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Social Sciences and HealthSocial Sciences and Health

DR RAHIM IQBALDR RAHIM IQBALMBBS(Pb).MPH(H.S.A) MBBS(Pb).MPH(H.S.A) Senior DemonstratorSenior Demonstrator

Rawalpindi Medical college Rawalpindi Medical college RawalpindiRawalpindi

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Social Sciences(Medicine)Social Sciences(Medicine)

In 1911 the Concept of social medicine In 1911 the Concept of social medicine was presented by Alfred Grotjahn (1869-was presented by Alfred Grotjahn (1869-1931). He stressed the importance of 1931). He stressed the importance of Social Medicine in the aetiology of Social Medicine in the aetiology of disease, which he called Social Pathology.disease, which he called Social Pathology.

Professor Crew defined it as Social Professor Crew defined it as Social Medicine is the study of Man as a social Medicine is the study of Man as a social being in his total Environment. It has Two being in his total Environment. It has Two pillars Medicine And Sociologypillars Medicine And Sociology

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•SociologyPsychology•Human Anthropology•Human Ecology•Genetics

•Political science•History•Economics•Demography

BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCES

SOCIAL SCIENCES IN COMMUNITY MEDICINE

The social sciences cover the disciplines of

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Indirect Effect

Social Sciences

Health

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HealthHealth

It is complete Physical, It is complete Physical, mental and mental and social well social well beingbeing and not merely and not merely the absence of any the absence of any disease or infirmity disease or infirmity

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HEALTH

Current Circumstances

Individuals Predispositions

EcologicalPredispositions

Opportunities/Predispositions

Social and structural factors

Social and structural factors

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HEALTHHEALTH Predisposing FactorsPredisposing Factors Current CircumstancesCurrent Circumstances Income,Income, Family LifeFamily Life Housing,Housing, EmploymentEmployment Stresses and CrisesStresses and Crises Social SupportSocial Support Individual PredispositionsIndividual Predispositions InheritanceInheritance Perinatal EventsPerinatal Events Previous Accidents or llnessPrevious Accidents or llness Childhood Childhood Nutrition,Nutrition, Ecological PredispositionEcological Predisposition Community valuesCommunity values Socially Prescribed Roles,Socially Prescribed Roles, Life styleLife style Subcultural Behavior patterns etcSubcultural Behavior patterns etc Opportunities/SituationsOpportunities/Situations Access to Health Care services,Access to Health Care services, Availability of education,Availability of education, Food, Food, SanitationSanitation Alcohol,Alcohol, Drugs,Drugs, Marriage partnerMarriage partner

Social /Structural FactorsSocial /Structural Factors DemographicDemographic EconomicEconomic PoliticalPolitical LegalLegal ReligiousReligious EducationalEducational TechnologicalTechnological CommunicationsCommunications MigrationMigration UrbanizationUrbanization Life ExpectancyLife Expectancy MarriageMarriage FertilityFertility Role of WomanRole of Woman

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Advantages of Social sciencesAdvantages of Social sciences

Social Sciences are very important for the following Social Sciences are very important for the following SpecialtiesSpecialties

Community HealthCommunity Health ImmunizationImmunization Family Planning ProgramFamily Planning Program Infant and Child FoodInfant and Child Food Clinical MedicineClinical Medicine Modern Diseases (CVA.Diabetes.Mental Diseases)Modern Diseases (CVA.Diabetes.Mental Diseases) Rheumatoid Arthritis.Intestinal Ulcers.Chromic Diarrhea and Rheumatoid Arthritis.Intestinal Ulcers.Chromic Diarrhea and

EpilepsyEpilepsy EpidemiologyEpidemiology FrequencyFrequency Distribution Distribution DeterminantsDeterminants

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•SociologyPsychology•Human Anthropology•Human Ecology•Genetics

•Political science•History•Economics•Demography

BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCES

SOCIAL SCIENCES IN COMMUNITY MEDICINE

The social sciences cover the disciplines of

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BEHAVIOURBEHAVIOURThe way one conducts oneself.The way one conducts oneself.

The treatment of others.The treatment of others.Response to others.Response to others.

BEHAVIOURAL BEHAVIOURAL MEDICINEMEDICINE

““Field of scientific Field of scientific research concerned research concerned with the effects of with the effects of behaviour on physical behaviour on physical health and illness. health and illness. Developed in 1970, it Developed in 1970, it focuses on the focuses on the occurrence, prevention, occurrence, prevention, control of physical control of physical disorders that are disorders that are caused or aggravated caused or aggravated by social conditions, by social conditions, behaviour, thoughts, behaviour, thoughts, and emotions”.and emotions”.

BEHAVIOURAL BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCESSCIENCES

““Field of study that Field of study that are primarily are primarily concerned with the concerned with the understanding, understanding, prediction, and prediction, and control of human control of human behaviour, behaviour, especially those especially those types of behaviour types of behaviour that develop out of that develop out of inter personal inter personal relations”.relations”.

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SOCIOLOGYSOCIOLOGY The scientific study of The scientific study of

the development, the development, structure and function structure and function of human society.of human society.

The lowest level in this The lowest level in this discipline is an discipline is an interacting individual.interacting individual.

Sociology aims at Sociology aims at analyzing, describing, analyzing, describing, interpreting and interpreting and predicting human predicting human behaviorbehavior

SOCIAL NORMSSOCIAL NORMS Social norms are the Social norms are the

shared expectations shared expectations from an individual in a from an individual in a social institution.social institution.

SOCIAL SOCIAL INSTITUTIONINSTITUTION

When the norms are When the norms are refined and placed in refined and placed in order an interrelated order an interrelated system of such norms system of such norms pertaining to a pertaining to a relatively limited area relatively limited area of group activity is of group activity is called social institution. called social institution. The family, marriage, The family, marriage, economics, politics, economics, politics, religion, play and religion, play and recreation are recreation are important social important social institutions.institutions.

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FAMILYFAMILY The family is a group of intimate people The family is a group of intimate people

emotionally involved and related either emotionally involved and related either by blood, marriage or adoption, by blood, marriage or adoption, responsible for the reproduction and responsible for the reproduction and rearing of the children and living rearing of the children and living together.together.

MARRIAGEMARRIAGE The legal union of male and female in The legal union of male and female in

order to live together and often to have order to live together and often to have children.children.

PURDAHPURDAH Purdah is a religious practice in which Purdah is a religious practice in which

women cover their bodies with a veil.women cover their bodies with a veil.

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CULTURECULTURE

It is used to refer the way of life It is used to refer the way of life of people; it emphasizes the of people; it emphasizes the holistic integrated totality of that holistic integrated totality of that way of life. It is a social heritage. way of life. It is a social heritage. It includes knowledge, belief, art, It includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs and other morals, law, customs and other capabilities and habits acquired capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. by man as a member of society. It is socially transmitted from It is socially transmitted from parents to child parents to child

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CultureCulture

Culture include-:Culture include-: MoralsMorals KnowledgeKnowledge HabitsHabits BeliefsBeliefs CustomsCustoms LawLaw

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SOCIETYSOCIETY

Society is a group of people with a Society is a group of people with a common at least somewhat distinct common at least somewhat distinct culture, who occupying a particular culture, who occupying a particular territorial area, having a feeling of territorial area, having a feeling of common unity and regard common unity and regard themselves as a distinguished entity. themselves as a distinguished entity. The general aim of society is The general aim of society is progress. progress.

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TYPES OF SOCIETIESTYPES OF SOCIETIES1)1) Urban societyUrban society2)2) Rural society.Rural society.3)3) Secular societySecular society4)4) Sacred societySacred society5)5) Industrial societyIndustrial society6)6) Primitive societyPrimitive society7)7) Close societyClose society8)8) Gemeinschaft societyGemeinschaft society9)9) Folk societyFolk society

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(1) URBAN SOCIETY(1) URBAN SOCIETY

Is characterized by a large heterogeneous Is characterized by a large heterogeneous population having close contact with other population having close contact with other societies through trade, commerce, societies through trade, commerce, communication and other facilities.communication and other facilities.

There is complex division of labour and a There is complex division of labour and a prevalence of secular over sacred prevalence of secular over sacred concerns.concerns.

Social relations are impersonal, and Social relations are impersonal, and formal.formal.

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prevention of genetic diseasesprevention of genetic diseases

Levels of prevention

Primary preventionSecondary prevention Tertiary prevention

Healthpromotion

Specific protection

Early diagnosis and treatment

Disabilitylimitation

Rehabilitation

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(2) RURAL SOCIETY.(2) RURAL SOCIETY. Is defined as the form of association Is defined as the form of association

maintained between the people and their maintained between the people and their institutions in a local area in which they live institutions in a local area in which they live on dispersed farmsteads and in a village, on dispersed farmsteads and in a village, which usually forms the centre of their which usually forms the centre of their activities”.activities”.

It is an agricultural society. It is an agricultural society. Interactions are simple, informal and Interactions are simple, informal and

intimate.intimate. There is strong hold of social institutions.There is strong hold of social institutions. The use of technology is scarce and primary The use of technology is scarce and primary

health care. facilities are lacking in the rural health care. facilities are lacking in the rural societies.societies.

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(3) SECULAR SOCIETY(3) SECULAR SOCIETY

It is heterogeneous society in which It is heterogeneous society in which the primary values are utilization, the primary values are utilization, rational and help promoting.rational and help promoting.

It is basically non-religious society It is basically non-religious society in the sense that there is no official in the sense that there is no official religion.religion.

Pragmatism is the cultural ethos of Pragmatism is the cultural ethos of such a society.such a society.

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(4) SACRED SOCIETY(4) SACRED SOCIETY

It is a homogeneous, integrated and stable It is a homogeneous, integrated and stable association in which value system, customs association in which value system, customs and normative order are regarded as and normative order are regarded as sacred and unchangeable society.sacred and unchangeable society.

• Human relationships and value systems Human relationships and value systems are regarded as absolute, natural, rigid are regarded as absolute, natural, rigid and fixed.and fixed.

• Most of the societies of third world Most of the societies of third world countries could be placed under this countries could be placed under this category.category.

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(5)(5) INDUSTRIAL SOCIETYINDUSTRIAL SOCIETY

It is a society in which hand made produce is It is a society in which hand made produce is replaced by machine production of goods.replaced by machine production of goods.

Workers do not own machines but they work for Workers do not own machines but they work for enterprises.enterprises.

Economic activity is well organized in this society.Economic activity is well organized in this society. There is higher social mobility, conformity, There is higher social mobility, conformity,

beaurocratisation, loss of folk community ties, beaurocratisation, loss of folk community ties, stereotyped attitudes and values, division of stereotyped attitudes and values, division of labour.labour.

Most of the social problems of industrial societies Most of the social problems of industrial societies may not be inherent but could be the result of may not be inherent but could be the result of defective economics, political or social policies.defective economics, political or social policies.

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(6) PRIMITIVE SOCIETY(6) PRIMITIVE SOCIETY

A primitive society means a non-A primitive society means a non-literate society.literate society.

No society likes to be called No society likes to be called primitive, since most the of primitive, since most the of societies are under going societies are under going sociocultural changes.sociocultural changes.

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(7) CLOSE SOCIETY(7) CLOSE SOCIETY

A society in which social class is based A society in which social class is based primarily on family status rather than primarily on family status rather than personal abilities, capabilities, and personal abilities, capabilities, and achievements.achievements.

It is intermediate to society and cast It is intermediate to society and cast system( a cast society has a very rigid, system( a cast society has a very rigid, fixed and permanent system of assigning fixed and permanent system of assigning roles and status for its individuals at the roles and status for its individuals at the time of their birth)time of their birth)

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(8) GEMEINSCHAFT(8) GEMEINSCHAFT

Generalized type of societyGeneralized type of society Social bonds are based on close Social bonds are based on close

personalities of friendship, close personalities of friendship, close association, and kinship.association, and kinship.

There is close co-operation and There is close co-operation and intimate interaction based on intimate interaction based on emotions among its members.emotions among its members.

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(9)Folk society(9)Folk society It is small, isolated, non literate and It is small, isolated, non literate and

homogenous institution with a strong homogenous institution with a strong sense of solidaritysense of solidarity

Behaviour in such a society is Behaviour in such a society is spontaneous, traditional, uncritical, and spontaneous, traditional, uncritical, and personal.personal.

There is no formal legal systemThere is no formal legal system Kinship and its institutions are the type Kinship and its institutions are the type

of experiences which control and direct of experiences which control and direct economical, political and religious economical, political and religious activities.activities.

Status dominates the market economy. Status dominates the market economy.

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SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGYSOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

Social psychology deals with the Social psychology deals with the process of the socialization of the process of the socialization of the individual. This process involves individual. This process involves interaction between the individual interaction between the individual and other persons.and other persons.

Social psychology is social Social psychology is social interaction, which begins with birth interaction, which begins with birth and continues throughout life.and continues throughout life.

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Social NormsSocial Norms: : representrepresent expected regularities in conduct and expected regularities in conduct and implicit (tacit,understood)agreements about how to implicit (tacit,understood)agreements about how to behave.behave.Social Structure:Social Structure: refers to interrelationships of these refers to interrelationships of these norms with other prescriptions of the society norms with other prescriptions of the society regarding roles and status.regarding roles and status.OrOrSocial norms are the shared expectations from an Social norms are the shared expectations from an individual in a social institution.individual in a social institution.Attitude:Attitude:It is defined as an orientation favorable or It is defined as an orientation favorable or unfavorable to some object, concept or events.unfavorable to some object, concept or events.Opinions deal with expectations or predictions about Opinions deal with expectations or predictions about the consequences of certain sources of action.the consequences of certain sources of action.The MASS MEDIAThe MASS MEDIA:: (Newspapers, magazines, motion (Newspapers, magazines, motion pictures, radio television,internet,cable,mob phone) pictures, radio television,internet,cable,mob phone) affect the attitudes, opinion, and beliefs of large affect the attitudes, opinion, and beliefs of large audiences.audiences.Coercive Persuasion (brain Coercive Persuasion (brain washing): refers to the efforts to convert the washing): refers to the efforts to convert the thinking of prisoners.thinking of prisoners.

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GENETICSGENETICS GENETICSGENETICS Genetics is the science that deals with the underlying causes Genetics is the science that deals with the underlying causes

of the resemblance’s and differences.of the resemblance’s and differences. GENOTYPESGENOTYPES:: The genetic constitution of an individual (Carrier The genetic constitution of an individual (Carrier

of genetic qualities).of genetic qualities). PHENOTYPES:PHENOTYPES: A set of observable characteristics of an A set of observable characteristics of an

individual or group resulting from the interaction of its individual or group resulting from the interaction of its genotype with its environment.genotype with its environment.

CHROMOSOMES AND GENES:CHROMOSOMES AND GENES: An individual’s genotypes consist of the hereditary units that An individual’s genotypes consist of the hereditary units that

he has received from his parents and that he will transmit to he has received from his parents and that he will transmit to his offspring’s.his offspring’s.

These units are carried by microscopic particles found within These units are carried by microscopic particles found within each cell of the body known as CHROMOSOMEeach cell of the body known as CHROMOSOME

A chromosome is composed of many GENES.A chromosome is composed of many GENES. Each body cell has 46 chromosomes (23 from father’s sperm Each body cell has 46 chromosomes (23 from father’s sperm

and 23 from mother’s ovum).and 23 from mother’s ovum). Total number of genes in each human chromosome is at least Total number of genes in each human chromosome is at least

1000.An important attribute of the gene is1000.An important attribute of the gene is DOMINANCEDOMINANCE oror RECESSIVE.RECESSIVE.A normal female has two XX chromosomes.A normal female has two XX chromosomes.

A normal male has one X chromosome and one Y A normal male has one X chromosome and one Y chromosome.chromosome.

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Human ChromosomesHuman Chromosomes

Chromosomes contain the genetic Chromosomes contain the genetic blueprints for a specific organism. Different blueprints for a specific organism. Different groups of organisms have different numbers groups of organisms have different numbers of chromosomes; for example, human of chromosomes; for example, human beings have 23 pairs (46 total) of beings have 23 pairs (46 total) of chromosomes, divided into 8 different sets chromosomes, divided into 8 different sets according to their size and shape. One according to their size and shape. One chromosome in each pair comes from the chromosome in each pair comes from the mother and the other comes from the mother and the other comes from the father. The variation present in individuals father. The variation present in individuals is a reflection of the genetic recombination is a reflection of the genetic recombination of these sets of chromosomes from of these sets of chromosomes from generation to generation.generation to generation.

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HUMAN CHROMOSOMESHUMAN CHROMOSOMES

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Genetic DiseasesGenetic DiseasesClassificationClassification

Chromosomal abnormalities.Chromosomal abnormalities. Klinefelter syndromeKlinefelter syndrome Turner syndromeTurner syndrome Xyy syndromeXyy syndrome Super female(XXX.XXXX.XXXXX)Super female(XXX.XXXX.XXXXX) Down syndromeDown syndrome UnifactoralUnifactoral(single gene rmendilian)(single gene rmendilian)Diseases.Diseases. Autosomal dominant traitsAutosomal dominant traits Autosomal Recessive traitsAutosomal Recessive traits Recessive sex- linked-traitsRecessive sex- linked-traits Dominant X-linked traitsDominant X-linked traits Multifactorial diseases.Multifactorial diseases. CancerCancer Diabetes mellitusDiabetes mellitus C.H.D.C.H.D.

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PREVENTIVE AND PREVENTIVE AND SOCIALMEASURES OF SOCIALMEASURES OF GENETIC DISEASESGENETIC DISEASESHealth promotional measures.Health promotional measures.

Specific protectionSpecific protection

Early diagnosis and treatmentEarly diagnosis and treatment

Disability limitationDisability limitation

RehabilitationRehabilitation

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PREVENTIVE AND PREVENTIVE AND SOCIALMEASURES OF GENETIC SOCIALMEASURES OF GENETIC DISEASESDISEASES

Health promotional measures.Health promotional measures.

Specific protectionSpecific protection

Early diagnosis and treatmentEarly diagnosis and treatment

Disability limitationDisability limitation

RehabilitationRehabilitation

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HELTH PROMOTIONAL HELTH PROMOTIONAL MEASURESMEASURES

(a)(a) EUGENICSEUGENICS GallonGallon proposed the term proposed the term

Eugenics for the science which Eugenics for the science which aims to improve the genetics aims to improve the genetics endowment of human endowment of human population. Eugenics has both population. Eugenics has both negative and positive aspectsnegative and positive aspects..

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Negative EugenicsNegative Eugenics

HitlerHitler sought to improve the sought to improve the German raceGerman race by killing weak and defective. This was by killing weak and defective. This was negative Eugenics.But nobody in the negative Eugenics.But nobody in the civilized world would approve such a civilized world would approve such a measure to improve the Human race.measure to improve the Human race.

But if the people who are suffering from But if the people who are suffering from serious hereditary diseases are sterilized serious hereditary diseases are sterilized or otherwise debarred from producing or otherwise debarred from producing children, there should be no serious children, there should be no serious objection to marriage. objection to marriage.

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Positive EugenicsPositive Eugenics

To improve the genetic To improve the genetic composition of the population composition of the population by encouraging the carriers of by encouraging the carriers of desirable genotype to assume desirable genotype to assume the burden of parenthood but the burden of parenthood but this is not easy.this is not easy.

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EUTHENICSEUTHENICS

Mere improvement of the genotype is of no use Mere improvement of the genotype is of no use unless the improved genotype is given access to a unless the improved genotype is given access to a suitable environment which will enable the genes to suitable environment which will enable the genes to express themselves readily.express themselves readily.

Throughout the course of history of man has been Throughout the course of history of man has been adapting environment to his genes more than adapting environment to his genes more than adapting his genes to the environment.adapting his genes to the environment.

Many studies have been proved that mentally Many studies have been proved that mentally retarded (mild) children improved their IQ.retarded (mild) children improved their IQ.

Thus the solution of improving the human race is by Thus the solution of improving the human race is by changing genes as well as environment. changing genes as well as environment.

Thus environmental manipulation is Thus environmental manipulation is called Euthenics.called Euthenics.

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Genetic CounselingGenetic Counseling

Prospective genetic counseling.Prospective genetic counseling.

Retrospective genetic counseling.Retrospective genetic counseling.

Consanguineous marriagesConsanguineous marriages

Late marriages.Late marriages.

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Specific protectionSpecific protection

Protection from mutagens such Protection from mutagens such as X-rays particularly the as X-rays particularly the pregnant lady.pregnant lady.

Immunization by anti-D globulinImmunization by anti-D globulin

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Early diagnosis and treatmentEarly diagnosis and treatment

Detection of genetic carriers.Detection of genetic carriers. Parental diagnosis(Aminocentesis)Parental diagnosis(Aminocentesis) Screening of newborn infants.Screening of newborn infants. Recognizing preclinical casesRecognizing preclinical cases

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RehabilitationRehabilitation

Finally rehabilitation with many Finally rehabilitation with many genetic or partially genetic genetic or partially genetic conditions causing physical or mental conditions causing physical or mental disability, much can be done for the disability, much can be done for the patient and for his family in helping patient and for his family in helping him to lead a better and more useful him to lead a better and more useful life. life.

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HUMAN ECOLOGYHUMAN ECOLOGY

ECOLOGY:ECOLOGY: Study of environment. Study of environment. HUMAN ECOLOGYHUMAN ECOLOGY: is a general study of living organisms, : is a general study of living organisms,

their relationship to one another and the planet on which their relationship to one another and the planet on which they live.they live.

ORIGIN OF EARTH AND LIFE:ORIGIN OF EARTH AND LIFE: Earth was formed 4500 million years ago.Earth was formed 4500 million years ago. First life was formed in sea.First life was formed in sea. The earliest organism appeared about 2700million years ago.The earliest organism appeared about 2700million years ago. First life on land appeared on 450 million years ago.First life on land appeared on 450 million years ago. Man appeared on earth about 50 million years ago.Man appeared on earth about 50 million years ago. SYSTEMSYSTEM:: A set of individual parts placed functionally together.A set of individual parts placed functionally together. ECOSYSTEM:ECOSYSTEM: A system that is open for at least one quality, in which at A system that is open for at least one quality, in which at

least one of the entities is classified as living.least one of the entities is classified as living.

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ECONOMICSECONOMICS

ECONOMICSECONOMICS Economics is the science which study human behavior as a Economics is the science which study human behavior as a

relationship between scarce means and alternate uses.relationship between scarce means and alternate uses. SCARCITYSCARCITY:: is the condition of being limited supply.is the condition of being limited supply. GOODS.GOODS. Goods have been classified in many categories,Goods have been classified in many categories, Material Goods:Material Goods: Commodities, which are bought by paying.Commodities, which are bought by paying. Non-Material GoodsNon-Material Goods:: includes services OF labour, businessman, includes services OF labour, businessman,

officials, and doctors.officials, and doctors. Consumers Goods:Consumers Goods: Goods essential to living Rice, Wheat, Goods essential to living Rice, Wheat,

Vegetables and other foods.Vegetables and other foods. Economic Goods:Economic Goods: Minerals, forests.Minerals, forests. Free Goods:Free Goods: A free good is anything to which the law of A free good is anything to which the law of

scarcity does not scarcity does not apply. They are gifts of nature e.g. Air, apply. They are gifts of nature e.g. Air, Water.Water.

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INDICATORS OF INDICATORS OF ECONOMICS.ECONOMICS.

Gross National Product (GNP):Gross National Product (GNP): GNP is the sum total of GNP is the sum total of all expenditures of final .Goods and services produced in all expenditures of final .Goods and services produced in the country during a one year period.the country during a one year period.

National Income:National Income: National income is equal to the sum National income is equal to the sum total of all the Wages and salary, income earned by self-total of all the Wages and salary, income earned by self-employed Individuals, all corporate profits and net interest employed Individuals, all corporate profits and net interest received by the individuals.received by the individuals.

Net National Product:Net National Product: When depreciation is deducted When depreciation is deducted from GNP, the result is Net National Product.from GNP, the result is Net National Product.

Per Capita Income:Per Capita Income: average average income of an individual in a income of an individual in a country.country.

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Origin from Greek meaning study of man.It is the study of the cultural, historical, physical and linguistic behavior of people from all parts of Globe both in the past and presentAnthropology is the study of human similarities and differences.The holistic study of human kind its origin, development, social and political organization, religions, language, arts and artifacts.

Branches1.Physical/Social Anthropology2.Cultural Anthropology3.Archeology Anthropology4.Linguistic Anthropology

MEDICAL ANTHROPOLOGY.

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Anthropological methodsAnthropological methods

Anthropological methods are useful forAnthropological methods are useful for Prior to introduction of a new health Prior to introduction of a new health

program for health planning and program for health planning and innovations.innovations.

What the people are doing with regard to What the people are doing with regard to health care.health care.

The beliefs and practice of peopleThe beliefs and practice of people The community’s response can be The community’s response can be

measured by medical anthropology measured by medical anthropology techniques.techniques.

Following completion of health program Following completion of health program results can be evaluated.results can be evaluated.

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ANTHROPOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES:TECHNIQUES:

The participant –Observer studyThe participant –Observer study “ “ The Anthropologist lives in their village The Anthropologist lives in their village

and records their ways.and records their ways. Interviews with Key Informants:Interviews with Key Informants: ““Key informants are individual chosen from Key informants are individual chosen from

the community”.the community”. Clinical vignettes:" TheseClinical vignettes:" These are ways of are ways of

finding out about peoples Beliefs.finding out about peoples Beliefs. Drawings/Pictures/ObjectsDrawings/Pictures/Objects Surveys and QuestionnairesSurveys and Questionnaires Focus Groups Discussions(FGD)Focus Groups Discussions(FGD)

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