. L Ivs sss h

ss svy z y ss f ds ss (Böz/Rss

2009: 217f ). Bh xs s f -sv .

Hh d Ms (2009: 3) hw f xs f ss ds

ddss h “sh w h s f h s” d h s f “

hy.” I , wh s sv s wh s ds ss y d s – h – hs s dd f f ( )

ddss h . Wh Hh d Ms’s (2009: 3) ds f fs v ds

y fy h ss (hy y d wh elite s h

h ‘h’ s d wh wys f s s f v sy h h h

h ss), h f ‘ sv’ s hs h d

y s fy w h .

As hs d y s shs (Hh/Ms: 2009; Böz/Rss: 2009), h E s,

f hs f s x h j vs d d f E

. Pd y h f fd E, Hh d

Ms (2009) h shs shd d post-funconalist h x E -

. D s s fs sy h wy h h E j hd zd, wh

h j dss d h dy--dy s f h EU fd hh syss d

s whh dy d ss hv h f (Ks 2009: 222; Hh/

Ms 2009: 3). Csqy, ss s (d hs s f y d dy) h yd

fs yss f sy s-fs h. Th s f

s -E/EU s (d dy) d sy E-s s

1 Th ‘fs’ dvs y f h w f Dvd My wh, h 1940s, ws y -

d wh hw fs s-w E hh d h s.




sh s h Front Naonale F h Ud Kd Idd Py (UKIP) (f

h sh d) f hs d.

Ths fs sy d sss f “d-s” (Ks 2009: 222). Ths d:1) polical compeon, d h sh d f y sss s vs;

2) economic compeon, d z, , d dz; d, 3) cultural

compeon, d h - s f s, ds, d syhs

(Ks 2009: 222). Th hs f f ws d ss f hs sss, wh

ss (hs vy d y; hs wh h s d qs

dd dv f hs w ss; d hs whs ds hd

y s) sy s h E j.

Ahh h f jvs d s-f ss sd f E d f hs

E s f d xs, ys, d s, s f/-f-

dys hss sv xs. Ss sd f h Ws

s (d ss more) d y dz ds. Ds h s f dy,

wd s ss h -fs qss f dy d y y

h syss. I ys, shs hv ()x h h

y d y h ss (Gshws 2013; W 1998; Gv/

v Ss 2013; Shz 2006; Ksv 2012; Sddd 2015). Ths s y s v h

s v s s f v s (Kd-Ty/ Fz 2014). As w s,

js s f d wh h hs f y sss.

Hwv, s ss s xsd sss f s, z, d d-z, -f sss w h.

Hwv, s f h ss xd h, hs -f ss pre-date -

v/ s. Wh hs s s h s E s x (s, zd

-E s, d ss f fs q hs éq),

E hs sf yd hs dys (h post -f) d h

E ss d E h f hs s-fs ss. As

w dsssd w, hwv, s ds s ss

exacerbate xs -xs -fs ss h s. Idd, s

ss y hhd y sss f ‘d-z’ (s v),

s h fss, zs, d s hs ss

s.

3. Managing Limited Access Orders

U ds, h ss ‘d ss ds’ (LAO) (Nh . 2007).

Ms f h d zs f ss h v hs d d-

z s ( h, hyd, s, -, ss .)




ds d fss f d ss ds. Wh h h ss f Es, h

Gf, d Ws Af vy h syss (h w s d, ss x, wh

s)2, h vs jy f h xh d ss hss. Th f d ss

d s hs ‘’ y h dss s h h syss. Is hf sf f yz h s, s vds - fw f

yss h s ( s s) h ys, whs h s w

f h s hss f v s (d h f d ys, s

w s h vs) h yss.

A LAO dss - sys wh ss ss d -

ss s sd y h s dsh vy s f s (Nh . 2007: 3). Ths

ss vd d s f ds d h d ss y

s h ssqy dsd h s f wf s d hs,

, s ds sy (Nh . 2007: 3). Idd, h -ds d -

s sh sys ss y wh h wf s wh s wh

h (dvd) y f v zd v dsz (Nh . 2007).

I y wf s d - h h sys, LAOs vd ds xd

f ss – sy d ds sy. Hwv, LAO syss d sy s -

vs vd h ds sh s h f w, h hs s y hs

xd wh ss ss d ss-dd zs sh s h

EU, I My Fd (IMF), d Wd B. Idd, sh fs ds f h

ds f d ss ds. S y hs, f x, h y sh

s w ss wh ssy. Lws, s s f h d v hs d’s y ss hs y s.

Fh, d ss ds, s ds ( hs sy s), d h z

hsvs d d-. Hsy, h s y f f h dwf s -

v y . Hwv, v h s fw dds h d f s sd y v (ss

j wh , f x Ey, B Fs) hs sd (Kd-Ty/Fz 2014).

As sh, s y – h s v d ss wy f vd ss – hs

sy f s. As d v, d ss ds dv (wh v) -

sy d ds sy – dss f y. Hwv, s w dsssd w,

s yd vd ds wh s f h ss

d hs h d, ds y (Es 1975).

2 Es, f x, ss x f h f s-h s-h - s-Sv

ss sh s Kzhs d Rss (F . 2009) sd h sy h d vy

s- Bs. I h Gf, svs f , -s hs h sy

h (Dvds 2012; Kv 2010). Ws Af, y s, xhs h s - y

h E hy, wh sdd ds sh Gh sd h ss sh s G

d G-Bss. Th jy f Ws Af ss, hwv, swh h dd – ‘s-d’

- wy d/s-h ss.




3.1 Cases: Limited Access Regions

Ths s h f ‘v’ dys d y s

(d h -f ss h h h) sd f E. I hs ss, ds s s s h f v hs f/-f ds. Rh,

h ss hv sd s, s s wh vy d – h – ss

s d E, hy s vs dvy whh d hw hs f

d -f dys xs -Ws h s. Th ss vy

s wys, shw h h f dys svd s sv f h

d f y hy (h Gf: hhy , Es: xd s hh v f

y, d Ws Af: xd), - wh (h Gf: hh, Es: d, d Ws A:

w), d vs f sz (hh Ws Af, d Es, d w h Gf). Wh

hs fs s y f s d vs s x v v

s fs d ss, d s, hwv, s yd h s f hs . Rh, hs

s, wh v svs sd h v fs w dw w, hs h ss

x d f f d -f dys. I s d, hy

s vd h, , sj f h dv fw- w.

3.2 Under Pressure: Collecve Challenges and Regional Autocrac Protecon Funcons

in the Gulf, Eurasia, and West Africa

As dsd v, ds f LAOs f (, , d y) h h

f h syss – h y d xy. I h ss qs h, hs

hs hv vd v h s dds, d whh ds Es,

h Gf, d Ws Af hv fd ss f v s sss – sy fw

s ss d vs h ss s h y 2000s. Th w s vs ss

, f s, h vs ssd wh h ‘ vs’ h f Sv U d h A

S h Mdd Es, s ds s s Af (F 2015). I h w f hs

hs, s hv sh s dfd h syss (d hsvs) f sss

f vhw h s (As 2007).

Wh ds hv ds s f h hs dsssd v, -

hs vdd h wh s f dv f ss hs s. Fsy,

s h ds h s v h sys s s

vd hs h , h dsy f sd ss. As h ss w d-

s, ds hv sssd s wh ( ) dw ss, d s,

d sh dssds. Sdy, hs s s s

v ss f w s s s d s h wf

dvds s s h f s sv h ss q. As h ss w hhh,

hs vv h d f ss vs-à-vs s, f

- dss, d f s. Thdy, syss, s




s ) z hsvs f f h zs d, ) h f d--

z f wf Ws s. R ssss wh hs f y (

) ‘fçd’ , f v (-dy sd) fs f ,

d ‘ s.’ Ths d dss f v s s w T 1 (-d h s , , d y s f ) d dsssd h

ss w.

Table 1. R f s d ss d d

SPHERE OF CHALLENGE

I Ex

DIMENSION OF CONTROL

P

Rs hs

v ddss f w

Rs hs /d

x s f ddss f w

Economic

Rs hs

v -

ss

Rs hs s

s f z -

ss

Id

Rs hs

y f dsh

Rs d-zs x

s/dfds s

d-

Source: Ah.

3.2.1 Polical Control

Th ‘ vs’ d h A S sd f hs f s h

h F Sv U (FSU) d h Gf. A h f (Ks/B 2013), d h -

dss f s d ss wh h h Mdd Es d h FSU, h ss

y hd hh h f v y ss. Bh wvs f s shwd hs dys:

d ss wh s d s s d s vs wds h v-

s vd vy f milieu f vy ds ds hh. Ps vs sh

s “O!” S, h ‘O’ ss U, h ‘W Khd Sd’ v Ey,

vdd ds s h w d h, sy s, xs. Ss

w y s, , d fs h wd v h y f h

s d d ss d ss d, f ss, s h f

sys. Sh sss w sy ds h s qs, h

d v sy s hv dd d fdd y f s. Th ss h Es

d h Gf hs fd ss f v hs h w yd h f y s, d

qd v ss.




Idd, h s, ss hv d s s f h-

s. Phs h s ss x s h GCC’s (Gf C C)

ss h A S. Fw h A ss, ss f Gf

s (Kw, O, d Bh). Wh ss’ dds w vy s ss( LAO h), Bh h fd j ssd ss f h f v-

. I h f f hs h, GCC ss d y v y sss h Bh

v. Wh sd y f Sds, h GCC hd h ‘s shd’ s

GCC-wd v h q h ss Bh (K 2011; -Az 2011). I dd

hs y sss, h GCC s s fd sfs f fds f h ss s-

s s Bh d O (Y 2014: 60). T s ds s, Bh d h

f 20,000 js s sy; d O, sy, d 50,000, f whh 35,000

w xd h s (H 2011)3.

Ds h h f ss/vs h , Es s v hs

xdd d y s. H, s hs y h f f d

f Rss (d Ch) f d ss. V s f Uz sd Kv

fw h -dw f ss d f vs h y f Adj 2005 vds

x (Ss 2006: 31; As 2008: 189). Sy, f h 2006 Bs ( h

f h O Rv x d U 2004), Rss fz h s f Bs $46

hsd s ( h w h ws d y U4 E ss) h s

Bs sd Lsh’s h f ‘ ’ (Ss 2006: 34).

Th s s f s-s hs s Ws Af s swh d. Ds hw f s hv h s- (F/Fx 2014), h s vd f

s f -v sy s Ws Af. H, h sss f sss

d ss h d, v h f d ss wh h

E Cy f Ws Af Ss (ECOWAS) d h s wh Ws s

sh s h EU. Hwv, h y ds h ds Ws Af s hsy s

y . Ss, s ws h s B Fs 2014, s wh -

ss s h ds (ICG 2015). ECOWAS d h Af U (AU) hv dvd s

s sd ‘s hs f v’ (UCG) (W 2013: 259; O 2011),

d s d’é. R h d wv f dz ss h Af (d

h h f f v s Ws Af) s h d f h Cd W, h f hs

s wdd s s dfd d s ss f hs s hs

f v. Hwv, , hs hss -deterring s f h

ds d h ss . Idd, hs s w d wh s ss

Ws Af w h. Wh ss s ds hv hd

d ss h w f s, s hs s h s f coup-proong

3 Sy, h GCC sfd $3 s h w sd s h M d Jd

(Y 2014).

4 I 2006 Rss sd h s f U f $50 TCM $230.




Ws Af s sv f vs dss f h d

qy (O 2011: 138).

A dd sy h ss hv fsd d wh ds hs h Gf dEs s . I h w f h Bh s, h GCC hs fh ss

s s ds d s hs, d h sh f

dssds. Bsd y y sd 1994 ( h ws dd y ss), w GCC

Sy Ty ws sd Nv 2012 h s, d GCC Sy G Ad Lf A-

Zy, “w h GCC y , sd s w s, s zs

sds zd s h d , s dsss” (qd Kh 2012). Ths

s y zs sds wh f h s f another GCC s (T

2013). Th y s s ss “xh f d xs fs f ”

whh, v ss fd f sh s GCC s, wd d s dssds (Kh

2012). I sy qs h ss “ vd h h s [h GCC ss] —

qs — wh f d s d zs sds f h qs s, wh h

s f f f h ss f h ” (T 2013).

S shs xs Es. I , h Shh C Oz’s (SCO) R

C Ts S (RCTS), d Tsh, ds h sh f w

h sy svs f h SCO ss h ‘h vs’ f s, ss, d xs

(Cy 2013). Th ‘h vs’ dd vy dy d d s fs f dss. Idd,

wh ss f hs hs s h dvd SCO ’s ds (As 2008: 196)

Th RCTS, whh hs vsh d ds wh y s f dvd-s d d-, qs h h SCO s shd fsh h hs wh ‘sss’

wh qsd (UN 2009: 17). ‘Asss’ d f s d vd f-

s w s d, , d xd f dvds (UN 2009: 17, f.55). Sy, ds

f d sy sv w SCO s d h 2009 C

Ts Ty (CTT). U h GCC Sy Ty, ds f h CTT y v. Thy

d vss (s v) f, d, vs, d xd s w s vss

w h sy s f s h y f h (Cy 2013;

FIDH 2012). Sy, h CIS Ms Cv vds ss f CIS ss xd dvds

h CIS ss (Cy 2013).

Fy, dd d hs, h y sh s

h v f ss Ws s – h ss y s - vs. Bh

h Ud Ss d Ud Kd, f x, s s (y) s s

h y y f h GCC ss h Ws. GCC y Y, f x, vds

s I d s h h Ud Ss ds d vv sf dy

h ss (ds sd US ss). R hs ss fh ss h -

f hs ss Ws s d ds h hd h h Ud Ss (d Ud

Kd) w sh s f h h s (s hd Ly, f x).




I Ws Af, s dys s. B Fs d G (ss wh d f

hs) hv y sss Ws Af, hy s h

d y s d h v Ws s (sy F).

C d s ys . A ds hv sd ECOWAS s s f s- h d hh d. Wh y d-

sd, Bs Cé, f - () Psd f B Fs, ws vd s ‘

d’ y F d s Ws Af ss f hs s ‘d’ d yd s

sh y ECOWAS. Sy, Ws s v h G Psd Jh hs sh s

hs y s s sy d , vy

sssfy hs s (US S D 2001).

Ov, wh h s dsssd h shw d s h h s -

hd w, h x d y f hs vy ss h h ss. Th Gf

s y h s dvd f h h s s f d y . Oy h

Gf d w s d y h s svv f s. I Es d

h Gf (), wsss hh vs f s (h d ) f s

s w s hh-v d . I Ws Af, y s, d h y

d f ECOWAS, ss y y s hss dsd -

w ss ( vss, y ) , h h ss.

Th Af U’s s d s (s w dsssd w) s h, hwv.

3.2.2 Economic Control

I dd hs, f hs ss s f s - h-

s. Wh ss s h y, d s

– sy f z dshs v j - ss hs ss f

sv/ s. Fh, s w sshd h ‘’ wh

Ws s ss h hd f d s d h (Hss 2015; Ks/Ry

2003). Lvsy d Wy (2005: 22) , f x, h h ss’ ss

Ws ss’ ss dz d s h y d y s f v-

s h. As Pds d Ps (2002: 522f) ss, f dss

s f ss’ (w w) ss f , whs s

jy s f h s f d. Ths s sdd

s f y d dv dss (d js) f vwh f

. Hwv, wh hs s h s, d s s s f

- ss h ws. Lws, js

hs y z ss, w ss s d

‘-ssv’ ss whs h s ssv s (d h ss hy

s). Ths d ds f h y; /vd f (v)

dd h Ws; d h sv f - ss s h




h ds. R vds f wy f d wh hs

s.

Fsy, hh s ssss ss h s wh j Wsws d ss, h hv ss d ss -

vy. Ss h s hv sd js (Es E U [EEU],

GCC, ECOWAS) f ss. I Es, f x, shs hv ssd

h h EEU hs shd y Rss s h v f h ss s

wh Ws-d ss. I 2009, Rss hd s WTO ss s,

h wd d s h s h h Css U (w EEU) ss s

. Rss h hd s s dvd ss d h h h w ss

shd d s s (Dy/Ps 2014). I , Rss ws s s

wh h WTO y ss h ws s f sf, s Kzhs d Bs (s [h]

f s, f x A d Kyyzs).

Sy, ss h Gf hv sd h GCC s h wd d (P

2011: 7). Idd, Sd A ss h v wh f h GCC s

s wh sd ds sh s h EU. I h (-fd) EU-GCC F

Td A, h EU s d hw h GCC ss (sssfy) ssd h EU s

d h GCC ss’ x ds ds d s z y svs d

h GCC s y vs (R 2008: 5). Ths ss s h -

ss h -syss f h Gf Ss. Wh hy y (hyhy) hv hd

s Ws s ddy, h v wh f h GCC s s d s .

I Ws Af, v ECOWAS hs hd Ws Af ss hv d s

E Psh As (EPAs) wh h E U. Rd (2014: 4) hs ds-

ssd hw s y w ECOWAS ss wd f d h EPA. As

h s f h , 75 f d wh h EU s zd, wh f ssv

dss – sh s – d. Wh h s d y ss

f d Ws Af ss, s s f d

ds s y s-Sh Af s. Th s s d d f €6.5

(f 2015-2019) – s f s (d ) y s-Sh ss.

R s hs h d dd Ws ss.

Ths y v, h d sys h s wh sd ss ss y (d -

), y s h d shs f sd s Css U s (d

dvs). As dd s f f v h d, d d

dvs ( d ssy ) h d h d hh -

s y Ws ss (f x ss f d sd h hs ss).

C (2013: 13) sss h h Es E U (EEU) w s Rss xs

h EEU s h xs f s d , h EU. Idd, h s vd




f Rss xs, f x, s d Ws s ds h EEU s,

sh f s Rss ds (Dy/Ps 2014: 4). Rf

Kzhs d Bs, Rs . (2014: 13) h “ s s s wy […]

sh svy y s f h s h , y h EU d Ch, h h sd y ‘x’ ws”. Rd ’s hd y

Ws ss s s Rss’s s, s ds h f Ws s f ‘ v-

’-sy ss, whh Rss s xsd. U h ys f v s, hs

Rss s y , hwv, s h svy f s s. Idd, hy y sw

s dd Ws ss f fh dd Rss.

As d v h s f sfs h GCC, s s yd -

s wys s vs d sss wh sfs f h ss s. A hs s,

Bs vs f j Rss-d shs dv s y ss Rss

d. Sy, As (2010) s hw Rss vs s hs d Bs d, vdd

s, d ssdzd h Bs y h f sd 20 f GDP. Wh hs

s, As sss, h Bs y wd ss. Ms’s ds j h

Css U (w EEU) ws h x f ss fw h sh f 2008 d

f v v fd f h EU d h IMF (whh wd hv s y

wh s ss hd) (Shy-T 2012: 5).

Fh, Rss (d ss x Kzhs) hs d f s

w Rss s f s d h Cwh f Idd

Ss. Th s f hs s y sd h h s.Tjs, f x, s h s -dd s h wd d d s

f Rss f hy 50 f s GDP (Psh 2015). Ths s y f

sy y s h y d v sss f y (EsN 2012).

Ths dy s d Tjs, hwv; h CIS ss s wh vd $25

s f Rss 2013. Rz hs s f (d s ss

sh s Tjs j h Es U), Rss hs y hd ss f ws

f sd f h EEU (Psh 2015).

Fy, ECOWAS vs s d f h E U – s f s .

Idd, h EU sy fds ECOWAS s f s ds s wh d

h Ws Af . Th EU d y €600 f fd f h d 2008-

2013 (Rd 2014: v). Wh y f h ss ECOWAS f sh f (h w) xd sdds

s f d v d dv, wh ECOWAS, v s sd fs

d v d dy s h y 2000s, s s f s

wds s. Wh f ECOWAS ss v h-

ss, d v s f ECOWAS ws h s hsvs s

‘ss s’ d h s f s ss d.

Ov, h dys dsssd v, h s f -

vd s s f s f h dsssd xs. I h ss,




hs s f h vs f d s f d dd wh sd

ws – sy hs h Ws. E dss hv s vdd, s h Gf d

Es, s f ds fds f h s s – whh s f h

svv f s ss. I Ws Af, dd s f fvs f d d , s s f f d, whh

( vd) y s f d ds.

3.2.3 Legimang control

Lds f d ss ds, js d ss, d s h y f h h-

svs d h ss (Gshws 2013; Gv/v Ss, 2013). Gv h h s-

v s h h s s s y ss (Is/ /hy h Gf,

ss d sy h FSU, ‘ ’ dshs Ws Af), d v h -

s w ss wh hs s, h h y f s ss,

, h. Fh, dd y hs f w, h

ds y f hs f s (sh s Ws ss, Ws s,

d Ws NGOs). Wh hy sv h s h (As 2014; Böz

2015), hs h ss f s y sh s z h d syss

d dz ds h ss. A h f h ds s hs d wy

d hs dz vs y wf x s. Ths s vs f

wys whh hs h ss z hs jvs.

Fsy, s Ws Af d Es hs hd ds y d dy s – h

f f f . My f h ss Ws Af d Es ‘v h-

’ ‘hyd’ ds: ss wh w s ssy hvd hh w s,

wh s d d sh wy s s h d ss ss

. Ud sh ss, s sv fd f ’s

w d hs ds f h (D’A 2014: 80). Th s f

h s y zs h ss v sv vd s

h d y s.

I Es, w zs – h CIS d h SCO – sd (D’A 2014: 90; Ss

2010: 348). Fw h ‘C vs,’ wh wd s w s f ss, h

CIS hs s s w svs s-Sv s Ws s wh w sd f

z h (Ss 2010: 348; Fw 2006: 1144; Cy 2012: 110). Ths CIS svs

hv fy dsd h (-) f s (Ss 2010: 348). I h vs jy f ss,

h CIS ss hv dvd sdy f OSCE h s s. Th ss f SCO

sss hv s hs f h CIS, wh dss x h vdy f s h

d Ws svs (Bd 2011: 16; Cy 2012: 114). As Bd (2011: 16) s, hs

sss “dd s dd z f f h z d f ss

hs.” Sy, h ECOWAS d h Af U hv zd f ss sv




vds wd s (hh h d f h AU – whh s wys vs sv vd

– s ws hs d).

Byd vd d s, s h ss hs s hdds h d Ws s f y d dfd hsvs s de-legi -

maon. Idd, h CIS d SCO yd s Ws s f y d, -

y, - v s f v ds f d. A fd f h h

CIS d SCO s s f dvsy. Bh zs s s

s d hy vd s f ss sdfy h d j h x f h

ds.5 Ths s sd h f h ‘Shh S’ – s f s h vs “y

h z d s ss, d ds s” (Js 2010: 112). Ths d

s f “s f dvsd vzs d dv” (Js 2010: 112f). Ths s-

s w s ds s f h h’s s, whs h s

h ds f -f d s (Js 2010: 113).

I Af, h AU ss ys sh . A x hs h AU’s s d h

f h I C C (ICC) Af. Th jy f ICC ss hv

s Af s, d f s ds sh s Psd Bsh f Sd d

Psd Ky f Ky (d Psss . 2013). Th ds f Af ss

hs d f s ICC ss d hs sy ssd y h AU. S hv ssd

h h j f ICC Af (whh s vsy jd y Af vs) s dv y

ds wh d h hy hsvs y dy ‘d ’ h wd

v h ’s s (Th Es 2011). Hwv, wh ICC d y sf-sv- s ss, h wd j f h ICC s dss f h vs f h AU h

hd h wh ss Af; , -Af sdy; h f f ‘Af’ wy

f d hs d j f vsy f vs (d jsds); h -f f s sv-

y; d h j f vd -s.

Byd j f Ws y, ws f h f v

(-Ws) ds d s f y.6 I s ss, hs ds

d s d ds w ss d h s f Ws s. Js s -

zs v s d h d wh Ws s, hs s

d y d ds ds d sd fs f .

5 Th SCO’s “D h h vsy f h Shh C Os” sss h: “Dvsy

f vz d d f dv s sd d hd. Ds ds,

d s syss, vs d d f dv fd h s f hsy shd s -

xs f h s’ s. Mds f s dv shd ‘xd.’“ (SCO

2006).

6 Th s h s h f f dsss f h s w dy d y. I ss sy

h v dy d y sy wd, wh dy h sh vs d s

whh f vs s d.




Th y dy dvd Es s dd h f Ess. I ssy

s h h h h, hs, d h (d s ss q-

s-s) ds w s h Es s – d h, y, dsshs h f

Ws vzs d h vs, ds, d s h hy . Hwv, wh -hysd s, hs vw s -sv f s d ds s d

() s h f Ess d s d wys f dy-d d

. P Rss Ess, f x, s f s f Rss

s. Wh P hsf hs hszd h ds h Es s, Rss

Ess s s f Rss’s w d dsh ss Es, hszs Es

(d h Rss) dsvss f h Ws, d s f f s d f h

Es s wh (h) Rsss d Msw s 7 (L 2004; Ps 2014).8

Sy, h GCC hs wys hszd f fs – s y Gf d-

s (Is, s, d hy) h GCC ss. Idd, d s wf

s f f h Gf s ds (Sh 2010: 242; Ah/ Sh 2004:

377). Ts s hs f xss d s h s f -

s d d, d hs sys hs s wh s h x f hs

s (Wh 2011: 83). Th s f d sys f dy h Gf hs s

wh s, dv y h s f s f ws (wh w

zs s ss).9 Sy, Is d hy h y vy z

h Gf. A f h ss h s h ds Sh w, d s f s

v s f s ds’ (Wh 2011: 76). Fh, h GCC sds

sf s sw f S Is. Fy, s C (2012: 10) s, h GCC s fdy “ fhs” d h d d sys f hy f - -

. Idd, hh h A S, h Gf hs wd hd s h ss s

ss s d ds wh A s s syss d s sh h

dd hs (C 2012: 10).

Fy, y f h h s ss Es, h Gf, d Ws Af d y ‘s’

wh hv sh v ‘s f sy’ d s f hsvs s ‘fhs f h ’

(Iss 2010: 436; Osh 2010: 408f; Söd 2010: 5). A y ss ss vs

fs f hs y, wh h y f h s s wh s d d wh

h d. Ths s y h s wh d dv ss wh s ss y

7 Idd, wh Rss s s s d y d jsd s f Ess (f h Rss d),

hy sd h Rss s s ( ss s f Rss sy) d

hs ( s h s) wh d s s Es ds d vs.

8 Py (2013: 29) hs ssd h Rss v’s d f Ess ss d

“ w fw f dy f h d Rss sy.”

9 Gf ss ( s h Ws) hv f ss f dz d s hs hh

s d sqy dss f d vs wd y sz s wh h

Gf s (A-Kh 2010: 83).




y d wh ds s s f wh hds h s h (Osh 2010:

408).10 Rs ss ssss ds sv d s hs s.

F x, s ds h h s hd d ss h vd sf s. SCO ss, f x, ssv s, d y h y d hd

y d s sss, wh h d f h hs s v s d s

f hs s d hv h y sh x h vs f h SCO.

F h s ss, hs s s vvs s – sy w zd – wh

h ds f Rss d Ch. Ms f h GCC ws sy d d w zd, wh

ds h y d y, h h s d s s

f hsvs s ds d ss. L GCC ss d qés h GCC ds

y f h h’s sd d s hsvs s s f s -

-wd Gf dy (D 2015: 14). Ths, , hs sw s h sv d

whs ds y s fdd h s d Is d h fds.

If hs f ds hv s s w. F x, ds G

Psd Yh’s dy d h hs d, h 50 h vsy s f

G dd 2015 w dd y f f ds d Psd

Mh f Gh (s h f ECOWAS), Psd Vz f G Bss, Psd Od

Ad Azz f M, V Psd S f N, d Ss V Psd D (A

2015). Wh h v ws f ECOWAS h AU, hs f f vs s

f ds ds y Yh d ss hs (s s v h

ECOWAS s wh hs yd G s h s).

Ov h, ssss ds h y f wys –

y h y d xy. I s f h f s f s y, -

ys s sss hyd ss ( Ws Af d

Es). Wh s y f f, hy s y s s vs d

h () y f h v. R svs d s sw y

s h wd hws hd y Ws svs, hy h z

f sss. Byd hs f ds, hwv, s, hs d-

fd s s x Ws d-, d y, space f v

vs – d hs sd s s sh s d Is

h Gf, P-Af s, d Ess h FSU. Fy, s wh ds

y s f sy d hs dsh, s s y s f

s – d f s wh ss ds (f Rss Ch, f x) d

f s s, s s Ws Af.

10 As Iss hs dd, h s f Kzhs, f x, Psd Nzyv hs d

f hsf s dss ‘fh f h ’ whs ws dsh s ss f y f h ssss

Kzhs hs d s h y 1990s (Iss 2010).




4. C-F T E, Gf, W Af

As h ss v hv shw, h ss hv yd d wh

h f s hy f sv h s. Hwv, s hs h s E, hs h s f -f ss h h sss.

I , dy qss d s f svy, dd, d y h

fh s .

I ss dsd hs , h xs -f dys y -d -

. Idd, hy x s f h hs v wds s s-

s f h ys s E. Hwv, ds s ss

d vd s f hs ss fs – ss w fs. Fh, -

Es d Ws Af hs – hh h s x – hd sh d f

vy hh v f ss ss. I ss, s ssd

wh s hv zd, v f s f h dy ss -d h s

js. Idd, js E ss, s dsd v, ss h ss

hv s xsd (ss v xsd) s d-sz ds ssd wh

z, , d hs. R ss ,

s ss f h s f hs ds – v wh h ds f hs ds -d

.

I Es, f x, f h y -f hs f -

h ds s s’ s f h ss Rss, d h Rss’s f s ss h f Sv ss. Ths s, f s, -d

qs d Rss d Sv hss s, h vs d, hs -

vss f C As Rss. Rss f y dy sss s f dsh f

Rss h h f h hsy f Rss s h j w s h h f h

Rss E d h - s f h Rss SSR h Sv U (Ps 2014: 19).

Ths s sd y Rss s ss h s d f Rss s

d – sy hs ss h h Rss s (Sw 2011: 958). Hwv, h

s , h wy dd ss f h F Sv U (sh s Kzhs, Uzs .)

vhy dfd h dd. Ths s h ds hv ’s svy -

sd. F hs ss, dd f Rss s f h w dy – dd, s

wh ws sh dy s d w h s . U E, wh --

s s s d dss s svy d d, C As, f x,

s d h vd ds d h svy h s .

Wh Rss’s s wh s hy s d qs, x f hs ss s

Rss’s s wh h Kzhs d Kyyzs, wh s f wy sshd Es

U. O s s s Vd P d Yh F Q&A sd Kzh

shd 2014 (Dv 2014). P ssd h Kzh shd y shd h d f

h Cd W d h s f h Sv U. Ths s w vd s h d




sh (Csy 2014) d dw h s Kzhs Kzh s f

Kzh shd h, d Psd Nzyv, ds h 1400s (Ls 2015). I s f

s s, hs sss yd ss h d f wh h Es

E U d ss h f Kzhs h ‘E’ h f h z (V 2014). Nzyv y dd P (d h Kzh ) h

Kzhs hd h h v h EEU d wd d s f s dd ws hd (Dv

2014). Sy, h hs d f Rss h hs sy zd, h

Rss wh f Rss hsy (sy h Rss h Sd Wd W) s -

sy s-U ss, d h Es ss wh vd Rss s

s s vs ssss. I Kyyzs, h v s

h y f v dw f Kyyz ds y Rss-sd Csss 1916

(R 2015). Ns s MPs hv d h 1916 vs h Es E U,

whh Kyyzs s s j. Idd, hs MPs sd j h U hv ssd h

s d f f Rss s. Lws, hs qs Kyyz svy s s

wh Rss hv vd q f h v vy ss s ss f shd

(R 2015). Ov, wh dshs y s s wh Rss f f -

ss, h f s ’s dd hs ss s f ds y.

Ths ss hd s, s s , d s h

s d s d y Rss, h h h f.

I Ws Af, h s -f d ( s f h f vw) s h

s d f d dy s s h . Ahh s ss f f

d f f h ds (s dsd v), h fdy s w h . Idd, ECOWAS s hv ssd h ss

s f h s d s h w f s ss. Ths ss dvs,

h, f h f h wh ECOWAS d f d dvd s w (sy hh-v)

s d d whh h z ws dd y s, s s f h

wv f dy h 1990/2000s d h w d s f ss, h v

f dy h hs w. Th s ds f dy s s wh Ws

Af d h w f ECOWAS h h z , ss f h s hs

s d s h ss sss f ECOWAS.

Fh, hwv, dy (h d -s) ys hd

h . Fs, wh ( f) s Rss Es, N’s s f s s

h d s ss hs h ss. Bh (2007: 303) dss hw N hs

vd sf s hv ‘fs dsy’ d sd dsh Ws Af -

(d yd). I , hwv, N s dsh – xssd y

hh s d s f ECOWAS – hv ssd (sy y Fh-s

s) (Bh 2007: 305). Ths f s d dvs – h s f ECOWAS

ss w Fh d Ah (d Lsh) ss. Wh h hv s

v hs dvd, Bf (2013: 21) dss s h s “h h sdy f ECOWAS

s.” Ths ss dd y f fs, d h d dsv

s, s, syss, d s fs, d hv hd s s




f . Th ECOWAS Cy ws, f x, dvdd v v L -

s s, wh Fh ss y s h v (Bf 2013: 21). Fh, -

ss wh ECOWAS fh d y (d f s hv h s ) ss

w h j w s f h z – F d h Ud Kd. Wh ECOWAS sy f h s v dy Ws Af, F s sd wh s wh

h Fh s h d h Ws Af E d My U, d hs hs-

y dss f ECOWAS d N’s d s wh h z. Hsy,

F d Fh-s Ws Af ss hv sd vs wh Ah ss

(sh s Fh s f s h Bf w Bé s f Chs Ty L).

Ths hs d h h d wh, f x, Ah G’s s f

Cs s Fh S (T 2013). Ths ss y -d -

, s vd s f hs ss, sy wh

s s s s f sd s h ss.

Th Gf ss f s s ss. I , h h Sd d Q s hd sf--

s s ds d hv d sds f h wd sy hs h

(ds h f ‘A S’ sy ss). Q hs ssd

f Iss s, d h Ms Bhhd h Sd A ds h; d h

Q hs sd h TV s al Jazeera fh s h (-Rshd 2014).

Q d Sd A hv s fd hsvs d sds f s-A S Nh

Af – s y Ey, wh Q sd h sd Mhd Ms d h Sd

sd h w v d -Ss. I dd, h ss hv d s wds

I, wh Q ss hwsh wds h Is R h Sd A (-Rshd 2014).

Fh, hs s ss w vd s h dd y

f h Gf s. I , Sd s sh f Gf C C

Gulf Union hv sy ssd (Rd 2013) Sd A hs f s/dy

sh h Gf ss s hs v s s (wh whh

wd d). Rd (2013) sss h Rydh hs sd hs y s s fs-

y h f f s hs h s fd wh (f h sv).

Hwv, O (s hs), whh hs ds h d hsy f d-

d d whh s d f f Is, hs y ssd h j, f dshd

dd d s (Rd 2013). Nvhss, y h s h (v h

h s dsssd h) dy sf ys sv s f h

Gf h swh. Th s y hs h h Ws Af Es d

s s hs s dfy s dy s, wh Ws-Af dy d

Es dy f sd d hs s.

Hwv, wh z, s -f dy sss, d y ss y hd

s, s ss s vs h s . Idd, s hs s,

shd d h z d y ds d ssy wys d f

. I h E s, d ds hv dv s h EU d-

(d dvs h E P d sy qs). Lws, h




ss, wh hv ds s wys, hs s sd s (-

, vs wds ). Fh, h E s, hs

dy s f s j ws (s y Gy). Wh z

d h v s f s s f dy d fs f ws hv hdd s dsd v, ds ssy h hs hs w d

y df. Idd, ss h h h h z f

ss s, s dd y -fss, sv d ddss

hs s. Th -f ss dsd v y d v sss, d

s v . As x, - ss w Q d Sd

A (dsssd v) d h s f h GCC ‘Rydh Sy A’ 2014

(Hss 2015). Ths d d ds s h y f “h ss, h ss

d f f h s” d d ds v wds j s d “d d hsv

Gf y” (SUSRIS 2014). Wh sh s s f formal h Gf

x, s d v, y f h f jvs d s f h

Gf dv f f hv. Idd, h dw d -s ,

wd y y h Sy G f h Oz f h Is Cf wh s-

sd h h ws h f h wh Is ‘Uh’ (h wd-wd y

f Mss) (A Tdy 2014). Sy sss dd hs h (Hss 2015) d s

h w , -s d s wds Ey d Y

hv hsv. Ahh s yd h s f hs , h x whh

ss hv (y) bolstered s s s v-

f f sh.

5. C

Th -f dys f sd f h Ws hv vd ss

h h Ws x. As hs hs sh shw, sss h s h-

zd y hh vs f hs xh f/-f dys, s hs

h s E. Of s, h f hs f d -f ds s d.

F h s s dd y h d sv d ss d ss.

As dsssd h , d ss ds ss ss d ss

f w s sy d q d f d-. R ds

h s h LAOs y vd fs h sss ds. Eh s d

d h vs f hs fs vs, s dsssd v. Nvhss, s ss s

s f s h h h s f h j , , d y

hs hy f.

Hwv, h s , h s shw v -f dys. I y

ss, hs h v f s-d d h x whh s f d-

d d svy d wh dy d h y f s. Kyyzs, f x,

s s s wh Rss. A h s , hwv, h f hs q sh d




h hs s s s f s ds. I Ws Af, ss d

d -s ss hv hdd w s ds (d w

s). Wh E -f ss y post -f (d y E

wh s h ), h s dsssd v -f -ss y pre-f – ss h xsd f s x, h

xd d v f y s sss.

A ds s sd d djs z d s sss – sy hs

h h h s. A h s , hwv, hs sss d h s

fh ss w ss. I , s w w ss d h hs hs

ss dy d dd s s s sss. Th s-

s f f s d wh hs s d h ss -f hs

h hd s hv vd d d -

v s. Nvhss, s s h s E, s h vy s f hs dys h

hs x / s w h ss.




Rf

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Colombo, Silvia 2012: Th GCC Cs d h A S. Bw Oh, P d Rs-s, : IAI W s 12/09, Mh 2012, R: Is A Iz, www../ss/df/s/w1209.df; 2 Mh 2015.

Cooley, Alexander 2012: G Gs, L Rs: Th Nw G Pw Cs C As, Oxfd:

Oxfd Uvsy Pss.D’Anieri, Paul 2014: A Ds d h Pz f Dy, : Js, B/Py,

Ls (ds): Pw Cx G Sys, Ld: Rd, 80-96.

Dvds, Chsh 2012: A h A S: Th Gf Mhs f y, : L-d Sh f Es Pds, 24 O, www.s../wsAdMd/vdAdAd/hs/LsAdEvs/y.sx?d=1613; 3 Mh 2015.

Debre, Maria J. 2015: S h: Hw A Mhs Us R C Sy Pw,: GIGA/DVPW Cf, Cv P S S, 25-27 Fy 2015, H-, Gy.

Dolgov, Anna 2014: Kzhs Wd A P Qss Hsy f Cy’s Idd, : ThMsw Ts, 2 S, www.hsws./.h?d=506178; 12 Jy 2015.

Dreyer, Iana/Popescu, Nicu 2014: Th Es Css U: Th Es d h Ps, : EUISSBf Iss 11, Mh 2014, www.ss../ds/d/Bf_11_Es_U.df;13 Mh 2015.

Du Plessis, Max/Maluwa, Tiyanjana/O’Reilly, Annie 2013: Af d h I C C, :Chh Hs I Lw 2013/1, www.hhhs./ss/s/hhhs//Rsh/I%20Lw/0713_f.df; 23 Fy 2015.

Easton, David 1975: A R-ssss f h C f P S, : Bsh J f PS 5/4, 435-457.

EurasiaNet 2012: Tjs: Mss M Gd f R, As P Ss, 27 Nv,www.s./d/66225; 12 Mh 2015.

Farge, Emma/Felix, Bate 2014: Byd B Fs, Af’s “B S” Hs My B P, :Rs, 6 Nv, h://.s.//2014/11/06/-s-f-dINKB-N0IQ21020141106; 12 J 2015.

Fawn, Rick 2006: B v h Bx: I E Osv Msss, P Cd Rh h Ps-Sv S, : I As 82/6, 1133-1153.

FIDH 2012: Th Cv s Ts f h Shh C Oz, : www.dh./I-Fd-f-H-Rhs/s/Th-Cv-As-Ts;20 Jy 2015.

Franke, Anja/Gawrich, Andrea/Alakbarov, Gurban 2009: Kzhs d Azj s Ps-Sv R- Ss: Rs Is d Ay s D ‘Cs’ Ps-Sv Rs, : E--As Sds 61/1, 109-140.

Gerschewski, Johannes 2013: Th Th Ps f Sy: L, Rss, d C- A Rs, : Dz 20/1, 13-38.

Grauvogel, Julia/von Soest, Chrisan 2013: Cs Ly M: Why Ss F IsDz Ah Rs, : GIGA W P 235, O 2013, H:GIGA G Is f G d A Sds.

Hassan, Islam K. 2015: GCC’s 2014 Css: Css, Isss d Ss, : A Jz C f Sds, 31Mh, h://sds.jz.//dsss/2015/03/201533172623652531.h; 20 S- 2015.

Haimerl, Maria 2013: I Sh f Ly Ts f Css. Gv Tsf y h Gf C- C (GCC), : B W P E I 18, A 2013, B: FUvsä B.




Hobson, John M. 2012: Th E C f Wd Ps: Ws I Thy, 1760-2010, Cd: Cd Uvsy Pss.

Hooghe, Liesbet/Marks, Gary 2009: A Pss Thy f E : F PssvCsss Cs Dssss, : Bsh J f P S 39/1, 1-23.

Isaacs, Rico 2010: ‘P’ Nzyv: Th Dss f Chs Ldsh d N-Bd s-Sv Kzhs, : Sds Ehy d Ns 10/3, 435-52.

Jackson, Nicole J. 2010: Th R f Ex Fs Adv N-L D Fs f P- R: A Cs Sdy f Rss’s I C As Rs, : Cy Ps16/1, 101-118.

Jammeh, Yahya 2015: Jh Exsv, : G’s Dy Osv, 17 Fy, h://sv./ jh-xsv/; 3 Mh 2015.

Kamrava, Mehran 2012: Th A S d h Sd-Ld Cv, : Os 56/1, 96-104.

Kendall-Taylor, Andrea/Frantz, Erika 2014: Hw As F, : Th Wsh Qy 37/1, 35-47.

Khan, Ghazanfar A. 2012: GCC Mss S Sy P, : A Nws, 14 Nv, www.ws.

/-ss-s-sy-; 20 Mh 2015.

Kinninmont, Jane 2011: Th My G Mdd Es, : F Py, 16 My, h://fy./2011/05/16/h-y--/; 9 Fy 2015.

Korosteleva, Elena 2012: Qs Dy P: Bs’ Rss h ‘C Rv-s’, : Dz 19/1, 37-59.

Kriesi, Hanspeter 2009: Rjd Ls Hh d Gy Ms, ‘A Ps Thy f E- I: F Pssv Csss Cs Dssss’, : Bsh J fP S 39/1, 221-224.

Laruelle, Marlene 2004: Th Tw Fs f Cy Ess: I Vs f Rss N-s, : Ns Ps: Th J f Ns d Ehy 32/1, 115-136.

Levitsky, Steven/Way, Lucan 2005: I L d Ds, : J f Dy16/3, 20-34.

Libman, Alexander 2007: Rs d Rs h Ps-Sv S: C Ss dIs f Is Dv, : E-As Sds 59/3, 401-430.

Lillis, Joanna 2014: Kzhs: Rsss Bd Lyy Nzyv wh P-K Ss, :EsN, 14 A, www.s./d/68270; 20 Nv 2015.

Nayak, Meghana/Selbin, Eric 2010: D I Rs, Zd Bs: Ld.

North, Douglass C./Wallis, John J./Webb, Steven B./Weingast, Barry R. 2007: Ld Ass Ods h Dv Wd: A Nw Ah h Ps f Dv, : Wd B PyRsh P 4359, S 2007, Wd B Idd Ev G, www-wds.wd./x/df/WDSCSv/IW3P/IB/2007/09/19/000158349_20070919115851/Rdd/PDF/WPS4359.df; 20 Nv 2015.

Osaghae, Eghosa E. 2010: Th Ls f Chs Ahy d h Chs f Ldsh N,: J f Cy Af Sds 28/4, 407-422.

Parshin, Konstann 2015: Ey Tjs’s W S, Rss Psss f I, : Th MswTs, 16 Jy, www.hsws./.h?d=514466; 4 Mh 2015.

Omorogbe, Eki Y. 2011: A C f Is? Th Af U d Cs d’É, : Vd Jf Ts Lw 44, 123-154.

Partrick, Neil 2011: Th GCC: Gf S I Ldsh C?, : LSE/KFAS Rsh P- 19, Nv 2011, Th Kw P Dv, Gv d Gs h Gf Ss, Ld: Ld Shs f Es/Kw Fd f h Adv-

f Ss.




Pelagidis, Theodore/Papasoriou, Harry 2002: Gs Rs? Ss, Ms d hS f I Td, : Rvw f I Sds 28/3, 519-535.

Popescu, Nicu 2014: Es U: h R, h Iy d h Ly, : EUISS Ch P 132,S 2014, Ps: E U Is f Sy Sds.

Pryce, Paul 2013: P’s Thd T: Th Th f Ess?, : R J f EAs 13/1, 25-43.

Ramdoo, Isabelle 2014: ECOWAS d SADC E Psh As: A Cv Ay-ss, : ECDPM Dsss P 165, S 2014, h://d./s/w-s-sd--sh--v-yss/; 14 Fy 2015.

Riedel, Bruce 2013: Sd A Mv Ahd wh Gf U, : A M, 22 D, www.-./s/s/2013/12/sd---y--s--dh.h#; 12 Jy 2015.

Rickleton, Chris 2015: Kyyzs Rss R Rss wh T Hs Tdy, : EsN, 22J, www.s./d/73961; 12 Jy 2015.

Roberts, Sean/Marin, Anaïs/Moshes, Arkady/Pynnöniemi, Katri 2014: Th Es E U:B h P f s-Sv I?, : FIIA Ayss 3, S 2014, Hs:Th Fsh Is f I As.

Sakwa, Richard 2011: Rss’s Idy: Bw h ‘Ds’ d h ‘I’, : E-AsSds 63/6, 957-975.

Schlumberger, Oliver 2010: O Od Bs Sh f Nw W: O N-d Ly h Mdd Es, : Mdd Es Cq 19/3, 233-250.

Soldatov, Andrei/Borogan, Irina 2010: Th Nw Ny: Th Rs f Rss’s Sy S d hEd Ly f h KGB, Phdh, PA: Pss Bs.

Shmylo-Tapiloa, Olga 2012: Th Es Css U: Fd F f h EU?, : Th C P-s, O 2012, Bsss: C Edw f I P, h://-

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Silitski, Vitali 2006: C Dd: Pv Ahs h F Sv U (hCs f Bs), : CDDRL W Ps 66, J 2006, C Dy, Dv,d h R f Lw, F S Is f I Sds, Sfd, CA: SfdUvsy.

Silitski, Vitali 2010: “Svv f h Fs:” Ds d I Dss f h Ah- R h F Sv U Fw h Cd Rvs, : Cs dPs-Cs Sds 43/4, 339–350

Söderbaum, Fredrik 2004: Mds f R Gv Af: Ns, Svy Bs,d Shdw Nws, : G Gv 10/4, 419-436.

Söderbaum, Fredrik 2010: “Wh L H F My Fds”: Hw R Ozs Af Ss- Cs, C d Ds, : Swdsh P S Ass (SWEP-SA), A M, 30 S - 2 O 2010, Gö, Swd, www...s/d-Asss/1316/1316597_sd.1.df; 22 Jy 2015.

Söderbaum, Fredrik 2015: Ey, Od, Nw d Cv Rs: Th Shy Dv fh Fd, KFG W P Ss 64, O 2015, K-Fsh “Th Tsf-v Pw f E“, B: F Uvsä.

Söderbaum, Fredrik 2016: Ey, Od, Nw d Cv Rs: Th Shy Dv fh Fd, : Böz, Tj A./Rss, Ths (ds): Oxfd Hd Cv Rs,Oxfd: Oxfd Uvsy Pss.

Stoddard, Ed 2015: Bw R d Hd P: I-Ex Ly Tss d EU F- Py h E Phy, : J f E I 37/5, 553-570.




SUSRIS 2014: ‘Nw P’ GCC Uy Cs f Rydh S, : Sd-US Rs If S-v, S R, 16 Nv, h://sss./2014/11/16/w----y-s-f-ydh-s/; 16 S 2015.

Tamba, Jean-Mahew 2013: G Ld ‘Os’ Ed Cs W, : Af Rvw, 5 Jy, www.

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The Economist 2011: Th I C C Bs s Th, 12 My, www.s./d/18682044; 14 Mh 2015.

Toumi, Habib 2013: Sd A Rs GCC Sy Ty, : Gf Nws, 17 S, h://fws./ws/f/sd-/sd--s--sy-y-1.1231982; 20 Mh 2015.

US State Department 2001: Th G - Jh’s Ws Af Py, : Ws, hs://ws.//2001/05/01BANJUL327.h; 4 Mh 2015.

Vanderhill, Rachel 2013: P Ahs Ad, Bd, CO: Ly R.

Vatanka, Alex 2014: Kzhs’s Cy Es U Sy, : Th N Is, 20 J, h://

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Wright, Steven 2011: F Py h GCC Ss, : Kv, Mh (d.): Th I Psf h Ps Gf, Sys, NY: Sys Uvsy Pss, 72-93.

Wintrobe, Ronald 1998: Th P Ey f Dsh, Cd: Cd Uvsy Pss.

Wi, Antonia 2013: Cv Whs Ts? R Cs d’É G d Mds,: Af Sy 6/3-4, 257-275.

Yom, Sean L. 2014: Ah Mhs s Es Cy: Ds, Rss d S-vv d h A S, : Tw J f Dy 10/1, 43-62.

Yom, Sean/Gause, Gregory F. 2012: Rs Rys: Hw A Mhs H O, : J f D-y 23/4, 74-88.



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so far, so functional? examining functional and counter-functional dynamics in authoritarian...

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