social studies study guide - gogsat studies study... · social studies study guide . social studies...

Social Studies

©GoGSAT P a g e | 1 WWW.GOGSAT.COM

Social Studies Study Guide

Social Studies


Table of Contents

JAMAICA’S LOCATION AND PHYSICAL FEATURES ................................................................................................... 4

GEOGRAPHIC COORDINATES ............................................................................................................................................. 4

CLIMATE ....................................................................................................................................................................... 5

TOPOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................................................................ 5

SOILS ........................................................................................................................................................................... 6

VALLEYS ....................................................................................................................................................................... 7

MOUNTAINS ................................................................................................................................................................. 8

RIVERS ....................................................................................................................................................................... 11

JAMAICA’S WATERFALLS ................................................................................................................................................ 17

JAMAICA’S COUNTIES AND PARISHES .................................................................................................................. 20

NATIONAL EMBLEMS AND SYMBOLS ................................................................................................................... 21

THE FLAG ................................................................................................................................................................... 21

THE MOTTO ................................................................................................................................................................ 22

THE NATIONAL DISH ..................................................................................................................................................... 23

THE NATIONAL BIRD ..................................................................................................................................................... 24

THE NATIONAL FLOWER ................................................................................................................................................ 25

THE NATIONAL TREE: THE BLUE MAHOE.......................................................................................................................... 27

THE NATIONAL SONG .................................................................................................................................................... 28

NATIONAL ANTHEM ...................................................................................................................................................... 29

NATIONAL PLEDGE ....................................................................................................................................................... 30

IMPORTANT EVENTS AND PEOPLE IN JAMAICA’S HISTORY .................................................................................. 31

PAUL BOGLE ............................................................................................................................................................... 31

GEORGE WILLIAM GORDON ........................................................................................................................................... 33

NANNY....................................................................................................................................................................... 34

SAM SHARPE ............................................................................................................................................................... 35

SIR ALEXANDER BUSTAMANTE ........................................................................................................................................ 36

NORMAN WASHINGTON MANLEY ................................................................................................................................... 37

MARCUS GARVEY ......................................................................................................................................................... 38

EMANCIPATION ............................................................................................................................................................ 39

THE MORANT BAY REBELLION ........................................................................................................................................ 40

UNIVERSAL ADULT SUFFRAGE ......................................................................................................................................... 41

INDEPENDENCE ............................................................................................................................................................ 41

PLANET EARTH AND ITS RESOURCES .................................................................................................................... 42

OCEANS ..................................................................................................................................................................... 42

SEAS .......................................................................................................................................................................... 45

RIVERS ....................................................................................................................................................................... 46

BENEFITS OF RIVERS...................................................................................................................................................... 47

LAKE .......................................................................................................................................................................... 49

ROCKS .................................................................................................................................................................. 50

Social Studies


IGNEOUS ROCK ............................................................................................................................................................ 50

METAMORPHIC ROCK ................................................................................................................................................... 52

SEDIMENTARY ROCK ..................................................................................................................................................... 54

MINERALS ............................................................................................................................................................ 56

THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS .......................................................................................................................... 57

CONTINENTS ........................................................................................................................................................ 59

THE SOLAR SYSTEM ............................................................................................................................................. 61

THE PLANETS IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM ................................................................................................................................ 62

MERCURY ................................................................................................................................................................... 63

VENUS ....................................................................................................................................................................... 64

EARTH........................................................................................................................................................................ 65

MARS ........................................................................................................................................................................ 78

JUPITER ...................................................................................................................................................................... 79

SATURN ...................................................................................................................................................................... 80

URANUS ..................................................................................................................................................................... 81

NEPTUNE .................................................................................................................................................................... 82

PLUTO........................................................................................................................................................................ 83

THE ASTEROID BELT ...................................................................................................................................................... 84

THE MOON ................................................................................................................................................................. 85

METEOROIDS .............................................................................................................................................................. 87

COMETS ..................................................................................................................................................................... 88

GALAXY ...................................................................................................................................................................... 90

THE SUN .................................................................................................................................................................... 91

TSUNAMI ............................................................................................................................................................. 98

VOLCANOES ......................................................................................................................................................... 99

ASTRONOMY ..................................................................................................................................................... 101

ASTRONAUTS............................................................................................................................................................. 107

Social Studies


Jamaica’s Location and Physical Features

Figure 2

Jamaica is an island in the Caribbean Sea, located 145 Kilometres (90 miles) south of Cuba and

190 Kilometres (118 miles) west of Haiti. It is approximately 234 Kilometres (145 miles) long and

about 80 Kilometres (50 miles) wide.

Geographic Coordinates

Jamaica lies at 18° North latitude and 77° West longitude.

Social Studies


Climate

Jamaica has a tropical, hot, humid climate with a temperate interior. Warm trade winds bring

rainfall throughout the year. The rainy season extends from May to October with the heaviest

rainfall in those two months.

Topography

Figure 3

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/Jamaica_Topography.

Social Studies


Jamaica is the third largest island in the Caribbean. It is covered with mostly mountains with a

narrow plain along the coastline. The highest peak is in the Blue Mountain Range, the highest

point measuring 2,256 metres (7,402 ft) above sea level.

Figure 3 shows the elevation (or height) of the land in the island. The green areas depict the

parts of the island that are relatively flat, while the yellow and orange areas illustrate the areas

that are higher, like the various mountain ranges. The section in purple and white show the

highest areas, the Blue Mountain range.

Soils

About two-thirds of the country is covered with limestone, which is concentrated on the central

and western parts of the island. The other third is covered by igneous and metamorphic rocks,

shale and alluvium.

Social Studies


Valleys

St. James Queen of Spain Valley

Trelawny Queen of Spain Valley

Hanover Great River

Westmoreland Dean

St. Catherine Luidas Vale

St. Mary St Thomas in the Vale

Portland Rio Grande

St. Thomas Plantain Garden

Social Studies


Mountains

Nearly half the island is over 300 meters above sea level!

The mountains of the island can be broken up into three main groups. The first group is in the

eastern section composed primarily of the Blue Mountains (See figure 4). This group also has

the John Crow Mountains and is the most easterly mountain range in the island. They run from

north-west to south-east in the parish of Portland and divide the Rio Grande valley from the

east coast of the island.

The second group or central region is formed chiefly of limestone, and extends from Stony Hill

in St Andrew to the Cockpit country. The central range starts from Stony Hill and runs in a north

Social Studies


westerly direction through Mammee Hill, Red Hills, Bog Walk, Guy's Hill, Mount Diablo and

finally into the Cockpit country.

The third group is the western section with Dolphin Head as its centre (see figure 4).

The mountains in Jamaica stretch from one end of the island in the East to the other end in the

West. Some people say that the mountains form a kind of backbone on the island.

Figure 4

Blue Mountains

Peak

Dolphin Head

Social Studies


Uses of Mountains

Figure 6 Mountains account for the distribution of rainfall

The North Eastern side of the island (Portland) where the Blue Mountains are located usually

gets much more rain than the South (Kingston, St. Andrew and St. Thomas) side because it is on

the Windward side of the Blue Mountains, or the side that the Trade winds meet land first. As

these winds approach land having passed over the warm sea they contain a lot of moisture in

the form of water vapour. When these winds approach the windward side mountains, they are

is forced to rise, cooling as they do so, forming clouds. The water vapour in the clouds cool to

the point that they become water droplets and fall as rain. Usually by the time they move over

the mountain there is no moisture left so the leeward side get very little to no rain.

Social Studies


Rivers

As the main mountain ranges in Jamaica run from west to east, the rivers, which start on their

slopes, generally flow north or south. Most of the rivers in Jamaica are not large enough for big

boats to sail on them. One exception is the Black River which is one of Jamaica's longest rivers.

It is 73 kilometres (44 miles) long, and for 28 kilometres (17 miles) from its mouth it can be used

by small vessels. It is called the Black River because of the darkness of the river bed that has

been lined with thick layers of decomposing vegetation. It begins as an underground stream in

the Cockpit Country and emerges north of Siloah, in St. Elizabeth, on the southern border of the

Cockpits. The river flows into the Upper Morass where the waters merge with those of the

Smith River and other smaller tributaries. It is has thick vegetation and is easily explored by

canoe.

Black River

Social Studies


The rivers of Portland, which have their source in the Blue Mountains, flow very swiftly, and can

be very destructive in time of heavy rainfall. The Rio Grande, rising on the northern slopes of

the Blue Mountains, is a large river which has its course through some of the wildest and most

beautiful scenery in the island. Rio Grande is the birthplace of river rafting in Jamaica. The

original use of these rafts was to transport bananas from the inland plantations to the harbour

at Port Antonio. The pursuit was popularised by Errol Flynn who used to challenge his guests to

moonlight rafting races along the Rio Grande. Rafting on this river has become, in recent years,

a popular sporting pastime. Other main rivers of Portland are the Swift, Spanish, and Buff Bay.

Rafting on the Rio Grande River

The Wag Water rises in the mountains of St. Andrew and flows through the parish of St. Mary,

entering the sea west of Annotto Bay. The Hope River rises in the hills near Newcastle and

enters the sea about 10 kilometres (6 miles) east of Kingston. Both the Wag Water and the

Hope River supply Kingston with water.

Social Studies


The Milk River supplies a system of canals for the irrigation of the plains of Vere in Clarendon.

The Rio Minho is one of the largest rivers in Jamaica. It flows southwest, reaching the

Caribbean Sea at Carlisle Bay. The town of May Pen, Clarendon, lies on the banks of the river.

The ‘head’ (or beginning) of the Martha Brae River is at Windsor in the interior of Trelawny,

flowing towards the east of Falmouth. This is probably Jamaica’s most well known waterway for

two reasons:

(1) Its location (near to Montego Bay). It is a featured tourist attraction and popular for its 30

foot bamboo rafts

(2)An ancient folk legend.

As the story goes, an old Taino Indian witch was believed to know the whereabouts of a large

stash of gold. In the time of the Spanish, treasure hunters captured the witch in order to lead

them to the metal. Pretending to comply, she led them into a cave and then suddenly

disappeared. Frightened, the Spaniards rushed out of the cave only to find that the witch had

diverted the river to where the treasure seekers were. The Spaniards drowned.

With its tributaries rising in the Above Rocks district in St. Andrew, the Rio Cobre runs through

St. Catherine, and is used for providing irrigation and drinking water and provides electricity for

the capital and surrounding towns like Linstead, Riversdale, Old Harbour, and the urban

sections of Kingston and St. Andrew.

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carlisle_Bay_%28Jamaica%29&action=edit&redlink=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_Pen

Social Studies


The famous Flat Bridge lies over a section of the Rio Cobre. This bridge was built by the

Spaniards and is considered one of the strongest in the West Indies. When the river is in spate,

vehicular traffic is unable to cross the Flat Bridge and has to be diverted through Barry or

Sligoville.

The legend that surrounds the Rio Cobre is that a mermaid lives at the bottom of the river and

on moonlit nights she comes up and sits on a huge stone and combs her long black hair with a

silver comb. The story also says if the comb drops out of the mermaid's hand and anyone finds

it they will become wealthy.

The Jamaica Public Service Company built a hydro electric plant on the banks of the Rio Cobre

that supplied electricity to a great part of St. Catherine, but unfortunately the plant was

destroyed by a hurricane.

Rio Cobre (Flat Bridge)

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Jamaica-FlatBridge

Social Studies


The Plantain Garden River in St. Thomas is the only important river which does not north or

south. It flowing south in its upper course, then it turns east upon meeting the coastal range of

hills. It then flows east through the Plantain Garden River Valley and enters the sea at Holland

Bay.

Plantain Garden River

Underground Rivers

Jamaica has a lot of limestone rock which is porous, that is, easily worn away by water. This

results in a lot of holes in the rock (like sink holes) and therefore a lot of underground rivers.

The Cave River and Hectors River are examples. There are some areas, like the parish of St. Ann,

that has mostly limestone rock. As a result of this, there are no rivers above ground; most of

the rivers are underground. When the area receives a lot of rainfall, underground reservoirs

become full and sometimes rise to the surface as lakes. For example the Moneague Lake near

Moneague last rose in 1970 and disappeared in 1971.

Social Studies


Major Rivers in Jamaica

Social Studies


Jamaica’s Waterfalls

Jamaica’s waterfalls are formed mostly by rivers flowing over the side of a cliff or over rocks.

There are a number of cascading waterfalls that visitors and local can climb up and enjoy.

Dunn’s River Falls is the most popular and internationally known waterfall in Jamaica, as it is

easily accessible to tourists. Located just outside of Ocho Rios, these 600-foot waterfalls attract

large crowds year round. The scenery is beautiful, and visitors are encouraged to climb the

waterfall with guides who are used to the terrain as slippery rocks can cause the occasional

bump or bruise.

Dunn’s River Falls

Social Studies


Somerset Falls - Just outside of Port Antonio, near Hope Bay. These beautiful falls are in a natural, green setting, with

unusual plants and flowers.

Reach Falls - is a short drive away from Port Antonio. Recognized as one of the most beautiful natural waterfalls of

Jamaica, Reach Falls is a series of cascades that tumble over limestone tiers from one jade-coloured pool to the next.

Social Studies


Mayfield falls, on the Mayfield River is in the mountains of Westmoreland, approximately 45

Minutes drive from the resort town of Negril. Mayfield Falls is home 52 varieties of ferns and

wildlife, wildflowers and different species of birds.

Legend has it that a mermaid by the name of Miriam lived in this river since the early 1700s.

The Y.S. Falls is located by the Black River, on a papaya plantation. “YS” is the name of the

estate and river near to Middle Quarters, St. Elizabeth.

YS Falls

Social Studies


Jamaica’s Counties and Parishes

Jamaica is divided into three counties: Cornwall, Middlesex and Surrey and fourteen parishes.

Social Studies


National Emblems and Symbols

The Flag

The Jamaica National Flag was first raised on Independence Day, August 6, 1962. It is flown on

many celebratory occasions, showing Jamaican pride.

Design

A committee of the Jamaica House of Representatives designed the Jamaican Flag which

consists of a diagonal cross with four triangles placed side by side. The diagonal cross is gold;

the top and bottom triangles are green; and the hoist and fly (side) triangles are black.

Symbolism

“The sun shineth, the land is green and the people are strong and creative” is the symbolism of

the colours of the flag. Black depicts the strength and creativity of the people; Gold, the natural

wealth and beauty of sunlight; and green, hope and agricultural resources.

Social Studies


The Motto

The Jamaican national motto is ‘Out of Many One People’, declaring the fact that Jamaica’s

population comes from many races. The motto is represented on the Coat of Arms, showing a

male and female member of the Taino tribe (the original inhabitants of Jamaica) standing on

either side of a shield which bears a red cross with five golden pineapples. The crest shows a

Jamaican crocodile mounted on the Royal Helmet of the British Monarchy.

Coat of arms

Social Studies


The National Dish

Ackee and salt fish is Jamaica’s national dish. Although the Ackee originates from West Africa, is

the only place where it is widely eaten. The fruit has been introduced to other Caribbean

islands (where it is know by different names). It has also been introduced to Central America

and Florida in the United States, but it is mainly eaten by Jamaicans living in these countries.

Social Studies


The National Bird

The doctor bird (or swallow tail humming bird), stands out among the 320 species of

hummingbirds. It lives only in Jamaica. These birds’ beautiful feathers have no equal in the

entire bird population and they have glowing colours unique. In addition to these beautiful

feathers, the mature male has two long tails which stream behind him when he flies. For

generations, the doctor bird has been sung about in Jamaican song and talked about in

Jamaican stories.

Social Studies


The National Flower

The Lignum Vitae was found in Jamaica by Christopher Columbus. Its name, when translated

from Latin, means “wood of life”, probably used because of its medicinal value. The short,

compact tree lives in continental tropical America and the West Indies. In Jamaica it grows best

in the dry woodlands along the north and south coasts of the island.

The plant is beautiful, producing an attractive blue flower and orange-yellow fruit, while its

crown has a pleasant rounded shape. The tree is one of the most useful in the world. The body,

gum, bark, fruit, leaves and blossom all serve some useful purpose. A gum obtained from its sap

was once regarded as a treatment to cleanse or evacuate the bowels. It was exported to Europe

from the early sixteenth century as a remedy (combined with mercury) for syphilis and has also

been used as a remedy for gout.

Social Studies


The wood was once used to make parts of ships sailing the all over he world. As a result of this,

Lignum Vitae and Jamaica are closely associated in shipyards worldwide. It is a very heavy wood

which will sink in water. Because of its toughness it is used for items such as mortars (for

grinding), mallets, pulleys and batons carried by policemen. Sometimes it is used for furniture.

Social Studies


The National Tree: The Blue Mahoe

The Blue Mahoe is the national tree of Jamaica. It is native to the island and grows quite rapidly,

often as tall as 20m (66ft). In wetter areas it will grow in areas as high as 1200m (4000 ft). It is

often used in replant areas that have lost many trees.

The tree is quite attractive with its straight trunk, broad green leaves and hibiscus-like flowers.

The eye-catching flower changes colour as it matures, going from bright yellow to orange red

and finally to crimson.

The name Mahoe is derived from a Carib Indian word. The ‘blue’ refers to blue-green streaks in

the polished wood, giving it a distinctive appearance.

Social Studies


The Blue Mahoe is so beautiful and durable that it is widely used for cabinet making and also

for making decorative objects such as picture frames, bowls and carving. Cuba is the only other

place where the Blue Mahoe grows naturally.

The National Song

I pledge my heart forever To serve with humble pride This shining homeland, ever

So long as earth abide.

I pledge my heart, this island As God and faith shall live

My work, my strength, my love and My loyalty to give.

O green isle of the Indies, Jamaica, strong and free,

Our vows and loyal promises O heartland, ‘tis to Thee.

rtsp://rstream.jol.com.jm/jisav/i%20pledge%20my%20heart.rm

rtsp://rstream.jol.com.jm/jisav/i%20pledge%20my%20heart.rm

Social Studies


National Anthem

Eternal Father bless our land, Guard us with Thy Mighty Hand, Keep us free from evil powers,

Be our light through countless hours. To our Leaders, Great Defender, Grant true wisdom from above. Justice, Truth be ours forever,

Jamaica, Land we love. Jamaica, Jamaica, Jamaica land we love.

Teach us true respect for all, Stir response to duty’s call, strengthen us the weak to cherish,

Give us vision lest we perish. Knowledge send us Heavenly Father,

Grant true wisdom from above. Justice, Truth be ours forever,

Jamaica, land we love. Jamaica, Jamaica, Jamaica land we love.

Attitude during the playing or singing of the National Anthem

All persons should stand at attention, (i.e., heels together) at the playing of the National Anthem and men should remove their hats.

The first verse of the National Anthem should be played or sung as specifically designated on the arrival of the Governor-General or the Prime Minister.

The National Anthem may be sung or played at public gatherings.

Singing of the National Anthem should form part of the ceremony of raising and lowering of the flag at the beginning and end of term in schools and at Independence celebrations.

Social Studies


National Pledge

Before God and all mankind, I pledge the love and loyalty of my heart, the wisdom and courage of my mind, the strength and vigour of my body in the service of my fellow citizens; I promise to stand up for Justice, Brotherhood and Peace, to work diligently and creatively, to think generously and honestly, so that Jamaica may, under God, increase in beauty, fellowship and prosperity, and play her part in advancing the welfare of the whole human race.

Social Studies


Important Events and People in Jamaica’s History

Paul Bogle

A Baptist deacon who lived in St. Thomas and led the

Morant Bay Rebellion in 1865.

During the time of slavery in Jamaica, Paul Bogle, it is believed, was born free about 1822. He

was a Baptist deacon in Stony Gut, a few miles north of Morant Bay and was eligible to vote at a

time when few people were allowed to vote in the parish of St. Thomas.

Social Studies


Poverty and injustice in the society and lack of public confidence in the central authority (the

country was still under British rule), urged Bogle to lead a protest march to the Morant Bay

courthouse on October 11, 1865.

In a violent confrontation with full official forces that followed the march, nearly 500 people

were killed and a greater number was flogged and punished before order was restored.

Bogle was captured and hanged on October 24, 1865; but his forceful demonstration achieved

its objectives. It paved the way for the establishment of fair and just practices in the courts and

it brought about a change in official attitude toward the masses, which made possible the social

and economic betterment of the people.

Social Studies


George William Gordon

George William Gordon was a free coloured land owner who was an associate of Paul Bogle.

Gordon was arrested and charged for participating in the Morant Bay Rebellion. He was illegally

tried by Court Martial and without evidence, convicted and sentenced to death. He was

executed on October 23, 1865.

Social Studies


Nanny

The only female among Jamaica's national heroes. Nanny is described as a fearless Ashante

warrior who used militarist techniques to fool and trick the English.

Social Studies


Sam Sharpe

"Daddy" Sam Sharpe, as he was affectionately called, was a preacher and spokesman. He was

instrumental in the 1831 Christmas Rebellion in St. James which spread throughout the entire

island.

Social Studies


Sir Alexander Bustamante

Sir Alexander Bustamante started the Industrial Trade Union in 1938. He became Jamaica's first

Chief Minister, a position he held until 1954, being knighted that same year by the Queen. On

August 6, 1962 Jamaica was granted full independence. At the first session of Parliament,

Bustamante received the Instruments of Independence from the Queen's representative,

Princess Margaret.

Social Studies


Norman Washington Manley

Norman Manley founded the People's National Party which later was tied to the Trade Union

Congress and the National Workers Union (NWU). Together with Bustamante, their efforts

resulted in the New Constitution of 1944 granting full Adult Suffrage. In 1955 Manley was

elected Chief Minister.

Social Studies


Marcus Garvey

He was committed to the concept of the emancipation of minds. Garvey, who was born in St.

Ann, became famous worldwide as a leader who was courageous and eloquent in his call for

improvement for Blacks. He sought the unification of all Blacks through the establishment of

the United Negro Improvement Association and spoke out against economic exploitation and

cultural denigration. He spent many years in the United States pursuing his goal of Black

Unification.

Social Studies


Emancipation

On August 1, 1834, all slaves were legally declared free. However, slavery was totally abolished

in 1838. August 1 is celebrated as Emancipation Day in Jamaica.

Social Studies


The Morant Bay Rebellion

In 1865 the ex-slaves all over Jamaica were discontented about the injustices being meted out

to them, particularly on the question of land tenure. Paul Bogle led a delegation of small

farmers that walked 45 miles to present their grievances to Governor Eyre in Spanish Town, but

they were denied an audience. On October 11, Paul Bogle and his followers armed with sticks

and machetes went to the Court House where a vestry meeting was being held. The Riot Act

was read, but was virtually ignored. A few people began to throw stones at the volunteers, who

fired into the crowd killing seven people. Later the mob reorganized and returned, setting fire

to the Court House and nearby buildings. When the Custos Maximillian von Ketelhodt and

others tried to leave the burning building, they were killed by the mob.

Paul Bogle

Social Studies


Universal Adult Suffrage

The Universal Adult Suffrage Act of 1944 gave every Jamaican aged twenty-one years and over

the right to vote at elections. This age limit was reduced to eighteen years in 1976.

Independence

Jamaica gained independence from Britain on August 6, 1962.

Social Studies


Planet Earth and its Resources

Oceans

The large bodies of water on the surface of the earth are called oceans. There are five oceans

on the planet these are the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic and the Southern Oceans.

Social Studies


Ocean Area (square miles) Average Depth (ft)

Pacific Ocean 64,186,000 15,215

Atlantic Ocean 33,420,000 12,881

Indian Ocean 28,350,000 13,002

Southern Ocean 7,848,300 sq. miles

(20.327 million sq km ) 13,100 - 16,400 ft deep (4,000 to 5,000 meters)

Arctic Ocean 5,106,000 3,953

The Pacific Ocean is the largest ocean. The Pacific Ocean covers 69,375,000 square miles, or

35% (more than a third) of the earth. The Pacific Ocean is almost half of all the oceans, as big as

the other four oceans combined. As the earth spins around, there is a viewpoint from outer

space where all you can see is the Pacific Ocean. The Pacific Ocean is between Asia on the west

and North and South America on the east. The Pacific Ocean connects to the Indian Ocean to

the west, to the Antarctic Ocean to the south, and to the Arctic Ocean to the north.

The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest ocean. The Atlantic Ocean covers 41,105,000 square

miles, or 21% of the earth. The Atlantic Ocean is a little bigger than half of the Pacific Ocean.

The Atlantic Ocean is between North and South America on the west and Europe and Africa on

the east. The Atlantic Ocean connects to the Arctic Ocean to the north, and to the Antarctic

Ocean to the south.

The Indian Ocean is the third largest ocean. The Indian Ocean covers 28,900,000 square miles,

or 15% of the earth. The Indian Ocean is between Africa on the west and Asia on the north. The

Indian Ocean connects to the Antarctic Ocean to the south, and to the Pacific Ocean to the east.

Social Studies


The Antarctic Ocean circles the globe and surrounds the southern continent of Antarctica. The

Antarctic Ocean is also called the Southern Ocean. The Antarctic Ocean is connected to the

Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans.

The Arctic Ocean covers the earth's North Pole. This ocean is so cold that its surface is often

frozen during the winter. The vast Arctic icecap is the source of many icebergs. The Arctic

Ocean is between North America and Asia. The Arctic Ocean is connected to the Atlantic and

Pacific Oceans.

All five oceans are connected to one another. It Is difficult to say where one ocean stops and

the next ocean starts.

Social Studies


Seas

Smaller water bodies on planet Earth are called seas. Some well known seas are the Red sea,

The Mediterranean Sea and of Course the Caribbean Sea.

Social Studies


Rivers

A river is fresh water flowing across the surface of the land, usually to the sea. It flows in a

channel. The bottom of the channel is called the bed and the sides of the channel are called the

banks. Rivers generally start at a source. The early course of a river is often in steep, mountain

areas, with rapidly-flowing cold water. At the source of a river, the water is relatively pure.

As the water flows downstream, it picks up silt and minerals (including mineral salts) from the

soil and rock in the river bed. There are rivers on every continent (except Antarctica). Rivers are

an important part of the Earth's water cycle and the sculpting of the Earth's topography as they

carry huge quantities of water from the land to the sea.

As a river continues along its course (which is always changing), the surrounding terrain flattens

out and the river widens. Rivers often meander, (that is, follow a winding path) along their

middle course.

Most rivers end when they flow into a large body of water. The end of the river is called the

mouth. At the mouth, there is usually a river delta, a large, silty area where the river splits into

many different slow-flowing channels that have muddy banks. New land is created at deltas.

Deltas are often triangular-shaped, hence the name (the Greek letter 'delta' is shaped like a

triangle).

Social Studies


Benefits of Rivers

Rivers carry water and nutrients to areas all around the earth.

Social Studies


Rivers provide travel routes for exploration, commerce and recreation.

River valleys and plains provide fertile soils.

Farmers in dry regions irrigate their cropland using water carried by irrigation ditches from nearby rivers.

Social Studies


Lake

A lake is a body of water that is completely surrounded by land.

Social Studies


Rocks

Rocks are hard, stony objects that are found mostly in the ground. They are made up of

minerals and other material. There are three main types of rocks. Igneous, Metamorphic and

Sedimentary rock.

Igneous Rock

Igneous rock is formed when the lava from volcanoes cool and become solid. Lava, which is also

called Magma, is melted rock. This type of rock is formed underground when the lava is trapped

in pockets in the earth as well as formed above ground when it erupts from a volcano.

TIP: An easy way to remember igneous rock is to think of it as volcanic rock.

Lava (or magma) which is melted rock; cools to form

Social Studies


Igneous Rock

A close up view of what Lava flow of melted (or molten) rock looks like

when it is flowing out of a volcano.

Below is an example of what cooled lava that has become rock may look like. Notice that the

lava flows are still visible. This can happen because the lava is very thick (viscous), so it

sometimes cools while it flows. Also notice that the lava rock is already breaking up to form

smaller rock. Over time, rocks break down further and sometimes combine with other organic

(plant or animal) material to form soil. An example of an igneous rock is Granite.

Social Studies


Metamorphic Rock

Metamorphic Rocks are formed when the heat and pressure in the earth causes physical and

chemical change to the rock. Other rock types, igneous and sedimentary, can become

metamorphic rock.

TIP: An easy way to remember metamorphic rock is to remember it as changed rock; as a

rock ‘morphed’ into something else. An example of a metamorphic rock is marble.

Social Studies


A slab of metamorphic rock - Kevin Zim photographer - everystockphoto.com

The rock below appears almost frozen in time; as it boiled, bubbled and churned in a liquid

state under the surface (perhaps in a volcano that was once active), it seems to have cooled

exactly as it was. (Think of what ice would look like if boiling water was frozen in an instant

amid all the bubbles and movement).

Social Studies


Sedimentary Rock

Sedimentary rock is formed by layers of soil, minerals, plant and animal material settling on top

each other and hardening over time. These sediments are deposited as water moves over rock

in rivers and streams and the sea, breaking up and removing particles on its way and depositing

these at the bottom of these bodies of water. These layers of material can eventually become

solid. Wind can also have a similar effect. An example of a sedimentary rock is limestone.

TIP: An easy way to remember sedimentary rock is to think of it as layered rock, or rock

formed by layers of sediment build up.

Social Studies


The Grand Canyon, Arizona USA - Photographer James Gordon;

Notice the layered structure in some of these rocks and that they have been worn down or changed by wind or water.

Social Studies


Minerals

Minerals are solid substances that come from the earth. They occur naturally, and are part of

the building blocks of most rocks, that is, what rocks are made up of. Minerals can be identified

apart from rock by their specific, chemical structure and look the same all the way through.

Unlike rocks they do not have organic matter, this is, they have no plant or animal material.

Social Studies


The Physical Properties of Minerals

How can one tell the difference between a rock and a mineral? A rock can be made up of

minerals and other matter, but minerals are pure and have unique, precise chemical and

physical features. Scientists can identify a mineral partly through examining it using the

following features:

Hardness

Luster

Colour

Transparency

Hardness

A mineral’s hardness is measured by using the Mohs scale. This is a system that rates the

mineral by testing the hardest thing it can scratch and the hardest thing that can scratch it. It is

then rated on a scale of 1-10 depending on how tough it is.

Luster

This describes what the mineral looks like in the light. Some are shiny like gold and silver and

reflect light, while some are very dull. Others are waxy like a candle while some glitter like

diamonds.

Social Studies


Colour

As can be seen from the pictures above, minerals come in many colours. They can be green,

yellow, red, blue and any number of shades in between, or colourless.

Transparency

Some minerals are totally transparent, so one can see straight through it, others are only

partially so. Others are opaque and do not allow light to pass through; one cannot see through

them.

Social Studies


Continents

This land area on Planet Earth is divided into seven main areas. Each area is called a continent.

A continent is defined as a large unbroken land mass completely surrounded by water, although

in some cases continents are (or were in part) connected by land bridges. Most of this land lies

above the Equator. The Equator is an imaginary line around the world. It lies exactly halfway

between the North and the South Poles.

Social Studies


The seven continents are Asia, Australia, Africa, Antarctica, North America, South America and

Europe. It is seen that each continent has a special shape. Some of these continents are

connected while the water separates others.

ASIA

Asia being the largest of the continents covers around one-third of the world’s total land area.

Asia is known for its vast size and incomparable character. It stretches all the way east from

Japan to the Southeast Arabian Peninsula, which is more than 8500 kilometres away. It is

interesting to see the geographical composition of Asia. It encompasses the entire climate and

expanse, be it the equatorial rain forest or the arctic tundra. We also get to see the highest

and the lowest points of the Earth’s surface in Asia. The highest being, Mount Everest (8,848

meters) and the lowest is the shore of the Dead Sea (397 meters below sea level).

Social Studies


The Solar System

The Solar System refers to the sun and everything that travels around it. It is elliptical in shape.

The Sun is in the centre of the solar system. Our solar system is always in motion. Eight known

planets and their moons, along with comets, asteroids and other space objects orbit the Sun.

The Sun is the biggest object in our solar system. It contains more than 99% of the solar

system's mass. Astronomers think the solar system is more than 4 billion years old.

Astronomers are now finding new objects far, far from the Sun which they call dwarf planets.

Pluto, which was once called a planet, is now called a dwarf planet.

Social Studies


The Planets in the Solar System

A planet is a large space object which revolves around a star. It also reflects that star's light.

Eight planets have been discovered in our solar system. Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars are

the planets closest to the Sun. They are called the inner planets. The inner planets are made up

mostly of rock.

The outer planets are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and

Neptune are large balls of gases with rings around them. All eight planets travel around the Sun

in a different orbit. In its orbit, there are not many other objects like the planet.

Dwarf planets are objects that are similar to planets except that they orbit the Sun in areas

where there are many similar objects.

Social Studies


Mercury

Mercury is the smallest planet in our solar system and is also the closest planet to the sun. It

travels about 30 miles (48 kilometres) per second and goes around the sun once every 88 Earth

days. The planet Mercury can only be seen from Earth just before sunrise or just after sunset,

but not in the middle of the night. That is because it always appears near the Sun when viewed

from Earth.

Social Studies


Venus

The planet Venus, also called the morning star and evening star, is the second planet from the

sun. It is surrounded by a thick swirling cloud cover. Astronomers refer to Venus as Earth's sister

planet. Both are similar in size, mass, density and volume. Additionally, Venus is the closest planet to

Earth. A major difference however, is that Venus rotates from east to west. Venus takes 225 days to

make a complete revolution around the sun. Additionally, Venus has the longest day which is 243 Earth

days long.

Social Studies


Earth

Earth, our home, is the third closest planet to the Sun. It has an atmosphere made up of many

different gases, but mainly nitrogen and oxygen. The atmosphere gives us air to breathe.

The Earth orbits around the Sun. It takes one year (365 days) to go around the Sun one

complete time. The Earth also rotates, or spins, on its axis.

It takes one day to spin around one complete time. The Earth's axis is not straight up and down,

but tilted a little bit. This tilt is responsible for us having seasons. Otherwise, the temperature

would be pretty much the same all year long.

Social Studies


EARTH is third in distance from the sun and the fifth largest in diameter. Earth moves around

the sun in a circular type path. It is the only planet known to support life. Earth has the right

amount of oxygen and water that is needed to support life. Earth is said to be the largest and

densest rocky planet.

Size

The Earth is about 7,926 miles (12,756 km) in diameter. The Earth is the fifth-largest planet in

our Solar System (after Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune).

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Planets20

Social Studies


Eratosthenes (276-194 BC) was a Greek scholar who was the first person to determine the

circumference of the Earth. He compared the midsummer's noon shadow in deep wells in

Syene (now Aswan on the Nile in Egypt) and Alexandria. He properly assumed that the Sun's

rays are virtually parallel (since the Sun is so far away). Knowing the distance between the two

locations, he calculated the circumference of the Earth to be 250,000 stadia. Exactly how long a

stadia is unknown, so his accuracy is uncertain, but he was very close. He also accurately

measured the tilt of the Earth's axis and the distance to the sun.

Eratosthenes

Social Studies


Temperature on Earth

The temperature on Earth ranges from between -127°F to 136°F (-88°C to 58°C.)

The coldest recorded temperature was on the continent of Antarctica (Vostok in July, 1983).

The hottest recorded temperature was on the continent of Africa (Libya in September, 1922).

Social Studies


Length of Day and Year on Earth

Each day on Earth takes 23.93 hours (that is, it takes the Earth almost 24 (23.93) hours to rotate

around its axis once. Each year on Earth takes 365.26 Earth days (that is, it takes the Earth

365.26 days or almost one year to orbit the Sun once).

Social Studies


Earth Features

There are many different types of features on Earth’s surface. The surface is different from the

other planets because it is the only one that has liquid water in such large quantities. Water

forms some features of Earth's surface such as rivers, oceans, beaches and lakes. Other surface

features, such as mountains, earthquakes and volcanoes, are formed when large pieces of the

Earth’s outer layer move slowly by plate tectonics.

The Earth's interior consists of rock and metal. It is made up of four main layers:

1) the inner core: a solid metal core made up of nickel and iron (1200 km diameter)

2) the outer core: a liquid molten core of nickel and iron

Social Studies


3) the mantle: dense and mostly solid silicate rock

4) the crust: thin silicate rock material

The temperature in the core is hotter than the Sun's surface. This intense heat from the inner

core causes material in the outer core and mantle to move around.

Social Studies


Earth’s Moon

The Earth's one natural satellite is the Moon. Natural Satellite, in astronomy, a celestial body

that orbits a larger celestial body. Astronomers believe that the moon may have once been a

part of the Earth; it may have been broken off the Earth during a catastrophic collision of a

huge body with the Earth billions of years ago. The moon is more than one quarter the size of

Earth itself (3,474 km diameter). Because of its smaller size, the Moon's gravity is one-sixth of

the Earth's gravity, as we saw demonstrated by the giant leaps of the Apollo astronauts.

The footprints left by Apollo astronauts will last for centuries because there is no wind on the

Moon. The Moon does not possess any atmosphere, so there is no weather as we are used to

Social Studies


on Earth. Because there is no atmosphere to trap heat, the temperatures on the Moon are

extreme, ranging from 100° C at noon to -173° C at night.

Standing on the moon

Social Studies


Earth’s Atmosphere

The Earth's atmosphere is a thin layer of gases that surrounds the Earth. It is composed of 78%

nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.9% argon, 0.03% carbon dioxide, and trace amounts of other gases.

The atmosphere protects us by blocking out dangerous rays from the sun. Astronomers believe

that the atmosphere was formed by planetary degassing, a process in which gases like carbon

dioxide, water vapour, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen were released from inside of the Earth

from volcanoes and other processes. Life forms on Earth have modified the composition of the

atmosphere since their evolution.

The atmosphere is divided into five layers depending on how temperature changes with height.

Most of the weather occurs in the first layer, the troposphere.

Social Studies


Social Studies


Ozone

Ozone is a form of oxygen having the molecular form of O3. It is a colourless gas with a strong

odour, found in two parts of the atmosphere: the stratosphere and the troposphere

Where we find ozone in the atmosphere determines whether we consider it to be "good" or

"bad". In the troposphere, the ground-level or "bad" ozone is an air pollutant that damages

human health, vegetation, and many common materials. It is a key ingredient of urban smog. In

the stratosphere, we find the "good" ozone that protects life on earth from the harmful effects

of the Sun's ultraviolet rays.

Social Studies


The Greenhouse Effect

Humans affect Earth's atmosphere through the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is an

increase in the temperature of a planet as the gaseous atmosphere traps heat energy from

sunlight. Excess carbon dioxide and water vapour increase this global warming effect. The

greenhouse effect traps heat in our atmosphere. The atmosphere lets some infrared radiation

escape into space; some is reflected back to the planet.

The Greenhouse Effect

Social Studies


Mars

This is the fourth planet from the sun and is named after the Roman god of war. It is often

called the red planet because it appears to be red when viewed from a telescope. This red

colour comes from its soil which has high iron content. The temperature on Mars can be very,

very cold. On its warmest day, Mars can still be a very cold place. At the top and bottom of the

planet are poles just like on Earth. During the Martian winter, ice caps can be seen at the poles.

There are 688 days in the Martian year and takes 687 days to make a revolution around the

sun. Mars also has two moons, Phobos and Deimos, both discovered in 1877 by Asaph Hall.

Social Studies


Jupiter

Jupiter is the fifth planet from the sun and the largest in the solar system. It is more than twice

as massive as all the other planets combined. Jupiter is the fourth brightest object in the sky

(after the Sun, the Moon and Venus). It has been known since prehistoric times as a bright

"wandering star". Jupiter is known to have a lot of colours caused by a layer of gases. It also has

something known as a great red spot. This great red spot is actually a very complex storm.

Jupiter is also known for having 63 moons. This planet takes 11.862 Earth years to make a

revolution around the sun.

Social Studies


Saturn

Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and the second largest. It is one of the five (Mercury,

Venus, Mars and Jupiter) planets visible from Earth using only the naked-eye. It is most known

for its complex ring system. Although many other planets do indeed have ring systems (Jupiter,

Uranus and Neptune) they are not nearly as neither extensive nor brilliant as Saturn’s. Today, it

is known that Saturn has thirty four major and minor moons. Saturn takes 29.456 Earth years to

make a revolution around the sun.

Social Studies


Uranus

Uranus is the seventh planet from the Sun and the third largest. This huge, icy planet is covered

with clouds and is encircled by a belt of 11 rings and 22 known moons. Uranus has a blue colour

is caused by methane gas. Each day on Uranus takes 18 Earth hours. A year on Uranus takes 84

Earth years; it takes 84 Earth years for Uranus to orbit the sun once.

Social Studies


Neptune

Neptune, is the fourth largest of the planets in the solar system, and eighth major planet in

order of increasing distance from the Sun. It is similar in size and structure to its neighbour

Uranus. There are several cloud features, the most prominent being the great dark spot, a huge

storm system which is as big as the Earth. Neptune rotates completely on its axis once every 16

hours and orbits the sun once in 165 Earth years. Since Neptune was discovered in 1846, it has

not yet completed a single revolution around the sun. This will occur in the year 2011.

Social Studies


Pluto

Pluto is a dwarf planet (or plutoid) that usually orbits past the orbit of Neptune. It was classified

as a dwarf planet in 2006; before that it was considered to be a planet, the smallest planet in

our solar system. Pluto is smaller than a lot of the other planets' moons, including our moon. It

consists mainly of rock and ice.

Pluto is the only "planet" in our solar system that has not been visited by a spacecraft yet. Each

day on Pluto takes 6 Earth days. Each year on Pluto takes 248 Earth years (that is, it takes 248

Earth years for Pluto to orbit the Sun once).

Pluto has one large moon, named Charon, discovered in 1978.

Social Studies


The Asteroid Belt

An asteroid is a bit of rock. It can be thought of as what was "left over" after the Sun and all the

planets were formed. Most of the asteroids in our solar system can be found orbiting the Sun

between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. This area is called the "asteroid belt". Asteroids can be

a few feet to several hundred miles wide. The belt probably contains at least 40,000 asteroids

that are more than 0.5 miles across. This "belt" of asteroids follows a slightly elliptical path as it

orbits the Sun in the same direction as the planets. It takes anywhere from three to six Earth

years for a complete revolution around the Sun.

Social Studies


The Moon

The Moon is like a desert with plains, mountains, and valleys. It also has many craters, which

are holes created when space objects hit the Moon's surface at a high speed. There is no air to

breathe on the Moon. Recently water ice was discovered at the poles (or top and bottom) of

the Moon. The ice is buried beneath some of the dust of the Moon's surface. Scientists think

the ice may be left over from a comet that once collided with the Moon. The Moon travels

around the Earth in an oval shaped orbit. Scientists think the Moon was formed long ago when

Earth collided with another space object. The collision may have caused a big chunk of rocky

material to be thrown out into space to form the Moon.

The Moon is a little lopsided. Its crust is thicker on one side than the other. The Moon is much

smaller than the Earth. However, the pull of its gravity can still affect the Earth's ocean tides.

Social Studies


We always see the same side of the Moon from Earth. You have to go into space to see the

other side.

Social Studies


Meteoroids

A meteoroid is a piece of stone-like or metal-like debris which travels in outer space. Most

meteoroids are no bigger than a pebble. Large meteoroids are believed to come from the

asteroid belt. Some of the smaller meteoroids may have come from the Moon or Mars. If a

meteoroid falls into the Earth's atmosphere, it will begin to heat up and start to glow. This is

called a meteor. If you have ever seen a "falling star", you were actually seeing a meteor. Most

of the original object burns up before it strikes the surface of the Earth. Any leftover part that

does strike the Earth is called a meteorite. A meteorite can make a hole, or crater, in the

ground when it hits.

Social Studies


Comets

Scientists believe that comets are made up of material left over from when the Sun and the

planets were formed. They think that about 100,000 million comets orbit the Sun. Some comets

orbit the Sun like planets. Their orbits take them very close to and very far away from the Sun.

A comet is made of dirty ice, dust, and gas. When a comet gets close to the Sun, part of the ice

starts to melt. The solar winds then push the dust and gas released by the melting ice away

from the comet. This forms the comet's tail. Every time a comet comes close to the Sun, a part

of it melts. Over time, it will completely disappear.

A comet does not give off any light of its own. What seems to be light from the comet is

actually a reflection of our Sun's light. Sunlight bounces off the comet's ice particles in the same

Social Studies


way light is reflected by a mirror. A few comets come close enough to the Earth for us to see

them with our eyes. Halley's Comet, for example, can be seen from Earth every 76 years.

Social Studies


Galaxy

Social Studies


The Sun

As you are aware the sun is very hot. The Sun's core can reach 10 to 22.5 million°F. The surface

temperature is approximately 9,900°F (5,500°C). The temperature of the Sun is determined by

measuring how much energy (both heat and light) it gives off.

Social Studies


Composition of the sun

The Sun is made up of gasses. It is about 73% hydrogen - that's most of it. Of the rest, about

25% is helium. This leaves about 2% that are gasses like carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, neon,

magnesium, silicon, sulphur, iron and over 50 other things. It's the hydrogen atoms running

into each other that create all the heat. The core is where the energy is created. It gets

transported to the surface through the radiation zone, then through the convection zone.

Social Studies


Astronomers study the Sun using special instruments. For example a Pyranometer is an

instrument used to measure solar radiation. The composition of the Sun is studied using

spectroscopy. Spectroscopy is a technique in which the visible light that comes from objects

(like stars) is examined to determine the object's composition, temperature, motion, and

density.

Pyranometer

Social Studies


When something is hot enough to glow (like a star), it gives you information about what it is

made of, because different substances give off a different spectrum of light when they

vaporize. Each substance produces a unique spectrum, almost like a fingerprint.

Social Studies


Structure of the Sun

The sun is comprised of many different parts. Let us look at these different parts of the sun.

The Core: The Sun's core has a tremendously high temperature and pressure. The temperature

is roughly 15 million °C. At this temperature, nuclear fusion occurs, turning four hydrogen nuclei

into a single helium nucleus plus a LOT of energy.

The Radiative Zone (or radiation zone): The next layer out from the core is this zone, which

gives off radiation. This radiation diffuses or spreads outwards. The temperature ranges from

15 million °C to one million °C. It may take photons of radiation millions of years to pass

through the radiative zone, as they gradually make their way outwards.

Social Studies


The Convective Zone: In this next layer, photons continue to make their way outwards by way

of a process called convection. Convection is the transfer of heat by circulation through a gas or

liquid. The temperature in the convection zone ranges from one million °C to 6,000 °C.

The Photosphere: This is the lower atmosphere of the Sun and the part that we see (since it

emits light at visible wavelengths). This layer is about 300 miles (500km) thick. The temperature

is about 5,500 °C.

The Chromosphere: This reddish layer is an area of rising temperatures. The temperature

ranges from 6,000 °C (at lower altitudes) to 50,000 °C (at higher altitudes). This layer is a few

thousand miles (or kilometers) thick. It appears red because hydrogen atoms are in an excite

state and emit radiation near the red part of the visible spectrum.

The Chromosphere is visible during solar eclipses (when the moon blocks the Photosphere).

The Corona: This is the outer layer of the Sun's atmosphere. The corona extends for millions of

miles and the temperatures are tremendous, reaching one million °C.

Social Studies


Social Studies


Tsunami

A tsunami (pronounced sue-nahm-ee) is a series of huge waves that can cause great

devastation and loss of life when they strike a coast. Tsunamis are usually caused by an

underwater earthquake or a volcanic eruption. Most tsunamis are caused by underwater

earthquakes, but not all underwater earthquakes cause tsunamis - an earthquake has to be

over about magnitude 6.75 on the Richter scale for it to cause a tsunami. About 90 percent of

all tsunamis occur in the Pacific Ocean.

Social Studies


Volcanoes

Under the surface, some parts of the earth are constantly moving and shifting. This movement

causes heat and stresses to build up underground, melting rock and producing ash and gasses.

A volcano is an opening in the earth that allows this melted (or molten) rock, ash and gases to

come out of the earth. This liquid rock explodes out of an opening of what is usually a mountain

then and flows down the side, covering everything in its path. Volcanoes can affect the

environment in different ways. There are constructive or destructive effects.

Social Studies


Destructive

A volcano can have a destructive effect as it spews hot molten (liquid) rock into the air. The

extreme heat that accompanies the eruption, the hot ash as well as the poisonous gasses can

destroy plants, animals and even people that are nearby. It can also be dangerous to planes

flying overhead. Here are some of the ways to reduce these negative effects:

Limit the building of homes close to known active volcanoes

Have an early warning system to alert people who already live close to the danger

Have a good evacuation plan

Warn airlines if an eruption is expected

Constructive

The effect of a volcano is constructive when it creates something new and beneficial for the

environment. When a volcano erupts and the lava or magma flows from the volcano, it

eventually cools to form rock. If the volcano erupts underwater and is large enough, it may

even form new land masses, such as islands like Jamaica. It can also provide essential nutrients

to the environment.

Social Studies


Astronomy

Astronomy is the scientific study of outer space, including the planets, stars, galaxies, comets

and nebulae. Scientists who study space are called astronomers.

Famous Astronomers

Nicolas Copernicus

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Nikolaus_Kopern

Social Studies


Johannes Kepler

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Johannes_Kepler_

Social Studies


Tycho Brahe

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Tycho_B

Social Studies


Galileo Galilei

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Galileo.arp.30

Social Studies


John Hadley

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:John_Ha

Social Studies


William Herschel

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:William_Hersch

Social Studies


Astronauts

Astronauts are people who go into space

Some great astronauts are Neil Alden Armstrong, Edwin E. (Buzz) Aldrin, Jr. Michael Collins

and David R. Scott.

Neil Alden Armstrong (1930- ) was the first person to walk on the moon. He piloted NASA's

Apollo 11 mission, which took off on July 16, 1969. Armstrong and Edwin E. (Buzz) Aldrin, Jr.,

landed on the moon on July 20, 1969. Upon his first step on the moon, Armstrong said, "One

small step for man, one giant leap for mankind." Armstrong and Aldrin explored the Moon's

surface for about 2 hours. Years earlier, in 1966, Armstrong and David R. Scott performed the

first successful docking of two vehicles in space on the Gemini 8 mission.

Neil Armstrong

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Neil_Armstrong_

social studies study guide - gogsat studies study... · social studies study guide . social studies...

Documents