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[Introduction]: The Social-Emotional Side of Learning DisabilitiesAuthor(s): Linda K. Elksnin and Nick ElksninSource: Learning Disability Quarterly, Vol. 27, No. 1, Social-Emotional Side of LearningDisabilities (Winter, 2004), pp. 3-8Published by: Sage Publications, Inc.Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1593627 .

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THE SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL SIDE

OF LEARNING DISABILITIES

Linda K. Elksnin and Nick Elksnin

Abstract. This article provides a context for this special issue devoted to the social-emotional side of learning disabilities (LD). The impact LD definitions have on policy and practice, the prevalence of social-emotional deficits among youth with LD, relevant social-emotional terms, and the rationale for teaching social- emotional skills are discussed. Finally, the articles comprising this special issue are introduced.

Linda K. Elksnin, Ph.D., is professor, The Citadel. Nick Elksnin, Ph.D., is visiting professor, The Citadel.

Three decades ago Tanis Bryan published the seminal article "Peer Popularity of Learning Disabled Children"

(Bryan, 1974), which subsequently promoted interest

beyond the academic problems of children and adolescents with learning disabilities (LD) (Wong &

Donahue, 2002). The body of research that followed

supported Bryan's conclusions that youth with LD are less well accepted by peers (e.g., Coleman, McHam, & Minnett, 1992; Elksnin, 1989; Elksnin & Elksnin, 1995; Gresham, 1992; Olmeda & Trent, 2003; Reiff & Gerber, 1990; Sabornie, Kauffman, Ellis, Marshall, & Elksnin, 1988; Swanson, 1996; Swanson & Malone, 1992; Toro, Weissberg, Guare, & Liebenstein, 1990; Vaughn &

Haager, 1994; Vaughn & Hogan, 1994; Vaughn, Zaragoza, Hoan, & Walker, 1993). Further, research

focusing on the reasons for peer rejection found that

poorly developed social-emotional skills might be

responsible (Bryan, 1994; Gresham, MacMillan, &

Bocian, 1996; Gresham, Sugai, & Horner, 2001; Kuhne & Wiener, 2000; Lopez, Forness, MacMillan, Bocian, & Gresham, 1996; Margalit, 1998; McIntosh, Vaughn, &

Zaragoza, 1991; Sabornie, 1994; Tur-Kaspa, Weisel, & Segev,1998; Wiener & Harris, 1997).

Presently, the social-emotional skills problems of children and adolescents with LD are well recognized.

However, the reasons for these deficits are less clear.

Hypotheses are numerous and sometimes contradic-

tory, including the following: * Poor language and communication skills (Bryan,

Donahue, Pearl, & Sturm, 1981; Donahue & Bryan, 1983; Mathinos, 1991; Vallance, Cummings, &

Humphries, 1998) * Difficulty recognizing and understanding others'

emotions (Stone & LaGreca, 1983; Wiig & Harris, 1974)

* Cognitive processing and social-emotional problem-solving difficulties (Conte & Andrews, 1993; Hartas & Donahue, 1997; Tur-Kaspa & Bryan, 1995)

* Central nervous dysfunction (Denckla, 1986; Little, 1993; Rourke, 1987; Vogel & Forness, 1992)

* Comorbid psychiatric disorders such as ADHD, depression, and dysthmia (Forness, Kavale, San

Miguel, & Bauman, 1998; San Miguel, Forness, & Kavale, 1996)

* Academic problems and educational isolation that

produce social-emotional problems as a side effect (LaGreca & Stone, 1990; Siperstein & Bak, 1988)

* History of repeated failure and low self-esteem

(Vogel & Forness, 1992)

Volume 27, Winter 2004 3



The purpose of this introductory article is to provide a context for this special issue of the Learning Disability Quarterly devoted to the social-emotional side of LD. In the sections that follow, the impact LD definitions have on policy and practice, the prevalence of social- emotional deficits among youth with LD, relevant social-emotional terms, and the rationale for teaching social-emotional skills are discussed. Finally, the articles comprising the special issue are introduced.

Impact of Different LD Definitions on Social- Emotional Issues

Among the various definitions of LD, two make a direct connection between LD and social skills deficits. The Learning Disabilities Association of America (LDA) (formerly the Association for Children with Learning Disabilities, ACLD) defines LD as follows:

Specific Learning Disabilities is a chronic condition of presumed neurological origin which selectively interferes with the development, integration, and/or demonstration of verbal and/or nonverbal abilities. Specific learning disabilities exists as a distinct handicapping condition and varies in its manifestations and in degree of severity. Throughout life, the condition can affect self- esteem, education, vocation, socialization [emphasis added], and/or daily living activities. (ACLD, 1985, p. 1)

In 1987, the federal Interagency Committee on

Learning Disabilities (ICLD) proposed this definition to

Congress: Learning disabilities is a generic term that refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical ability, or of social skills [emphasis added]. These disorders are intrinsic to the individual and presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunction. Even though a learning disability may occur concomitantly with other handicapping conditions (e.g., sensory impairment, mental retardation, social and emotional disturbance), the socioenvironmental influences (e.g., cultural differences, insufficient or inappropriate instruction, psychogenic factors), and especially attention deficit disorders, all of which may cause learning problems, a learning disability is not the direct result of those conditions or influences. (ICLD, 1987, p. 222)

A third definition, while acknowledging that social- emotional problems often accompany LD, states that these difficulties do not in and of themselves constitute LD (National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities, NJCLD, 2001). NJCLD, a national committee com-

prised of organizations devoted to serving individuals with LD, developed the following definition in 1989:

Learning disabilities is a general term that refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities. These disorders are intrinsic to the individual, presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunction, and may occur across the life span. Problems in self-regulatory behaviors, social perception, and social interaction may exist with learning disabilities but do not by themselves constitute a learning disability [emphasis added]. Although learning disabilities may occur concomitantly with other handicapping conditions (for example, sensory impairment, mental retardation, serious emotional disturbance), or with extrinsic influences (such as cultural differences, insufficient or inappropriate instruction), they are not the result of those conditions or influences. (NJCLD, 2001, p. 31)

Each of the definitions of LD reviewed acknowledges that social-emotional problems are either a primary or secondary characteristic of LD (Hammill, 1990). However, the current federal definition fails to consider the social-emotional deficits of children and adolescents with LD. Instead, the federal definition, which has had an overarching influence on policy and practice, focuses exclusively on academic deficiencies as follows:

"Specific learning disability" means a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations. The term includes such conditions as perceptual handicaps, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. The terms does not include children who have learning problems which are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor handicaps, or mental retardation, or emotional disturbance, or environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage. (USEO, 1977, p. 65083)

As Bryan and Burnstein suggest elsewhere in this issue, federal statute has limited the provision of social- emotional interventions.

Prevalence of Social-Emotional Deficits Among Youth with LD

Although the exact number is unknown, it is likely that large numbers of children and adolescents with LD evidence social-emotional deficits. Between 15 and 22% of youth in the United States have social-emotional problems serious enough to require intervention (Cohen, 2001; Mugno & Rosenblitt, 2001). Many of

Learning Disability Quarterly 4



these children and adolescents have learning disabilities. Further, approximately one third of children and youth are estimated to belong to a subtype category of LD (Telzrow & Bonar, 2002), nonverbal learning disabilities or social-emotional disabilities (Morris, 2002; Rourke, 1989, 1991; Rourke & Fuerst, 1991, 1992). Nonverbal LD is characterized by deficits in arithmetic, problem solving, perceptual-cognitive, perceptual- motor, and social-emotional skills. In further support, based on a meta-analysis, Kavale and Forness (1996) concluded that approximately 75% of students with LD exhibit social skills deficits.

Sorting Terms In any discussion of social-emotional issues, it is crit-

ical to define important terms. Specifically, it is important to distinguish between social skills and social competence (see Kavale & Mostert elsewhere in this issue). Social competence is an evaluative term based on a judgment of the child's social abilities by peers, teachers, parents, and others. Social skills are the specific skills used by the child in social situations.

The relationship between literacy and reading is a fit- ting analogy to illustrate the relationship between social competence and social skills. That is, literate individuals draw on a variety of reading and writing skills such as decoding, skimming, scanning, spelling, punctuating, and so forth, while socially competent individuals draw on the wide range of social skills in their repertoire.

Social skills training (SST) was developed to teach students needed social skills. Social-emotional learning (SEL) is another intervention approach that was

developed to foster emotional intelligence. The term emotional intelligence was first used in 1990 by Salovey and Mayer:

Emotional intelligence involves the ability to per- ceive accurately, appraise, and express emotion; the ability to access and/or generate feelings when they facilitate thought; the ability to understand emotion and emotional knowledge; and the ability to regulate emotions to promote emotional and intellectual growth. (Mayer & Salovey, 1997, p. 10)

Goleman (1995) further popularized the construct of emotional intelligence in his best-selling book, Emotional Intelligence, Why It Can Matter More Than IQ. Mayer and Salovey, and Goleman identified five domains of emotional intelligence: knowing one's emotions, managing one's emotions, motivating self, recognizing others' emotions, and effectively using social skills. Social-emotional learning programs are designed to promote emotional intelligence skills. Many of these programs are implemented on a school- or districtwide level and focus on: "awareness of self and others,emotional self-regulation, communication, self motivation, problem solving and deci-

sion making, collaboration, and formation of a more realistic, positive sense of self" (Cohen, 2001, p. 8). Rationale for Teaching Social-Emotional Skills

Interest in social-emotional skills instruction grew out of the realization that these skills are essential for school and life success. Thus, evidence abounds that children and youth who demonstrate adequate social- emotional skills are more likely to be successful academically, accepted by others, be emotionally well adjusted, and enjoy high levels of self-esteem and self- confidence (Elksnin & Elksnin, 2003). Conversely, children and youth who do not possess these skills are more likely to be rejected, experience school difficulty, drop out of school; and suffer mental health problems and be under- or unemployed during adulthood (Elksnin & Elksnin, 1995, 1998, 2001).

While No Child Left Behind and other "reform" leg- islation has narrowed educators' focus on academics, the fact that classroom life is social and emotional is undeniable (Pianta, 1999). Children with strong social networks perform better in school (Elksnin & Elksnin, 2003; Marcus & Sanders-Reio, 2001). Ladd (1990, 1991) and Ladd, Kochenderfer, and Coleman (1996) followed children during kindergarten, reporting that children who made and kept friends at the beginning of the year performed better academically than children who were rejected. What is especially compelling about Ladd and colleagues' work is that social adjustment, not intelligence or prior school experience, was found to be the best predictor of academic performance and attitude toward school. Berndt and Keefe (1995) reported simi- lar results for children making the transition from elementary to middle/junior high school.

About This Special Issue In this special issue, the social-emotional side of LD

is examined from multiple perspectives. In their article, "Temperament and Learning Disability," Teglasi, Cohn, and Meshbesher suggest that social-emotional problems and learning problems are associated with temperamental risk factors. Temperament, or behavioral style, refers to how individuals do things rather than what they do or why they do it (Keogh, 2003). Examples of temperamental characteristics include adaptability, reactivity, task orientation, persistence, and flexibility. When a child's temperament does not conform to teacher or parent expectations, social development and academic achievement may be adversely affected. The degree of "goodness of fit" between temperament and environment determines whether the child's temperament will act as a protective factor or as a risk factor. Teglasi and her colleagues take the position that social-emotional problems of individuals with LD are the result of the reciprocal influence of temperament and learning processes rather than due to




learning problems per se. Therefore, when planning preventive and remediative social-emotional interventions it is critical to recognize that temperament influences outcomes directly, indirectly, bidirectionally, and hierarchically. The authors emphasize that social- emotional learning is a complex process that cannot be understood in isolation. It is a building block for developing social competence.

In her contribution to this issue, Wiener considers the question, "Do Peer Relationships Foster Behavioral Adjustment of Children with Learning Disabilities?," and offers two models of risk. In the single-risk model (supported by the nonverbal LD literature), social cognitive and communication problems are considered inherent to the LD, leading to social relationship difficulties, which, in turn, result in internalizing problems such as low self-esteem, anxiety, and depression. The individual with LD misinterprets social cues and has difficulty solving social problems. In contrast, the mul-

tiple-risk model regards LD as occurring in combination with risk factors such as ADHD, poverty, poor parenting, and so forth. This combination predisposes the individual with LD to experience social relationship difficulties, which lead to internalizing and exter- nalizing behaviors, which in turn exacerbate risk factors and further fuel relationship problems. Wiener concludes her article by calling for research that exam- ines the validity of the multiple-risk model and leaves us with the intriguing possibility that positive relation-

ships with parents, teachers, and peers may make children and adolescents with LD more resilient and less vulnerable to risk.

Although few question the importance of teaching children and youth with LD social-emotional skills, results of meta-analytic efficacy studies have not been encouraging (Forness & Kavale, 1996; Kavale & Forness, 1996; Mathur, Kavale, Quinn, Forness, & Rutherford, 1998; Mathur & Rutherford, 1991). In their article, "Social Skills Interventions for Individuals with Learning Disabilities," Kavale and Mostert report the results of a meta-analysis of 53 LD social skills intervention studies. They conclude that treatment effects were modest and estimate that only about about 58% of students with LD would significantly benefit from social skills training. The authors consider possible explanations for these modest treatment effects in addition to ineffective training, including lack of treatment intensity, inadequate measurement validity and reliability, and construct validity problems.

In their article, "The Social-Emotional Side of Learning Disabilities: A Science-Based Presentation of the State of the Art," Bryan, Burstein, and Ergul review 30 years of research. They begin by examining social- emotional characteristics such as self-concept, affect

and emotions, social information processing, social cognition, communicative competence, and social behavior. While acknowledging that treatment effects are mixed, the authors argue that we need to address the social-emotional difficulties of children and adolescents with LD. Bryan et al. conclude that social- emotional skills interventions tend not to be provided in the public schools because the federal definition of LD does not include social-emotional deficits, nor mandate social-emotional skills instruction. Besides, teachers are under pressure to focus on academics.

In the final article in this issue, Elias discusses "The Connection Between Social-Emotional Learning and Learning Disabilities: Implications for Intervention." Emphasizing that social-emotional skills are essential for academic learning, he explains how social- emotional learning (SEL) can improve the school performance of youth with LD. Elias points out that SEL differs from special education intervention approaches in that it can be adopted by entire districts or schools and that it directly links social-emotional and academic learning (Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning [CASEL], 2003). Because many children and adolescents with LD have difficulty in academic and social domains, a linked approach has intuitive appeal. Elias makes the case that knowing how to recognize and manage emotions promotes learning as well as positive interpersonal relationships.

CONCLUSION Our understanding of the social-emotional issues of

children and adolescents with LD has increased expo- nentially over the last three decades. However, as the authors in this special issue point out, social-emotional development is complex, and we have been far less successful in developing conceptual models that drive basic and applied research in this area. While we have an arsenal of academic interventions (e.g., direct instruction, cognitive strategies instruction) that positively impact the academic achievement of students with LD (Bradley, Danielson, & Hallahan, 2002; Elksnin, 2002; Lloyd, Forness, & Kavale, 1998; Swanson, Harris, & Graham, 2003; Swanson & Hoskyn, 1998, 2001), we have far fewer validated social-emotional interventions.

Until we have a more complete understanding of the causes of social-emotional problems, we are not likely to develop effective interventions. Further, until measurement and construct validity problems are reduced or eliminated, determining effectiveness of social-emotional interventions remains difficult. Finally, we must examine ways in which policy informs practice to ensure that children and adolescents with learning disabilities receive the social-emotional skills intervention they require.




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I



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Requests for reprints should be addressed to: Linda K. Elksnin, School of Education, The Citadel, Charleston, SC 29409; elksninl @citadel.edu.




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