social psychology pertemuan 24 matakuliah: l0014 / psikologi umum tahun: 2007
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SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGYPertemuan 24
Matakuliah : L0014 / PSIKOLOGI UMUMTahun : 2007
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Definition of Social Psychology
• Studies individuals as they interact with others– Aristotle: Man is by nature a social animal– Psychologists study
• Attractions• Needs• Influences
– Examine within social context of situations
Social Psychology
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Groups and Social Influence
• Lynch mobs– Racial prejudice: lynching of African Americans– Deindividuation – anonymous, inidentifiable feeling
of group member
• Weakens restraints; are more aggressive• Uninvolved bystanders
– Murder of Kitty Genovese in New York– The larger the group, the less likely one will help– Diffusion of responsibility
Social Psychology
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Working and Solving Problems in Groups
• Social facilitation: being in group improves individual performance
• Social loafing: individuals exert less effort in group than if by themselves (slack off)
• Nature of task affects behavior – Optimal levels of arousal– Easy/skilled tasks performed more quickly– Difficult/unfamiliar tasks performed more slowly
Social Psychology
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Group Problem Solving
• Groupthink – – Faulty decision-making process in groups– President Kennedy’s Bay of Pigs invasion– NASA’s 1986 Challenger shuttle disaster– Causes
• Process of polarization (extreme views)• Cohesiveness of members of the group
(likelihood highest in tightly knit groups)• Size of the group
– Interactive dialogue vs. serial monologue
Social Psychology
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Conformity, Social Roles, and Obedience
• Conformity – – Asch experiments
• Peer and cultural expectations• Conform for two reasons
– Gain rewards, avoid punishment– Gain social approval, avoid disapproval
Social Psychology
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Yielding to group
pressure even when no direct
request to comply has been made.
X Y ZA
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Conformity
– Autokinetic effect (Sherif)
• In ambiguous situation – one looks to others for information that influences judgment
• Likelihood of conformity causes– Size of group (increases with size)– Unanimous groups (reduced by dissent)– Culture and conformity– Gender and conformity (sterotypes changing, no longer
true)
Social Psychology
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Decision Model of Helping
Yes
Know how to help?
Decide to help implement intervention?
Help victim
Interpret as an emergency?
Assume responsibility for helping?
Notice an event?
Do not help
2
No
No
No
No
3
4
5
1
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
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Social Roles and Social Norms• Every culture has
– Social roles – expectations of behavior– Social norms – standards for behavior in given
situations
• Zimbardo’s prison study – – Power of social roles influencing behaviors– Behavior changes to fit perceptions of role
• Iraq’s Abu Ghraib prison scandal– Social roles coupled with intense emotions
Social Psychology
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Obedience• Direct influence by authority figures
– Unthinkable atrocities of WW II– Milgram’s shock experiments
• Teacher less likely to give high voltage shock when learner in same room
• Positive sides of groups– Accomplish things that individuals cannot– Can be therapeutic: emotional support, lower stress
Social Psychology
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Attitudes and Persuasion
• Attitudes – beliefs that predispose one to act or feel in certain ways– Learned directly from experience and others
• Persuasion and attitude change– Aristotle: persuasive arguments in oral debates– Ads in media use persuasion to induce behavior– Persuasion – process of changing another’s attitudes
by arguments and other related means
Social Psychology
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Attitudes and Persuasion
• Characteristics of Speaker– Credibility – is speaker credible source of
information about specific argument being presented– Attractiveness – more effective to be attractive,
popular, famous, or likeable– Intent – what the rationale is behind it
Social Psychology
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Attitudes and Persuasion• Characteristics of the message
– Fear appeals (emotional arousal)– Two-sided arguments (most effective)– Message framing (how argument is presented)
• Characteristics of listeners– Intelligence– Need for social approval– Self-esteem– Audience size– Social support
Social Psychology
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Attitudes and Persuasion• Techniques of persuasion
– Foot-in-the-door (small request made, then progressively larger ones)
– Low-ball
• Cognitive dissonance theory– Explains discomfort of inconsistencies in attitudes
and behaviors– Humans usually reduce dissonance the easiest way
possible (ie: smoking and cancer)
Social Psychology
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Cognitive Dissonance
Smoking cigarettes is unhealthy
or
The research on smoking is not conclusive
I don’t smoke cigarettes anymore
I smoke cigarettes
Smoking cigarettes is unhealthy
I smoke cigarettes
Unpleasanttension
state
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Prejudice and Stereotypes
• Prejudice – harmful attitude based on inaccurate generalizations (ie: group, race)– Stereotypes: inaccurate generalizations that are
harmful for three reasons
• Reduce one’s ability to treat another as individual
• Narrow expectations for behavior• Lead to faulty attributions
– Attitudes lead to behaviors!!Attitudes lead to behaviors!!
Social Psychology
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Prejudice and Stereotypes
• Automatic prejudice – everyone is prejudiced about something
• Causes of stereotypes and prejudice– Realistic conflict (frustration from competing with
another group for scarce resources)– Us versus them – human tendency of in-group and
out-group– Social learning (it is taught and learned)
Social Psychology
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Prejudice and Stereotypes
• Combating prejudice– Recognize prejudice– Control automatic prejudice– Increase contact among prejudiced groups
• Two groups must be almost equal in status
• View each other as typical of their respective group; not the exception
• Engage in cooperative, not competitive tasks
• Contact must be informal
Social Psychology
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Interpersonal Attraction
• Attribution - Making judgments about what causes people to behave the way they do– Fundamental attribution error
• Underestimating negative impact of situations on others
– Situational attribution –
• Blaming external cause for behavior– Dispositional attribution
• Blaming internal motive/trait for behavior
Social Psychology
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Interpersonal Attraction
• Negative Information– The bad outweighs the good – cognitive
algebra
• Chemistry of love and social bonding– Appears people respond to sex hormones
•Androstadien (in human sweat)•Oxytocin (in blood and brain)
Social Psychology
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Interpersonal Attraction
• Characteristics of the other person– Drawn to those with similar interests– Opposites attract – complements each other (gives
balance to relationship, avoids having competition)– Physical attractiveness
• attribute better qualities to beautiful people
• Most important factor in early stage meeting
• Self-fulfilling prophecy and perceptions
Social Psychology
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Interpersonal Attraction
• Characteristics of perceiver– Personality traits influence person perception
• Neuroticist persons tend not to marry– Emotions and person perception
• Positive emotions are more attractive– Gender differences
• Men interested in falling in love• Majority of people think romantic love is
necessary for marriage
Social Psychology
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Extraneous Factors
• Primacy effects – First impressions are very important; more
weight given than to later information
• Conditions lessen impact primacy effects– Prolonged exposure– Passage of time– Knowledge of primacy effects
• Cause of attraction– Proximity– Mutual liking
Social Psychology
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Relationships
• Maintaining relationships– Balancing reality with expectations– Shift from passionate love to companionate love
signals unfulfilled expectations– Normal for personal changes to occur over time
• Equity in relationships– Equity theory
Social Psychology