socanotes (finals)
TRANSCRIPT
Sociology Background 1/20/11 2:14 PM
What is sociology? Latin/Greek word
Socius = Companion / Society
Logos = Study of
Defined by books
Macionis : The systematic study of human society
Kendall : The systematic study of human society and social interactions
Henslin : The scientific study of society and human behaviour
Individual -> society : Prophet Muhammad s.a.w.
Society -> Individual : People go to university because society expects them to
Systematic/Scientific :
Application of systematic methods to obtain knowledge and the knowledge
obtained by those methods
Requires the development of theories that can be tested by research
Goal of science
o To explain why something happen -> Cause and effect
o To make generalizations : to go beyond the individual case and apply
it to a broader group/ situation
o This involves looking at patterns (recurring characteristics or events)
o To predict : to specify what will happen in the future using the current
knowledge
o applying both theoretical perspectives and research methods or
orderly approach) to examinations of social behaviours.
Relative knowledge
Subject to assessment and amendment as time passes
Eg. Divorce reasons do not stay the same – Used to be because of financial
issues (no money) but now rising because of financial issues (too much
money)
Contains two forces :
Social Statics : Maintain status quo
o Eg. Political Parties
Social Dynamics : Seek change and conflict
o Eg. Women’s movement in the 1960s
Why Study Sociology? Asses the truth of common sense
Sociology promotes understanding and tolerance by enabling each of us to
look beyond intuition, common sense, and our personal experiences.
Common sense knowledge : guides ordinary conduct in everyday life.
BUT, many commonsense notions are actually myths.
o A myth : a popular but false notion that may be used, either
intentionally or unintentionally, to perpetuate certain beliefs or
"theories" even in the light of conclusive evidence to the contrary.
By contrast, sociologists strive to use scientific standards, not popular myths
or hearsay, in studying society and social interaction.
Systematic research techniques (TOPIC 2) and are accountable for to the
scientific community for their methods and the presentations of the findings
Whereas some sociologists argue that sociology must be completely value
free - free from distorting subjective (personal or emotional) bias- others do
not think that total objectivity is an attainable or desirable goal when
studying human behaviour. (but Weber : must apply insight)
However, all sociologists attempt to discover patterns or commonalities in
human behaviour.
Empowers us to be active participants in society
Understanding the complex connections between our lives and the larger
patterns of the society and the world we live in.
Helps us to look beyond our personal experiences and gain insight into
society and the larger world order
Individuals can make use of sociology on a more personal level.
Peter Berger : Sociological inquiry helps us see that “things are not what they
seem."
Provides new ways of approaching problems and making decisions in
everyday life.
People with a knowledge of sociology are employed in a variety of fields that
apply sociological insights to everyday life.
C. Wright Mills : Sociological Imagination
Individual ~ Society Link
o The ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and
the larger society (both today and in the past)
Eg. One has financial problems, but even whole society has
financial problems
o Allows us to go beyond personal experiences and observations to
understand broader public issues.
o Enables us to understand the link between our personal experiences
and the social contexts in which they occur.
Eg. Divorce (personal) ~ Changing Values (society)
o View own society as an outsider would instead of only from
perspectives of personal experience and cultural bias [ Max Weber :
Value-free],
Eg. American Football vs British Football, Cockfight in Bali,
Distinguish Between Personal or (Social) Public Issues
o Personal troubles : private problems that affect individuals and the
networks of people with whom they associate regularly.
Must be solved by individuals within their immediate social
settings.
o Public issues : problems that affect large numbers of people
Require solutions at societal level
o The sociological imagination helps us place seemingly personal
troubles, such as losing one's job or feeling like committing suicide,
into a larger social context, where we can distinguish whether and
how personal troubles may be related to public issues.
E.g.: sociologists seek out the multiple causes and effects of
suicide or other social issues.
o They analyze the impact of the problem not only from the standpoint
of the people directly involved but also from the standpoint of the
effects of such behaviour on all people.
Helps us to live in a diverse world
Promotes understanding and tolerance
New way of approaching problems and making decisions.
Helps us to see opportunities and constraints in our lives.
Development of Sociology : Auguste Comte Founder of sociology : outlined what a "science of society" should be and he called
this new discipline sociology.
Sociology must be scientific
Looking back on how knowledge about society had developed historically, Comte
saw three distinct periods or stages.
Three stage historical development
Theological Stage (Dark Ages)
o Beginning of human history to the end of the European Middle Ages
about 1350 C.E., people took a religious view that society expressed
God's will.
o People understood society in terms of their religious beliefs; social life
and events were seen as manifestations of Divine will.
o Controlled totally by the Church
Metaphysical Stage (Renaissance :15th Century)
o People saw society as a natural (cause and effect) rather than a
supernatural system.
o ¨Thomas Hobbes : society reflected not the perfection of God so much
as the failings of a selfish human nature.
o People began to think of social life as an expression of human nature.
Scientific Stage
o Copernicus, the Italian astronomer
o Galileo, the physicist and astronomer and the English physicist and
mathematician Isaac Newton.
o Comte's contribution came in applying the scientific approach - first
used to study the physical world - to the study of society.
o ¨The discoveries of seventeenth and eighteenth-century scientists
such as Newton and Galileo gave rise to the third stage-the scientific
stage in which science replaced religion and philosophy as the means
of understanding society.
Comte : The various disciplines passed through these three stages at different
rates, and sociology was the last to reach the scientific stage.
Represented the apex of the sciences, dealing with the most complex subject
matter: human beings and their social interactions.
Despite the complexity of the social world, however, it, like the natural world,
was governed by a set of invariable laws.
Positivism
Despite the complexity of the social world, however, it, like the natural world,
was governed by a set of invariable laws.
By applying the scientific method to the study of society, sociologists would
not only discover these laws, but could use them to realign the everyday
operation of society (Pickering, 1993).
THUS
Positivism : knowledge must be derived from observable facts, rather than
from superstition, fantasy, or some other non-empirical (non-verifiable)
source = positive knowledge
Applying scientific method to the social world.
Lead to more rational human interactions, improve society
o Eg. Predict likely results of different policies so that the best one can
be chosen
Birth of Sociology Major historical events rarely just happen.
Result of powerful social forces.
Striking changes in Europe during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
Three kinds of change were especially important in the development of sociology:
the rise of a factory-based roman industrial economy,
the explosive growth of cities,
new ideas about democracy and political rights.
Industrialization
Agriculture and handmade products >> manufacturing and related industries
Industrial Revolution in Britain (1760 -1850), repeated throughout Western
Europe.
By the mid-nineteenth century, industrialization US
Massive economic, technological, and social changes occurred as machine
technology and the factory system shifted the economic base of these nations
from agriculture to manufacturing.
A new social class of industrialists emerged in textiles, iron smelting, and
related industries.
A New Industrial Economy
o Middle Ages in Europe : people ploughed fields near their homes or
worked in small-scale manufacturing
o End of the eighteenth century : inventors used new sources of energy-
the power of moving water and then steam-to operate large machines
in mills and factories.
o Labouring at home or in small groups >> large and anonymous labour
force, under the control of strangers who owned the factories.
o Took people out of their homes, weakening the traditions that had
guided community life for centuries.
Urbanization : Growth of Cities
Urbanization : process by which an increasing proportion of a population
lives in cities rather than in rural areas.
Why?
Enclosure movement : landowners fenced off more and more farmland to
create grazing areas for sheep, the source of wool for the thriving textile
mills.
Without land, countless tenant farmers had little choice but to head to the
cities in search of work which became centres of industrial work
People from very diverse backgrounds worked together in the same factory.
People shifted from being producers to being consumers.
o Eg. Families living in the cities had to buy food with their wages
because they could no longer grow their own crops to consume or to
barter for other resources.
Similarly, people had to pay rent for their lodging because they could no
longer exchange their services for shelter.
These living and working conditions led to the development of new social
problems: inadequate housing, crowding, unsanitary conditions, poverty,
pollution, and crime.
Wages were so low that entire families-including very young children-were
forced to work, often under hazardous conditions and with no job security.
As these conditions became more visible, a new breed of social thinkers
turned its attention to trying to understand why and how society was
changing.
Moving through streets crowded with strangers, they faced a new and
impersonal social world
Political Change
Europeans in the Middle Ages viewed society as an expression of God's will:
From the royalty to the serfs, each person up and down the social ladder
played a part in the holy plan.
But as cities grew, tradition came under attack. In the writings of Thomas
Hobbes, John Locke, and Adam Smith, we see a shift in focus from a moral
obligation to God and king to the pursuit of self-interest.
In the new political climate, philosophers spoke of personal liberty and
individual rights.
Echoing these sentiments, our own Declaration of Independence states that
every person has "certain unalienable rights," including "life, liberty, and the
pursuit of happiness."
Huge factories, exploding cities, a new spirit of individualism-these changes
combined to make people more aware of their surroundings.
The new discipline of sociology was born in England, France, and Germany-
precisely where the changes were greatest.
Sociological Perspectives 1/20/11 2:14 PM
Sociological Perspectives : Peter Berger Sociological inquiry helps us see that “things are not what they seem."
Seeing the general in the particular.
sociologists look for general patterns in the behaviour of particular people.
o Eg. People marry because they are in love
Although every individual is unique, a society shapes the lives of people in various
categories (such as children and adults, women and men, the rich and the poor) very
differently.
We begin to see the world sociologically by realizing how the general categories into
which we fall shape our particular life experiences.
Eg. In a classic study of women's hopes for their marriages, Lillian Rubin
found that higher-income women typically expected the men they married to
be sensitive to others, to talk readily, and to share feelings and experiences.
Lower-income women, she found, had very different expectations and were
looking for men who did not drink too much, were not violent, and held
steady jobs.
Obviously, what women expect in a marriage partner has a lot to do with
social class position
This text explores the power of society to guide our actions, thoughts, and
feelings.
We may think that marriage results simply from the personal feelings of love.
Yet the sociological perspective shows us that factors such as age, sex, race,
and social class guide our selection of a partner.
It might be more accurate to think of love as a feeling we have for others who
match up with what society teaches us to want in a mate.
At first, using the sociological perspective may seem like seeing the strange in
the familiar.
Consider how you might react if someone were to say to you, "You fit all the
right categories, which means you would make a wonderful spouse!"
We are used to thinking that people fall in love and decide to marry based on
personal feelings.
But the sociological perspective reveals the initially strange idea that society
shapes what we think and do.
Because we live in an individualistic society, learning to see how society
affects us may take a bit of practice.
Seeing the strange in the familiar
18 – 30 year olds going to university as society ‘forces’ them to
Sociological Theories 1/20/11 2:14 PM
Sociological Theory Statement of how and why facts are related
Explain the behaviour in real world
Eg. Emile Durkheim : low integration = suicide
How to build a theory?
What issues to study?
How to connect the facts
Sociologists make use of three major theoretical approaches:
Structural-functional perspective
Social-conflict perspective
Symbolic-interaction perspective
Structural Functionalism Definition
Aka functionalism and structural analysis, is rooted in the origins of
sociology.
A theoretical framework in which society is viewed as composed of various
parts, each with a function that when fulfils, contributes to society’s
equilibrium.
Based on the assumption that society is a stable, orderly system.
The central idea of functional analysis is that society is a whole unit, made up
of interrelated parts that work together.
Main goal
Figure out “what makes society tick.”
Auguste Comte and Charles Herbert Spencer : society = kind of living organism.
Comte : need to keep the society unified at a time when many traditions were
breaking down.
Spencer : society = human body.
Society is composed of interrelated parts, each of which serves a function and
contributes to the overall stability of the society.
Societies develop social structures or institutions that persist because they
play a part in helping society survive.
If anything bad happens to one of these institutions or parts, all other parts
are affected and the system no longer functions properly.
This stable system is characterized by societal consensus, whereby the
majority of members share a common set of values, beliefs and behavioural
expectations.
Hadith :
Hazrat Nu`man bin Bashir (May Allah be pleased with them) reported:
Messenger of Allah (PBUH) said, "The believers in their mutual
kindness, compassion and sympathy are just like one body. When one of
the limbs suffers, the whole body responds to it with wakefulness and
fever". [Al-Bukhari and Muslim].
What do structural functionalists examine?
Social Structure
o Any relatively stable pattern of social behaviour.
o Social structure give our lives shape.
o How the parts of a society fit together to make the whole.
Social Function
o The consequences of any social patterns for the operation of society as
a whole.
o What each part does, how it contributes to society.
Emile Durkheim (1858 – 1917) People are the product of their social environment
Behaviour cannot be understood fully in terms of individual biological and
psychological traits.
Believed that the limits of human potential are socially based, not biologically based.
The Rules of Sociological Method : societies are built on social facts.
Social facts are patterned ways of acting, thinking, and feeling that exist
outside any one individual but that exert social control over each person.
Durkheim believed that social facts must be explained by other social facts-by
reference to the social structure rather than to individual attributes.
Was concerned with social order and social stability
Viewed society as being composed of many parts, each with its own function.
o Normal state : All parts fulfil functions
o Abnormal state or pathological stage : Not all parts fulfil functions
Was concerned about the dangers of alienation, loneliness and isolation might pose
for modern industrial society.
Shared Comte’s belief that sociology should provide direction for social change.
Rapid social change and a more specialized division of labour produce strains in
society.
Lead to a breakdown in traditional organization, values, and authority and to a
dramatic increase in anomie.
Suicide : Relationship between anomic social conditions and suicide, a concept that
remains important in the twenty-first century.
o 3 Types of Suicide
Egoistic
Weak social integration/attachment
Altruistic
Intense attachment to primary groups and strong social
integration gives them something positive to die for
eg kamikaze pilot, terrorist suicide bombers
Anomic
In response to sudden changes, don’t know how to handle
Eg. sudden wealth / poverty
-> Sign of Anomie ie not grateful
o Apakah anomie?!
Normlessness
The loss of direction felt in a society when social control of
individual behavior has become ineffective.
The state of anomie occur when people have lost their sense of
purpose or direction in society, often during a time of profound
social change.
In a period of anomie, people are so confused and unable to
cope with the new social environment that they may resort to
taking their own lives
Robert K Merton Function
Any social structure probably has many functions, some more obvious than
others
The beneficial consequences of people’s actions
Help keep a group (society, social system) in equilibrium.
Manifest function
If an action is intended to help some part of a system
Intended/ overtly consequence recognized by the participants in a social unit
Latent functions
Unintended consequences that help a system adjust.
Unintended functions that are hidden and remain unacknowledged by
participants
o Eg. University’s role in certifying academic competence and excellence
o Eg. University’s role in holding down unemployment and serves as a
meeting ground for people seeking marital partners.
Dysfunction
An element of process of a society that may actually disrupt the social
system/ society or reduce its stability.
Consequences that harm a society: they undermine a system’s equilibrium.
BUT still continue because provide certain functions that some members of
society needs, eg prostitution
EXAMPLE of all three in the Industrial Revolution
Manifest : Employment and economy increase
Latent : Boost development in neighbouring areas
Dysfunction : Increase in crime rate
EXAMPLE of all three in Educational Institute
Manifest : Provide education and teaching skills
Latent : Meeting place for future spouses
Dysfunction : Increase in crime rate
Talcott Parsons (Harvard Sociologist) Society : vast networks of connected parts, each helping to maintain system as a
whole (like a spider web)
All social structure keeps society going!
If a part does not contribute, it is not passed on to the next generation
Eg. Physical punishment on children
Focuses on
social structure/institution
o Family, economic, marriage, family, education, political
Structure’s social function
o Consequence of social pattern for the operation of society as a whole
o Eg. Family
Young treat parents well = young treat elderly well
o Eg. Political
To enforce rules and regulations, maintain peace and stability
Conflict Perspective Also known as social-conflict perspective.
Society
Composed of groups that are competing for scarce resources.
an arena of inequality (resources and rewards are unevenly distributed
among the population) that generates conflict and change.
Also known as social-conflict perspective.
Continue struggle.
Assumes that social behaviour is best understood in terms of tensions between
groups over power of the allocation of resources
Also, interested in how social institutions may help to maintain the privileges of
some groups and keep others in a subservient position.
People on top try to protect their privileges while disadvantaged try to gain more for
themselves.
The struggle between the “haves” and the “haves not”.
Social structure ≠ promote operation of society
Benefits some, hurts some
Factors
Race : Whites vs Blacks
Gender : Men vs Women
Wealth : Rich vs Poor
Age
Power
Education
Social Prestige
Sociological research should not be separated from sociological practice :
irresponsible to do so!
Use the knowledge gained to develop strategies for making society better.
A "good" society is a society in which resources, rewards, and opportunities are
distributed equitably.
KARL MARX (1818 – 1883) Founder of conflict theory
Witnessed the Industrial revolution
Key to human history is class conflict between entire classes over distribution of
society’s wealth and power
Believed that conflict, especially class conflict is necessary in order to produce social
change and a better society.
In each society, some small group controls the means of production and exploits
those who are not in control
Industrial societies : bourgeoisie (small group of capitalists who own the means to
produce wealth) VS proletariat (the mass of workers who are exploited by the
bourgeoisie.
The capitalist class controls and exploits the masses of struggling workers by paying
less than the value of their labour, treat them as productive property
Results in worker's alienation - a feeling of powerlessness and estrangement from
other people and from oneself.
Prediction : working class would become aware of its exploitation, overthrow the
capitalist and establish a free and classes society.
Class consciousness
Subjective awareness of common vested interests and the need for collective
political action to bring about social change.
Shared identity based on their position in the means of production.
Class consciousness worker realizes that all workers are being exploited by
the bourgeoisie and have a common stake in revolution.
o Problem at that time : They did not perceive themselves as exploited
workers whose difficulty could be solve by collective action.
For Marx, class consciousness was part of a collective process- proletariat
comes to identify the bourgeoisie as the source of oppression.
Proletariat will overthrow the rule of the bourgeoisie and the government
and will eliminate private ownership of the means of production through
workers’ revolution.
Workers must become aware of their oppression and see capitalism as its
true cause.
They must organize and act to address their problems. This means that false
consciousness must be replaced by class consciousness
False consciousness
An attitude held by members of a class that does not accurately reflect their
objective position.
A worker with false consciousness may adopt an individualistic viewpoint
toward capitalist exploitation
o “I am being exploited by my boss”
o “I am poor because I am not smart, or have no skills. They are rich
because they are hardworking and clever.”
The force that will hold back the class consciousness and workers’ revolution.
Workers mistakenly thinking of themselves as capitalists.
Superstructure vs Infrastructure
Economy as the foundation of the social system
Economy as the society's real foundation
The infrastructure (infra- Latin, meaning below)
Other social institutions in the society are built on this foundation.
Superstructure will try as best as possible to support infrastructure
o Legal protect economy… Burglary laws
o Family… allow capitalists to pass down property for generations
o Religion… allow usury
Max Weber (1864 – 1920) Also concerned about the changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution.
Disagreed with Marx’s idea that economics is the central force in social change,
Weber acknowledge that economic interest are important in shaping human action.
Even so, economic systems were heavily influenced by other factors in a society.
Cannot analyze our social behaviour by the same type of objective criteria we use to
measure weight or temperature.
Must learn the subjective meanings people attach to their actions - how they
themselves view and explain their behaviour.
Concerned that large-scale organizations (bureaucracies) were becoming
increasingly oriented toward routine administration and a specialized division of
labour, which he believed were destructive to human vitality and freedom.
Rational bureaucracy rather than class struggle, was the most significant factor in
determining the social relations between people in industrial societies.
Bureaucratic domination can be used to maintain powerful (capitalist)
interest in society.
Rationalization- “ the process by which the modern world has come to be
increasingly dominated by structures devoted to efficiency, calculability,
predictability and technological control.
Symbolic-Interaction Perspective Society : product of the everyday interactions of individuals.
Sociological framework in which human being is viewed as living in a world of
meaningful objects. (attach meaning to something)
Material things, actions, other people, relationships and even symbols.
Analyzes the society in less general terms and more as the everyday experiences of
individual.
George Herbert Mead (1863-1931) who first emphasized the importance of
symbolic communication for understanding human interaction.
Herbert Blumer developed Mead's ideas into the theory of symbolic interaction.
Pointed out that people's actions derive from their interpretation of what
goes on around them, and much of this interpretation is learned through
interacting with others.
Structural functionalism and conflict theory : top-down approaches to the study of
social life and social organization,
Symbolic interaction : may be viewed as a bottom-up approach.
Start with the assumption that culture, organizations, and social structures
are created through daily communications and interactions among people.
Reality is therefore is simply how we define our surroundings, our obligations
towards others and our identities.
Focuses on the process of interaction (immediate reciprocally oriented
communication between two or more people) and the part that symbols play in giving
meaning to human communication.
Symbols as an especially important part of human communication.
Does not have intrinsic meaning
Meaning assigned to it by the people who decide that the word, sound,
gesture, or object has significance.
Draws our attention to the ways in which routine behaviours and taken-for-granted
beliefs help make social order possible
Eg. Non-verbal communication
o Gestures
o Facial Expressions
o Body Postures
Without symbols,
our life would be no more sophisticated than that of animals.
we could not coordinate our actions with those of other people.
Relationships and societies won’t exist.
Symbolic interactionists analyze how our behavior depend on the ways we work out
their relationships and how they make sense out of life and their place in it.
Symbolic interactionists point out that even the self is a symbol, for it consists of the
ideas we have about who we are.
Misconceptions of Sociology 1/20/11 2:14 PM
The benevolent interest in people/sociology is particularly humanitarian
malevolent.
Misconceptions Theoretician for social work.
Actually social work in America has been far more influenced by psychology
than sociology in the development for its theory.
Social work is a practice in society BUT sociology is not a practice, it is an
attempt to understand
Sociologists have no values
since Max Weber said that the ideal sociologist should be value-free.
BUT value-free just means that a sociologist should only limit his values to
one – scientific integrity – when playing his role as a sociologist, to control his
bias.
Analogy = good spy report everything and not just what his superior wants to
hear
Sociologists as a social reformer
Auguste Comte : sociology as the doctrine of progress – secularized successor
to theology as the mistress of the sciences BUT died
Sociologists reach to a certain understanding, but these understanding can be
applied with opposite intentions
o Eg. Understanding of racial prejudice : applied by those promoting
hate groups, and those promoting tolerance
Same confusion as social worker
Sociologists as a gatherer of statistics about human behaviour
After World War I : American sociology turned resolutely away from theory t
an intensive preoccupation with narrowly circumscribed empirical studies.
Refined their research techniques , hence statistical figures figured
prominently
BUT important to note that the political and economic structure of American
academic life encourage this pattern throughout all academia, not just
sociology.
Statistical data by itself is NOT sociology
o Only becomes sociology when are sociologically interpreted, and put
within theoretical frame of reference that is sociological
The numbers are only meaningful to him only in terms of their much broader
understanding of institutions and values in our society.
Mainly concerned in developing scientific methodology that he can then
impose on human phenomena
Intellectual barbarism : use outlandish jargon in sociological writing
BUT it has to be done because
o Sociology is scientific since its birth
o the English language is extremely limited in its vague nature, so
sociologists have to come up with a precise, unambiguous definition if
his work is to continue with such scientific vigor
o Invent new words to avoid semantic traps of vernacular usage
This affects other fields as well!
Sociologists as a detached, sardonic observer, and a cold manipulator of men.
Image arises ironically with the triumph of sociology’s own efforts to be
accepted as a genuine scientist
Send form etc, never in direct contact with subjects in order to try to be
value-free
So who really is a sociologist? Someone concerned with understanding society in a disciplined way –
operations bound by certain rules of evidence
Person intensively, endlessly, shamelessly interested in doings of men – their
institutions, their history, their passions.
Quest for understanding bring him around the world of men without any
respect for boundaries
Open doors to listen to voices
Doesn’t care of who his subjects are and where they lead him to, as long as he
finds answers to his questions
Wisdom in sociology – things are not always what they seem
Sociological Inquiry 1/20/11 2:14 PM
Introductions to Social Inquiry Sociological perspective incorporates theory and research to arrive at a more
accurate understanding of the “hows” and “whys” of human social interaction.
Thus, Social research
key part of sociology.
indicates that our common sense and daily assumptions about the world is
frequently incorrect.
debunking - the unmasking of fallacies (false or mistaken ideas or opinions) in the
everyday and official interpretations of society.
To answer a question, need to move beyond guesswork and commonsense.
To find out, research on every aspect of social life via the use of empirical approach.
Systematic collection and analysis of data.
Aka conventional model, or the “scientific method”
Based on the assumption that knowledge is best gained by direct, systematic
observation.
SCIENCE
A logical system that bases knowledge on direct, systematic observation.
Scientific knowledge rests on empirical evidence, that is, information we can
verify with our senses.
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and
consistency in researching a problem.
Two basic scientific standards must be met:
o Scientific beliefs should be supported by good evidence or information
o These beliefs should be open to public debate and critiques from other
scholars and alternative interpretations should be considered.
Researcher needs to study the reality without changing it in any way, and they strive
for objectivity (personal neutrality in conducting research).
Carefully hold to scientific procedures and do not let their own attitudes and
beliefs influence the results.
Requires precise preparation in developing useful research.
Otherwise, the research data collected may not prove accurate.
Two types of empirical studies: Descriptive studies
Attempts to describe social reality or provide facts about some group,
practice or event.
Studies of this type are designed to find out what is happening to whom,
where and when.
Explanatory studies
Attempts to explain cause-and-effect relationships and to provide
information on why certain events do or do not occur.
Theory and Research Cycle The relationship between theory and research has been referred to as a continuous
cycle.
Theory
Set of logically interrelated statements that attempts to describe, explain and
predict social events.
Attempts to explain why something is the way it is.
Research
Process of systematically collecting information for the purpose of testing an
existing theory or generating a new one.
Helps us question such assumptions about suicide and other social concerns.
Relationship
Theory gives meaning to research; research helps support theory.
Theories unsupported by data are meaningless.
The theory and research cycles consists of deductive and inductive
approaches.
Inductive Approach
Researcher collects information or data (facts or evidence) and then
generates theories from the analysis of that data.
Uses reasoning that transform specific observation into general theory.
A researcher’s thinking runs from the specific to the general.
“I have something interesting data here, I wonder what they mean?”
The steps involve:
o Specific observations suggest generalizations
o Generalizations produce a tentative theory
o The theory is tested through the formation of hypotheses
o Hypotheses may provide suggestions for additional observation
Deductive Approach
Researcher begins with a theory and uses research to test the theory.
Moves downward, in the opposite direction.
Reasoning that transform general theory into specific hypothesis suitable for
testing.
a researcher’s thinking runs from the general to the specific.
“I have this hunch about human behavior; let’s collect data and put it to the
test.”
Working deductively, the researcher first states the theory in the form of a
hypothesis and then select a method by which to test it.
To the extent that the data support the hypothesis, we conclude that the
theory is correct, if the data refute the hypothesis, we know that the theory
needs to be revised or perhaps rejected entirely.
This approach proceeds as follows:
o Theories generates hypothesis
o Hypothesis lead to observations (data gathering)
o Observations lead to the formation of generalizations
o Generalizations are used to support the theory.
Qualitative vs Quantitative Research Qualitative Research
Attempt to study the social world from the point of view of the people they
are studying.
Approach : Relies on the field and naturalistic settings (Process oriented)
Logical Orientation : Inductive
Hypothesis : Generate
Research Value : Authentic without claiming to be value free
o As the sociologist himself cannot be value-free 100%
o Go to the natural setting itself
Sampling : Purposive (evolving)
o Focuses on small groups and communities rather than on large groups
or nations BUT
o Don’t specify how many sample
o Subject will serve your purpose
o Don’t extract small number from pool, all will become sample
Eg. People who move out from kampung but stayed there all
his life can still be asked
Measurement : Researcher is primary instrument (insider’s view)
o Participate in all of subject’s activities
Data Reduction : Words, categorizing, themes, observation
o Eg.: A study in which the researcher systematically analyzed the
contents of suicide notes to determine recurring themes, such as
feeling of despair or failure, in the notes of suicide victims.
Data Presentation : Verbatim records of interviews, pictures and personal
experiences of researchers
Data Analysis : Citing/Categorizing/
Quantitative Research
The goal is scientific objectivity and the focus is on data that can be measured
numerically.
Approach : Relies on controlled, experimental setting (outcome oriented)
Logical Orientation : Deductive
Hypothesis : Test
Research Value : Reliability claim to be value-free
o No personal judgement
o Data speaks for itself
Sampling : Random (Pre-determined)
o Aka Systematic Random
o Make use of large samples BUT
o Pre-determined : before start data collection, sample already
determined definitely
Measurement : Psychosocial/Physiosocial (outsider’s view)
o No contact between subject and researcher
Data Reduction : Numerical and statistical data
o Emphasize on complex statistical techniques
o Numerical measurement of people’s behaviour
o Generally use surveys, secondary analyses of existing statistical data,
and experimental designs.
Data Presentation : Relationships in graphs/tables
Data Analysis : Statistical inference/estimation
Social Research Process 1/20/11 2:14 PM
Social Research Model1. Select and define a research problem
2. Review the literature
3. Formulate the Hypothesis
4. Develop Research Design
5. Collect and Analyze Data
6. Draw conclusion and report finding
Select and Define Research Problem
Aka Statement of the Problem
1st Step : select and clearly define a topic.
o State as clearly as possible what you hope to investigate - that is,
define the problem
2nd Step: Define the problem,
3rd Step : Specify what the researcher wants to learn about the topic. – reason
for doing research, and hence, the direction/focus of the research
Virtually any aspect of human behaviour is subject to scrutiny by sociologists.
May examine macro-level issues
o effects of economic changes on work patterns and racial differences in
marriage patterns.
Or, on the micro level
o stylists' and customers' interactions in a beauty salon and women's
exchanges at garage sales.
o Even at the micro level, however, an underlying goal of the research is
to uncover the links between the individual and society.
Reviewing the Literature
Helps to clarify issues and focus the direction of your own research.
Narrow down the problem, identify areas that already known and learn what
are the areas need to be researched.
Pinpoint the questions that you will want to ask and find out that the problem
has been answered already.
Refine the problem under study, clarify possible techniques to be used in
collecting data and eliminate or reduce avoidable mistakes.
Formulate Hypothesis
Hypothesis
o A speculative statement about the relationship between two or more
factors known as variables.
o A statement of the relationship between two or more concepts.
Concepts
o Mental construct/ abstract elements that represents some part of the
world in simplified form.
o Something that exists in the mind, cannot prove existence in real life
E.g.: Society, community, family, economy, social integration,
loneliness, income, religion, occupation, gender.
Eg. Ridhwan T Abduallah
o Sociologists use concepts to describe people as when we speak of
someone “race” or “social class”.
o When formulating a hypothesis, you may need to convert concepts to
variables.
Variable
o Any concept with measurable traits or characteristics that can change
or vary from one person, time, situation or society to another.
o Variables are the observable and/or measurable counterparts of
concepts.
o Relationships among variables
Must identify how variables are related, looking into the
relationship in which change in one variable causes change in
another.
The most fundamental relationship in a hypothesis is between
a dependent variable and one or more independent variable.
o Independent Variable
The variable that causes the change
Is presumed to cause or determine a dependent variable.
The variable hypothesized to cause or influence another
variable.
E.g.: age, sex, race and ethnicity are often used as
independent variables.
o Dependent Variable
The variable that changes.
Is assumed to depend on or be caused by the independent
variable (effect)
Its action depends on the influence of the independent variable.
Developing Research Design
Means by which you collect your date is called a research method (or
research design).
Some of the research methods:
o Survey,
o field research (observation, participant observation/ ethnography,
case study, unstructured interview)
o secondary analysis (analyzing statistics, content analysis)
o experiments.
Collect and Analyze Data
Decide what population - person about whom you want to be able to draw
conclusions - will be observed or questioned.
Necessary to select a sample of people from the larger population to be
studied.
Sample must accurately represent the larger population.
Population
o The target group to be studied.
Sample
o The individuals intended to represent the population to be studied.
o Selection from a larger population that is statistically representative of
that population.
o Random Sampling
Every member of an entire population being studied has the
same chance of being studied.
Represents your study’s population fairly; this means that you
can generalize your findings to the whole population, even if
they were not included in your sample.
o Probability Sampling
Participants are deliberately chosen because they have specific
characteristics
Possibly including such factors as age, sex, race/ ethnicity and
educational attainment.
Validity
o The extent to which a study or research instrument accurately
measures what is supposed to measure.
o Actually measuring exactly what you intend to measure.
o Refers to the degree to which a measure or scale truly reflects the
phenomena under study.
Reliability
o The extent to which a study or research instrument yields consistent
results when applied to different individuals at one time or to the
same individuals over time.
o Consistency in measurement.
o Yet, consistency does not guarantee validity.
Drawing Conclusions and Reporting Findings
Drawing Conclusions
o After analyzing the data, return to the hypothesis or research
objective to clarify how the data relate both to the hypothesis and to
the larger issue being addressed.
o Scientific studies, including those conducted by sociologists, do not
aim to answer all the questions that can be raised about a particular
subject.
o Therefore, the conclusion of a research study represents both an
ending and a beginning.
o It terminates a specific phase of the investigation but should also
generate ideas for future study.
Writing Report
o Share your findings with the scientific community.
o Review how you did your research.
o Show how your findings fit in with what has already been published
on the topic and how they support or disagree with the theories that
apply to your topic.
o Your finding will be available for replication - that is, others can repeat
your study to see if they come up with similar results.
Data Collection Methods 1/20/11 2:14 PM
Survey Reserch Researcher gathers facts or attempts to determine the relationships among facts
Most widely used
Make possible to study things that are not directly observable
o Attitudes, believes, emotions, perceptions
Describe a population too large to observe directly
o Big no. of sample
People who provide data: respondents
Questionnaires
o Printed research instrument containing a serirs of items in which
respondents respond
Statement agree/disagree
Can be face-to-face or phone
Most common is self-administered
Interview
o Data cllections encounter were interviewer asks respondents and
record answers
o Utilize structured interview (standardized questionnaire)
Advantage
o Describe large population without having to interview each person in
that population
Disadvantage
o Respondents may not tell the truth
Secondary Analysis Researcher use existing materials and analyze data that were originally collected by
oerhs
Eg. public records, official reports, raw adata by other researchers
Written records?: books, diaries, poems, graffiti
Narrative and visual: movies, tv, adv, greeting cards
Material culture: music, art
Include content analysis
Systematic examination of cultural artifacts or various forms of
communication to extract thematic data and draw conclusions about social
life
o Look for regular patterns such as frequency of topic on TV shows
o
Advantage
o Data readily available
o Chance of bias reduced
Disadvantage
o Data incomplete, unauthentic, inaccurate
Field Research Study of social life In its natural setting
Observing and interviewing people where they live, work and play
Better understanding
Detailed information
Can be conducted in two ways
Participant observation
o Process of collecting systematic observations why being part of the
acitivties of the group
o Insider information
o May be biased in interpretation
o Min time: 6 – 8 months
Ethnography
o Detailed study of life and activities of group by researchers who may
live with the group over a period of years
o Longer time
Experiments Carefully designed situation in which researcher studies impact of certain variables
on subject’s attitudes or behaviour
Create real-life situations
Study influence on variable
Cause and effect
Subjects divided into two groups
Experimental
Control
Advantage
Control over environment
Disadvantage
Artificial
Culture – Basic Concepts 1/20/11 2:14 PM
Culture Definition
Hence includes what we think, how we act and what we own
Our link to the past and guide to the future
Is learned, shared and integrated
Importance of culture
essential for our individual survival and our communication with other
people
o must learn about culture through interaction, observation, and
imitation
o Sharing a common culture with others simplifies day-to-day
interactions
fundamental for the survival of societies
o A society is composed of interacting people who share the same
culture; interdependent
o hold the same values and beliefs, speak the same language, practice
the same customs, and so on
o Members of the society learn this culture and transmit it from one
generation to the next
o enormously stabilising force for a society and it can provide a sense of
continuity
o distinguishes one group from another and gives group members a
sense of belonging
Elements of Culture
Material Culture
physical or tangible creations that members of a society make, use, and share
Raw Materials/Resources (tree, ore, oil) technology Usable items
(computers, books, guns)
o Technology
knowledge, techniques, and tools that make it possible for
people to transform resources into usable forms, and the
knowledge and skills required to use them after they are
developed
Concrete and Abstract
important because it is our buffer against the environment (shelter)
Beyond the survival level, we make, use, and share objects that are
interesting and important to us.
Distinguishes a group of people such as their art, building, jewellery,
hairstyles etc
Non-Material Culture
Nontangible or nonphysical products that the members of a society create,
including values, belief , and the language to express them
Abstract or intangible human creations of society that influence people's
behavior.
ways of using material objects and customs, beliefs, philosophies,
governments and pattern of communication
Way of thinking: beliefs, values and other assumptions about the world
Way of doing: common patterns of behavior, including language and other
forms of interaction
Central Component: Beliefs - the mental acceptance or conviction that certain
things are true or real
Relations between the two
Cultural Integration: interdependence among the elements of a culture
ideas spawn new objects, and objects produce ideas.
Non Material Culture
Symbols
Anything that carries a particular meaning recognized by people who share a
culture
Shared social meaning
Man have ability to create and manipulate symbols, attaching meaning to
virtually everything
Can change over time
Transmit many kinds of ideas
o IE. Heart, swastika, siren, fist pump, gestures, brands, clothings
symbols may be specific to a given culture and have special meaning to
individuals who share that culture but not necessarily to other people
Values
The collective conceptions of what is considered good, desirable and proper –
or bad, undesirable and improper in a culture
Culturally defined standards that people use to decide what is desirable, good
and beautiful and that serve as a broad guidelines for social living
influence people’s behavior and serve as criteria for evaluating the actions of
others
central values of a culture are constantly being reinforced in its members,
from their birth until their death
Typically come in pairs of positive and negative values
o Eg. Brave vs cowardly, hardworking vs lazy
provide ideals or beliefs about behavior but do not state explicitly how we
should behave
Beliefs
Specific thoughts or ideas that people hold to be true.
Norms
The established standards of behavior maintained by a society
Norms are the rules of a culture; they tell the members of a culture how they
are expected to behave in a given situation
must be widely shared and understood for it to become significant
o Eg. open door for person carrying things, give up seat, break traffic
rules
vary not only from culture to culture, but also situationally within a single
culture
o Eg. People kissin in public vs having sex in public
1st Categorization: Formal vs Informal
o Formal
Crucial
Generally have been written down and specify strict
punishment for violators
Eg. Laws – codified and enforced by proper sanctions
Formal sanctions are clearly defined and can be
administered only by persons in certain official
positions who are given the authority to impose the
sanctions.
o Informal
Less important
Generally understood but not recorded
When people violate informal norms, other people may apply
informal sanctions
Eg. Frown, raise eyebrow
Sanctions: are penalties and rewards (reactions) for
conduct concerning a social norm
2nd Categorization: Mores vs Falkways
o Mores
norms that carry a strong social sanction (such as
imprisonment) if violated because the members of a culture
consider adherence to them essential to the well-being of the
society
strongly held norms with moral and ethical connotations
widely observed and have a great moral significance
Distinguish right and wrong
highly essential to the stability of society
o Folkways
Informal norms or everyday customs that may be violated
without serious consequences within a particular culture.
provide rules for conduct but are not considered to be essential
to society's survival
routine or casual interaction
Distinguish between right and rude
pay less attention to folkways
o Taboos
norms so strongly held that to violate them is virtually
inconceivable and offensive
the strongest mores
often brings revulsion if violated
sanctions are severe and may include prison, banishment or
death
Eg, Incest, canibalism
o Laws
formal and standardize norms that have been enacted by
legislators and are enforced by formal sanctions
civil or criminal
Languages
An abstract system of word, meanings and symbols for all aspects of culture.
Allow people to communicate thoughts and feelings with one another.
Express Ideas
o Includes speech, written characters, numerals, symbols and nonverbal
gestures and expressions.
most complex symbolic system
Verbal (spoken) language and nonverbal (written or gestured) language help
us describe reality
vital to the preservation of human societies because it is the primary means
of cultural transmission,
o the process by which culture is passed on from one generation to the
next
source of power and social control; language perpetuates inequalities
between people and between groups because words are used (whether or
not intentionally) to "keep people in their place. "
reflection of our feelings and values
Cultural Diversity & Universality 1/20/11 2:14 PM
Introduction Cultures do not generally remain static.
There are many forces working toward change and diversity.
Some societies and individuals adapt to this change, whereas others suffer culture
shock and succumb to ethnocentrism
Cultural Diversity wide range of cultural differences found between and within nation
may be result of
natural circumstances (such as climate and geography)
social circumstances (such as level of technology and composition of the
population)
Two different types of societies
homogeneous societies: Include people who share a common culture and
who are typically from similar social, religious, political, and economic
backgrounds
o Eg. Sweden.
heterogeneous societies: Include people who are dissimilar in regard to social
characteristics such as religion, income, or race/ethnicity
o Eg. United States
Culture BETWEEN societies, but also variations IN culture within a society
Cultural Universals All societies have developed certain common practices and beliefs
Basic needs that contribute towards survival
Eg. Material Non-Material Culture, Languages, Clothes,
Anthropologist George Murdock
Compiled a list of more than seventy cultural universals
o Eg. athletic sports, cooking, funeral ceremonies, medicine, marriage,
and sexual restrictions
He found that these activities are present in all cultures, but the specific
customs differ from one group to another
o Eg. although telling jokes may be a universal practice, what is
considered to be a joke in one society may be an insult in another
Expression of cultural universals vary from one society to another; within a society,
it may also change dramatically over time
Eg. Incest
High Culture vs Popular Culture High Culture
Cultural pattern that distinguish a society’s elite
the beliefs, values, expectations, and artifacts of the society's elite groups
o they are not the whole of what sociologists refer to when they use the
term culture
o E.g. Classical music, opera, ballet, live theater, and other activities
usually patronized by elite audiences, composed primarily of
members of the upper-middle and upper classes, who have the time,
money, and knowledge assumed to be necessary for its appreciation
Popular Culture
Cultural patterns that are widespread among a society’s population
the beliefs, values, expectations, and artifacts of the society's masses
activities, products, and services that are assumed to appeal primarily to
members of the middle and working classes
o Eg. rock concerts, spectator sports, movies, and television soap operas
and situation comedies
Ideal Culture vs Real Culture To recognize the gaps between the "oughts" and the "is's" of a society
Many of the norms that surround cultural values are followed only partially
gap always exists between ideal culture and real culture in a society
draws attention to the fact that within a single society there may be multiple
ways of life
competing lifestyles and points of view may also exist
Ideal Culture
values, norms, and goals that a group considers ideal, worth aiming for
made up of the shared values, beliefs, and norms that the members of a
society claim as their culture
o Eg. Success
Real Culture
the norms and values that people actually follow
values, beliefs, and norms reflected in the actual behavior and social practices
of the society's member
o Eg. Compared with abilities, most people don't work as hard as they
could or go as far as they could in school.
o Eg. Drive over speed limit but still consider self as good citizen
Subculture vs Counterculture Subculture
segment of society that shares a distinctive pattern of the larger society
culture existing within a larger, dominant culture
Members of a subculture participate in the dominant culture while at the
same time engaging in unique and distinctive forms of behavior
Emerge from the functionalist tradition,
o this concept has been applied to distinctions ranging from ethnic,
religious, regional, and age-based categories to those categories
presumed to be “deviant” or marginalised from the larger society
Counterculture
Cultural patterns that strongly oppose those widely accepted within a society
o reject the dominant culture and may try to change it in fundamental
ways, or at least live alternative lifestyles
o subculture conspicuously and deliberately opposes certain aspects of
the larger culture
typically composed of young people.
o less invested in the existing culture
o have the time to explore counter-cultural lifestyles
o stages in the life cycle marked by a need to assert independence and
establish an identity separate from parents and other generations
o Eg. Beatniks of the 1950s, the flower children of the 1960s, the drug
enthusiasts of the 1970s, and contemporary members of
nonmainstrearn religious sects, or cults
Responses Towards Diversity & Variations 1/20/11 2:14 PM
Cultural Lag The period of maladjustment when the nonmaterial culture is still struggling to
adapt to new material conditions
Cultural change may occur unevenly
Pace
Dimension
Typical: When a change occurs in the material culture of a society, nonmaterial
culture must adapt to that change
material culture changes faster than nonmaterial culture, thus creating a lag
between the two cultural components
Sociologist William F. Ogburn (1966/1922)
referred to this disparity as cultural lag-a gap between the technical
development of a society and its moral and legal institutions.
Eg. technology moves quickly, generating new elements of material culture (things)
faster than nonmaterial culture (ideas, norms, values) can keep up with the pace
Cultural Shock Anyone who feels disoriented, uncertain, out of place or even fearful when
immersed in an unfamiliar culture
Personal disorientation when experiencing an unfamiliar way of life
Two-Way Process
Eg. Dogs, Steaks
Ethnocentrism the practice of judging all other cultures by ones own culture
based on the assumption that one's own way of life is superior to all others
evaluating foreign cultures using the familiar culture of the observer as a
standard of correct behavior
Ethnocentric person sees his or her own group as the center or defining point of
culture and views all other cultures as deviations from what is “normal”
Positive
creates in-group loyalties
promoting group solidarity and loyalty and by encouraging people to
conform to societal norms and valies
Eg. National pride instilled since young
Negative
discrimination against people whose ways differ from others
Eg. Westerners vs Cow vs Hindu
manifested in derogatory stereotypes that ridicule recent immigrants whose
customs, dress, eating habits, or religious beliefs are markedly different from
those of dominant-group members.
SO how do we respond?
multicultural understanding
cultural relativism
o Viewing people’s behavior from the perspective of their own cultur
o places a priority on understanding other cultures, rather than
dismissing them as “strange” or “exotic”
o looking at how the elements of a culture fit together without judging
those elements as superior to one’s own way of life
o Neutrality
o Downside: may be used to excuse customs and behavior (such as
cannibalism)
Sources of Cultural Change Discovery
Process of learning about something previously unknown or unrecognized.
finding and gaining knowledge about something not previously recognized or
understood
not creations of something entirely new, but rather revelations of something
that already exists
o Eg. finding of the DNA molecule and the identification of a new moon
of Saturn
Significant factor: Sharing of newfound knowledge with others
often helped by the use of inventions
o Eg. No new satellites ≠ discovery of new galaxies
Discoveries are made as a result of purposeful study, but important
discoveries can occur by accident
o Eg Christopher Columbus
Invention
process of reshaping existing cultural items into a new form
reconfigure existing material and nonmaterial cultural items through
invention
o Eg. Guns, video games, and airplanes
Diffusion
transmission of cultural items or social practices from one group or society to
another through such means as exploration, war, the media, tourism, and
immigration
o When members of different societies come into contact with one
another, aspects of one society's culture may be absorbed or adopted
by-or forced on-the members of the other
Today, cultural diffusion moves at a very rapid pace in the global economy.
Gender Stratification 1/20/11 2:14 PM
Gender & Sex Sex: Biological and anatomical differences between F and M
Mother = X chromosome
Father = X (female) chromosome or Y (male) chromosome
At birth, M & F differentiate by primary sex characteristics (genetalia)
At puberty
o Increased production of hormones results in development of
secondary sex characteristics
Physical traits that identify an individual’s sex
F: larger breast, wider hip, narrower shoulder
M: development of enlarged genitals, deeper voice, greater
height, more body and facial hair
Gender: Cultural and socially constructed differences between M & F
Found in meanings, beliefs, and practices associated with feminity and
masculinity
Most important in defining what females and males are, what they should do,
what sorts of relations do or should exist between them
Microlevel analysis of gender
Focus on how individuals learn gender roles and acquire gender identity
o Attitude, behavior activities that are socially defined as appropriate
for each sex and are learned through socialization process
Eg. Us: Male Tough, Female passive
Gender Identity
o Person’s perception of self as male or female
o Typically established between 18 months and 3 years
o Developed through interaction with others
o Thus, most ppl form gender identity that match biological self
o Lead to Gender Confusion if don’t
Body consciousness
o How a person perceives and feels about his or her body
o Awareness of social conditions in society that contribute to his self
knowledge
Eg. Growing up, we become more aware that our physical body
shape subjects us to approval or disapproval of others
Eg. F: Small + weak = Good VS M: Small + weak = Bad
Social Significance of Gender Gender is a social construction with important consequences in everyday life
Leads to gender stereotype: men and women are inherently different in
attributes, behaviour and aspirations
o Eg. M: Strong, rational, dominant, independent, less concerned with
appearance
o Eg. F: Weak, emotional, nurturing, dependent, anxious abt appearance
Social significance of gender stratification obvious in eating problems
o Anorexia, Bulimia, Obesity
o Based on stereotypes, Becky W Thomson argues primary victims are
women
Also, Body building
o Predominantly male activity in the past, now women also
HENCE, Gender stereotype Gender stratification
Sexism Subordination of one sex, usually female, based on the assumed superiority of
the other sex
Negative attitudes towards women (eg in work place)
Stereotypical beliefs that reinforce, complement or justify the prejudice
Discrimination: acts that exclude, distance or keep women separate
o Belief doing (attitude, action) Action (discriminate)
Sometimes men can also be affected
o Eg. Men not good cooks
Interwoven with patriarchy and matriarchy
Patriarchy
o Hierarchal system of social organization in which cultural, political,
economic structures controlled by men
o Aka Adat Temenggong
Matriarchy
o Hierarchal system of social organization in which cultural, political,
economic structures controlled by women
o Eg. Minangkabau in Negeri Sembilan
Most societies patriarchy
o Hence, men = natural heads of households, leaders etc
o Hence, Women = men’s subordinates, play supportive roles
Gender Socialization Learn gender-appropriate behaviour through socialization process
Parents, teachers, friends, media
o Eg. Many parents prefer boys to girls because of stereotypical idea
about relative importance of males and females to future of family
and society
Only male can support family
Only male can carry on family name
Across cultures (eg Singapore, china), growing number of
female abortions
Parents and Gender Socialization
Parents act towards chilrden on basis of child’s sex
o Boy = perceived less fragile treat roughly
o Girl = cute, sweet, cuddly gentle
o Respond to girls crying more than boys
(hence infence gender role development by passing on their
own beliefs on gender))
Toys refelct parent’s gender expectations
o Boys: Computer games, trucks, sports equipment, war toys
o Girls: Barbie dolls, play make-up, home making items
Household chores
o Boys: Maintenance: mow/cut grass
o Girls: Domestic: shopping/cooking/cleaning
o Division influences future occupational choices
Peers and Gender Socialization
Help children learn prevailing
o gender-role stereotypes
o gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate behavious
Children more socially acceptable to their peers when conform to implicit
societal norms governing appropriateness (and otherwise) of behaviour in
social situations
Male peer groups put more pressure on boys as opposed to female peer
groups on females
o Girls wear jeans etc less riducule than boys wear dress etc
o Distinction strengthens cultural message that masculuine activties are
more important and more acceptable
In a way, women are pressured to do masculine things
subconsciousy
During adolescent, peers more effective agents of gender socialization than
adults
o Male bonding that occurs is believed to reinforce masculine identity
and encourage gender-stereotypical behaviours
Eg. male peers tend to ridicule and bully others about
appearance
School and Gender Socialization
Kindergarten Colleges/Universities: School operate as gendered
institution
Teachers provide important messages about gender through
o Formal content in classrooms assignments
o Informal interaction with students
o Early years: teachers very influential due to more time spent per day
with them
o Quantity and quality of teacher-student interactions often vary
between education of girls and that of boy
Unintentional gender bias occurs in virtually all educational settings
o Showing favourtism toward one gender over the other
o Teachers devote more time effort to boys, more praise called on more
frequently
Influence student’s learing AND self-esteem
o Male students focus increase self-esteem THUS more active in class
participation
Mass Media and Gender Socialization
Powerful source of gender sterotyping
Children cartoon adult shos
o TV programs are sex-typed
o Male-oriented
Male more aggressive, constructive, rewarded for actions
Female: respectful or manipulate through helplessness or
seductiveness ot get way
BUT in prime time TV, changes in the past 3 decades have reduced gender
stereotyping
o However, men still outnumber women as leading characters
o Men hold key positions, women?
Advertising very persuasive
o Study conducted shows male and female roles portrayed differently.
o Men away from home, shown working or playing outside home
o Women domestic chores
Mass Media and Power and Subordination
o Anthony J Cortese
o Women in advert: young, beautiful, seductive
Sell products, but also influence how we perceive ourselves
and others with regards to issues of power and subordination
Contemporary Gender Inequality Gendered division of Paid Work (workplace)
Industrialized countries: most jobs segregated by gender/race/enthnicity
Judith Lorber: employees are either gender segregated or all same gender
Labor market segmentation
o Division of jobs into categories with distinct working conditions
o Results in women having separate and unequal jobs
Consequence = Pay gap
Employers think men hold breadwinner role, thus need more
money
Women only suplemental income
Gender-segregated work affects both genders
o Male enter female-dominated occupations have to justify themselves
o Eg. Nurses, distance from female colleagues, try to get to management
and supervisory positions
Pay Equity
Occupational segragation leads to pay gap
o Disparity between man and women’s earnings
o Earning ratio: Divide women’s income to men’s income to get
percentage
o Women at all level of education receive less pay than man
Pay Equity / Comparable Worth
o Belief that wages ought to reflect worth of job not the
gender/race/ethnicity of worker
Paid Work and Family Work
First big change in the relationship between family and work occurred during
Industrial Revolution and rise of Capitalism
o Marrid woman combines paid work in labor force and family work as
home-maker
Even with dramatic changes, sexual division of labour remains essentially
unchanged
o Married women = home-make PLUS breadwinner
o Thus women less time for housework
Especially families with young children
o Domestic responsibilities consume great deal of time and energy
o Cannot be put off or delayed
Sandwich generation
o Women who are caught between eeds of young children and elderly
relatives
Result: many women forgo leisure time and sleep.
Politics & Government 1/20/11 2:14 PM
Definition of Concepts Focus: How power is exercised within a society
Who has it
How it is used
Polity:
Social Institution (government) that
Distributes power,
Sets (by leaders of government) a society’s goals, and
Makes decisions
Considered to be one of two significant institutions in society – economic
institution
Max Weber
Every Society is based on power
o The ability to achieve desired ends despite resistance from others
The use of power is the business of government
o A formal (legitimised through laws, rules and regulations)
organization that directs (manages/organizes) the political life
(include marriage, education etc) of a society
o Demands compliance on part of population, but most governments do
not openly threaten their people (unlike authoritarian)
o People respect or at least, accept their society’s political system
Authority Every government tries to make itself seem legitemate in the eyes of the people
Authority: Power that people perceive as legitimate rather than coercive
Three Types of Authority
Traditional Authority
o Power legitimized by respect for a long-established cultural pattern
People accept (usually hereditary) because it has always been
that way
Eg. Chinese emperors, aristocratic rulers in medieval
Europe, Javanese Tradition, monarchy system in UK
Power of tradition so strong some people view rulers as almost
God-Like
o Decline as societies industrialize
Remains strong only one everyone holds same beliefs
BUT in US big names like Rockefeller, Kennedy, Bush, so well
established that members may enter political arena with some
measure of traditional authority
o Source strength of patriarchy
Rational-Legal Authority
o Power legitimized by legaly enacted rules and regulations
In operation of a lawful government
o Bureaucracy (system of delivery based on different layers): type of
organization that dominates in modern societies
Erodes traditional customs and practices
Today’s high income society seek justive trough formally
enacted rules of law
o Rationally enacted rules guide the use of power in everyday life
Authority lies in officem not in person
i/o traditional monarch which rules for life
Charismatic Authority
o Power legitimized by extraordinary personal abilities (eg. ability to
influence others, debate etc) that inspire devotion and obedience
Depends not on lineage but personality
o Turn audience into followers
Make own rules
Challenge status quo
Eg. Mahatma Ghandi and Malcolm X, Martin Luther King Jr
o Flows from single individual
Hence, leader’s death creates crisis
Survival requires
Routinization of charisma: transformation of
charismatic authority into some combination of
traditional and bureaucratic authority
Ie. Leaders led by descendent
Eg. Gandhi and children, Pope and 4 cardinals
Theoretical Analysis of Power Three Competing Models of power in society
Pluralist Model: The People Rule
o Closely linked to structural-functional theory
o Power spread among many competing interest goups
Ie. Power equally distributed, people some voice in system
o Politics is an arena of negotiation (give and take) with limited
resources no organization can hope to achieve all of its goals
o Hence, operate as veto groups:
Realize success but
Mostly keep opponents from achieving all their ends
o Political process rely heavily on
creating alliances
creating compromises among numerous interest groups so
policies garner support
Power-Elite Model: Few People Rule
o Power concentrated amongst the Rich
(small upper class hold most of society’s wealth, prestige and
power)
o Coined by C. Wright Mills
o Members of power-elite hold 3 major sectors of society
Economy: Super Rich
Government: Top Politicians
Military: Highest Ranking Officers
o Move from one sector to another, building power as they go
Eg. Dick Cheney: Corporate Federal
Eg. Colin Powell: Military Federal
o Argue that US is NOT a democracy due to voice of elite overwhelming
average perons’s voice
Marxist Model: System is Biased
o Explains politics in terms of society’s economic system
US ≠ political democracy
o Bias rooted in system especially economy
Karl Marx: Economy shape politics (infra shape supra)
Hence, power elites appear due to economy
o Reforming political system ≠ true democracy
Problem lie not in people but in system
Aka ‘political economy of capitalism’
As long as capitalist economy, most peple will shut out of
politics
War and Peace Most crucial political issue
Definition of War:
Organized (ie has tactics)
armed conflict (verbal fighting ≠ war) a
among the people of two or more nations
directed by their government
As old as humanity
o Even in Islamic History
o But undst crucial today as humanity now has weapons to destroy
entire planet ie. nuclear bomb
Quincy Wright’s Five Factors that Promote War
Perceived Threat
o Response to perceived threat
Eg. War in Iraq
Eg. Prophet realized threat from Roman Empire due to Jewish
spies
Social Problems
o Too much internal problems, divert public attention by attacking
external enemy – aka scapegoating
Eg. War on Iraq divert attention from bad economy and
boost popularity of Bush
Political Objectives
o End foreign domination: Vietnam
o Increase global standing: Powerful nations ie US
Moral Objectives
o IE. Moral justification
Something bad will happen if war does nt happen
Rationalize their cause of war due to moral objectives: morally
it is good
o Leaders infuse military campaign with moral urgency
Eg. War of Iraq: Liberate from evil tyrant
Absence of Alternatives
o Series of negotiations/diplomatic arrangements still not solved
war
o Least favoured reason for leaders
Eg. North vs South Korea
UN supposed to find alternatives, but has limited success
Recent Approaches to Peace
Deterrence
o Balance of terror between superpowers
o Basic Principle : Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD, memang gila)
Side launching first-strike against the other will face greater
retaliation
Policy kept peace between US and Soviet Union for 50 years
during more than 50 years of cold war
High-Technology Defence
o Tech = create weapons AND proetct
o Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI)
Eg. Satellites and ground installations destroy enemy missles
once launched
o However critics say this will spark another arms race
Diplomacy and Disarmament
o Best path
Teams of diplomats work togethrer can increase security by
Reducing weapon stockpiles
o Limitiations
No nation wants to weaken and let down its defenses
Success depends on successful diplomacy
Eg. Countries sign contract to disarm, but so far none
done
Resolve underlying conflict
o Promote a more just world
Eradicate poverty, hunger. Illiteracy
Islamic Perspective
Islam ≠ Machiavellian style politics
End does not justify means
Politics of principles and values (QS)
o Must be adhered to
o Not relinquished even in most difficut times
o Rejects dirty means even if the intent reach noble ends
“Allah is noble and accept nothing but noble actions” (Muslim)
Relationship btween states and citizens,
Leaders to govern afffairs of Muslims with honesty and justice
A binding obligation to put things in right place
o [4:58] Allah does command you to render back your Trusts to those to
whom they are due; and when you judge between women and men,
judge with justice…
Not lawful to favor relatives or commisison him with somethin unduly while
depriving the deserving
o “… By Allah, if Fatimah Bint Muhammad were to commit theft, I myself
would chop of her hand” (all)
Islamic Politics grounded
Justice
Fariness
Equality
With regards to rights, responsibilities and penalties
Based on truth and frankness of people about reality
o Allah will not look upon the untruthful ruler (Muslim)
International Relations
Fulfill treaties and respect its word
Treaties and agreements must be based on sincereity and truthful intetntion,
without dishonesty and swindling intending to take advantage
o Both must benefit
o Even between muslim and non-muslim
Population and Urbanization 1/20/11 2:14 PM
Definition of Concepts 12 000 years ago, earth populace; 5 million
today, earth populace: 6.7 billion
Demography: The Study of human population
Studies
o Causes
o Consequences
o How-ness
How
o Collect statistics
o Raise impt questions about the effect of population growth
o Suggest how it might be controlled
Fertility
Incidence of child-bearing in a country’s population
Menstruation menopause: >20 Children
o But fecundicity (max possible child bearing) sharply reduced by
cultural norms, finances and personal choice
Described using crude birth rate
o (Number of live birth in a year / society’s total population) X 1000
Mortality
Incidence of death in a country’s population
Measured using crude death rate
o (Number of deaths in a year / society’s total populatin) X 1000
Infant Mortality Rate :
o (Number of deaths among infants under one year of age / 1000 live
births in a given year)
o Low infant mortality greatly raises life expectancy:
Average life span of a country’s population
Migration
Movement of people in (migration) and out (emigration) of a specified
territory
All nations experience internal migration
o Movement within their borders from one region to another
o Eg. Kelantan Kuala Lumpur
Sometimes voluntary
o Eg. education, employment
Others involuntary
o Eg. Famine/food shortage, natural disasters
Population Growth
Fertility + Mortality + Migration rate = affect size of society’s population
o Aka Population growth
o Rich nations depend on migration and fertility, poorer nations depend
almost wholly from fertility
Population Composition
Makeup of society’s populaion at a given point of time
o Sex ratio: number of males/100 females
In urban (US), usually less males than females
In villages (India), more males than females as more value
Ideal population looks like pyramid!
Urbanization: Growth of cities Definition: Concentration of Population into cities (process)
Redistributes population within society and transforms many patterns of
social life
Three ways how cities evolves
1st Phase: Move from one place to another (hunting and gathering)
o Forced people to move all the time
Food supply finish move
o However, once people discovered how to domesticate nimals and
cultivate crops, they were able to permanently reside in one place
Raising own food material surplus freed some people
from food production and allowed to build shelters, make tools,
weave cloth, take part in religious rituals
HENCE, emergence of cities lead to highter standards of livings
and job specialization
o First city recorded: Jericho (within Israel) aka West Bank
600 people tens of thousands center of vast empires
2nd Phase: Agrarian (permanent stay)
o Pre-Industrial European Cities
o Date back some 5000 years to Greeks and later Romans
o Created great empires and founded magnificent cities acrss Europe
Eg. Vienna, Paris, London
o Fall of Roman Empire Dark Ages
People withdrew into defensive walled settlements
Warlords fought for territory
Only in 11th century peaceful; trade flourished and cities grew
o Medieval cities different from those familiar to us today
Churches centre of city
Narrow and zig zag streets filled with merchants, artisans,
priests, peddlers, nobles, servants
Guilds: Occupational groups clusterd together in district
sections/quarters
o Ethnicity play an important role
Ghetto: neighbourhood in which Jews of Venice were
segragated
3rd Phase: Industrial Cities
o Increasing commerce Enriched new urban middle class
(bourgeoisie, towns people)
Rivaled heriditary of autocracy
o 1750: Industrial Revoluion in Europe, North America
Factories flourished, cities grow bigger than ever
Changed shape as well
Broad straight boulevards to handle increasing flow of
commercial traffic
Cities devloped into regular-sized lots, land was not a
commodity to be bought and sold
Center of city = bustling central business district
More crowded and impersonal
Increase in crime rates
Industrialists live in grand style at otutset of city
Most men women and children barely survived
in factories
Organized efforts brought about chnges
Workplace, housing, right to vote
Public services: water, sewerage, electricity
Urbanism as a Way of Life Ferdinand Tonnies
Late 19th century, German Sociologist
Developed two important concepts (difference in industrial and rural life)
Gemeinschaft aka community
o Type of social organization in which people are closely tied by kinship
and tradition
(actions based by cultural tradition source of do’s and don’ts)
Families lived for generations in small villages and towns were
bound together in hardworking, slow-moving way of life
People entertained themselves by gathering, sharing stories,
sorrows, songs
Lack rapid transporation: people knew little of world beyond
hometown
Inevitable tension and conflicts, but due to spirit of
gemeinschaft, people essentially united in spite of all
separating factors
Gesellschaft aka association
o Type of social organization in whichh people come together only on
basis of individual self-interest
Motivated by own needs instead of beinging well-being to
everyone
Little sense of community or common identity
Look to others only when need something
Urbanization weakened close, long lasting social relations in
favour of brief impersol ties
Emile Durkheim
Organic Sociology: Society akin to biological organism
Various organs play difference functions for health and maintanence of whole
society
o Interrelated, but certain parts more important than others
Hence view social system as a whole
o Interrelation of parts instead of divisions and opposed interests
Concentrate on maintenance of social order ie moral integration
o Relatively simple in small-scale pre-industrial communities
o Closeness of interpersonal relations helped maintained moral
integration
But industrial societies with many social diviions due to
expanding division of labour moral integration problematic
Societies must move from mechanical solidarity to organic solidarity in Industrial
Societies
Mechanical solidarity: social bonds based on common sentiments and
shared moral values
Organic solidarity: social bonds based on specialization and
interdependence
Possible only through occupational organization or guilds
o Within each, moral principles could be established regarding rights
and duties of workers and employers
Thus in industrial society, need for more social differentiation, but this don’t
mean social disorganization
Ibn Khaldun 1/20/11 2:14 PM
Ibn Khaldun: Urbanization and Urbanism Expected social phenomenon
Goal of badw who aspire to lead a life of ease, tranquility and luxury
First stage of existence : Establish a city through trade and commercial lead to
Second stage: Maturity (Development)
Third stage: Senility (Downfall)
Town Planning
Accessible Place
o Rugged/rocky hill surrounded by sea or river
o Reached only by crossing some form of bridge (one entrance point)
o Making an enemy overtake difficult
Air or atmosphere should be safe from illness
o Must be flowing water or river
o Confirmed by direct observaion
Adequate transportation facilities
o River or sea
o Import useful and essential things
Springs with fresh water
o Fulfill need of inhabitants
Good pastures or fields for livestock of inhabitants
o Food supply
Fields suitable for cultivation near residential areas
o Purpose of agricultural activies
o Food supply
Construction of cities cannot be achieved except through
United effort
Great number of workers
Cooperation of wrokers and craftsmen
o High quality architectural city
Use of machine
o Multiplu power and strength neeede to carry loads required in
building
Engineering skill
Reasons for migration
Conquest
o Settlement of conquerers
Luxury
o Attract individuals to urban areas
Satisfaction of human needs by utilizing many facilities whch city provides
o Clean water, better sewer, electric, community amentities
Economy pull
o Better employment = better income
Dependence of people on support and protection of a powerful state
o Better protection system can only be found in urban areas
Demography
City grows inhabitants increase in number
City needs to take account of needs, especially if living in crowded conditions
o People compete for space (land)
Hence, city neesds to extend to areas previously not utilized for living
Decline of urban population
o Coercion of subjects by bad govertment
Occurs when revenues decrease
o Numerous famines
Bad government never cultivate soil
o Plagues
Polluted air due to large population
Destruction of city
Corruption
Excessive luxury
Weakening of religious influence
Disappearance of asabiyyah (strong social bond)
Reliance on strangers for protection work