society of american foresters western forester...foresters have been dealing with dis-turbances and...

BY DAVID L. PETERSON ANDJESSICA E. HALOFSKY

A forester’s worstnightmare is to seemany years of hardwork go up in smokein a wildfire...or in aninsect outbreak… orto a rapidly spreadingroot rot. These arerelatively rare eventsin the big picture, butwhen they do occur,they can cause eco-nomic losses andalter ecological path-ways in forest ecosys-tems for decades.

These rare events,generally termed dis-turbances (see sidebar for definition),are part of the ecological history ofmost forest ecosystems, influencingvegetation age and structure, plantspecies composition, productivity, car-bon storage, water yield, nutrientretention, and wildlife habitat.Climate, and weather in a shorter timescale, influences the timing, frequency,and magnitude of disturbances in anyparticular location. For example, aone-year drought may in itself not

have significant direct effects on a for-est, but it can reduce the resistance oftrees to insects and can desiccate liv-ing and dead vegetation sufficiently toincrease fire hazard.

Interacting disturbances and other

stressors have the biggest effects onecosystem responses, simultaneouslyaltering species composition, struc-ture, and function. Termed “stresscomplexes,” these interactions are anormal component of forest ecosys-tems. However, altering one particularfactor can potentially exacerbate theeffects of other stressors, leading to arapid and possibly long-lasting changein forest ecosystems.

The recent proliferation of moun-tain pine beetles in lodgepole pineforests in western North America is agood example of how a warmer cli-

PHOTO COURTESY OF US FOREST SERVICE

Large wildfires, such as the 2006 Tripod Fire in Washington (200,000 acres),have occurred throughout western North America during the past decade.These disturbances have a significant effect on landscape pattern and foreststructure, and may become more common in a warmer climate, especially inforests with heavy fuel accumulations.

Understanding and Managing Forest Disturbance

S O C I E T Y O F A M E R I C A N F O R E S T E R S

(CONTINUED ON PAGE 2)

March/April/May 2014 Oregon • Washington State • Inland Empire • Alaska Societies Volume 59 • Number 2

Western Forester

David L.Peterson

Jessica E.Halofsky

Disturbance is a temporary variance in average environmental conditions that caus-es a pronounced change in an ecosystem. Ecological disturbances include fires,floods, windstorms, and insect outbreaks, as well as anthropogenic disturbancessuch as forest clearing and the introduction of exotic species. Natural disturbancesare influenced mainly by climate, weather, and location. Disturbances can have pro-found immediate effects on ecosystems and can greatly alter the natural community.Because of the impacts on populations, disturbance effects can persist for anextended period of time. (from Dale et al. 2001. Bioscience 51:723-734)

In This Issue: Disturbance Events

mate can propagate widespread dis-turbance (see Fig. 1). Mountain pinebeetles have affected 88 million acresof forests in the western United Statesand British Columbia over the last twodecades, largely as a consequence ofincreasing temperatures and droughtin mostly older, low-vigor forests. Theeffects of disturbance across large geo-graphic areas are especially pro-nounced where forest regeneration islow or delayed, leading to a potentialchange in dominant vegetation.

The effects of disturbances in forestecosystems should be considered inthe broader context of past distur-bances and stressors that have beenoccurring for millennia, as well asmore recent human-caused changes.Some factors have increased over thepast century, such as non-native plantand animal species. Other factors have

decreased, such as the frequency oflow-intensity wildfire in dry forests.Logging has removed about 90% of theoriginal forest in the western United

States, converted most landscapes toyounger forests distributed in mosaicsof different age classes, and altered thedistribution, abundance, and geneticdiversity of species in some forests.Agriculture, suburban and exurbancommunities, and other land useshave reduced the connectivity offorests and added a new socioeco-nomic complexity to resource man-agement.

The expansion of human commu-nities and infrastructure into forested

2 WESTERN FORESTER ◆ MARCH/APRIL/MAY 2014

Next Issue: Forest Soils, Nutrition, and Productivity

Understanding andManaging ForestDisturbance(CONTINUED FROM FRONT PAGE)

SOURCE: PNW RESEARCH STATION

Figure 1. Stress complex in interior lodgepole pine forests. The effects of dis-turbance (insects and fire) are exacerbated by global warming. Stand-replac-ing fires and beetle mortality can contribute to species changes.

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regions, typically called the wildland-urban interface (WUI), has complicat-ed the issue of managing forest distur-bance. Many communities are nowlocated in areas where fire has beensuppressed for several decades andresidents assume that local agencieswill continue to protect their propertyin the future. Efforts to protect homesin the WUI account for at least half ofthe annual cost of firefighting in theUnited States. Mitigative measuressuch as hazardous fuel treatment arehighly effective, but are expensive inthe WUI and are sometimes unpopularamong local residents (especiallyremoval of small trees that alters aes-thetics and prescribed burning thatcreates smoke). However, there areexcellent examples of cooperativeprojects between agencies and com-munities that have reduced fuels andsaved properties from wildfire.

Forest managers, whether on publicor private land, spend a significantamount of time assessing the risk ofdisturbances and ways to cope with

WESTERN FORESTER ◆ MARCH/APRIL/MAY 2014 3

PHOTO COURTESY OF US FOREST SERVICE

The effectiveness of fuel treatments is seen in this portion of the 2011Wallow Fire near Alpine, Arizona. High-intensity crown fire was common inthis area, but forest that had been thinned and had surface fuels removedexperienced lower fire intensity, and structures in the residential area(lower portion of photo) were protected.

(CONTINUED ON NEXT PAGE)


them. Most federal lands have firemanagement plans that describe cur-rent fuel conditions, potential for fireoccurrence, likely effects of wildfire, firesuppression strategies, and post-fireactivities designed to reduce secondarydamage such as erosion. Similarly,plans that assess the management ofinsects and non-native plants mustassess the risk of their occurrence asthe basis for developing appropriateresponses. Large private landownersfocused on timber production mayalso have such plans, but family forestlandowners rarely have them.

In some cases, the effectiveness ofpre-disturbance and post-disturbanceactions may be limited. For example,many non-native species are so well-established that it is not feasible toremove them from a particular loca-tion; prevention is usually the bestapproach. Following large, intensewildfires, it may be impractical andexpensive to install erosion controlacross a broad, mountainous land-scape with minimal access. Activemanagement in some forested

regions—Wilderness, most nationalparks, riparian areas, and lands withendangered species—may be forbid-den or so difficult to accomplish that itis not practical, thus precluding miti-gation of known risks.

A warming global climate is a newfactor that will increasingly affect for-est ecosystems. The most rapidly visi-ble and significant short-term effectswill be caused by disturbance, oftenoccurring with increased frequencyand severity. As the climate continuesto change, we expect increased distur-bance to be facilitated by more fre-quent extreme weather events, includ-ing severe storms and drought.Indirect effects—wildfire, insect andpathogen outbreaks, and invasivespecies—may amplify these changes.The type and magnitude of distur-bances will differ regionally and willpose significant challenges forresource managers to mitigate damageto resource values.

A warmer climate may cause somecritical thresholds in ecosystem struc-ture and function to be exceeded. This

may already be occurring in some loca-tions. For example, in parts of northernNew Mexico, there has been die-off ofpinyon pine on 1 million acres duringthe past decade, the result of extendeddrought and in some cases pinyon ipsbeetles. It is unclear if pinyon pine willregenerate in these areas. During thepast 20 years, in southern Alaska,spruce beetle and wildfire have causedwidespread mortality in 3 million acresof forest dominated by white spruceand black spruce. In some of theseareas, only hardwoods are regenerating.A rapid change in dominant vegetationsuggests that a threshold has beencrossed, at least temporarily, and thatnew ecological conditions may be diffi-cult to reverse in a warmer climate.

Forest ecosystems in western NorthAmerica will continue to change as aresult of disturbance, sometimes slowlyin response to past human activitiessuch as logging, and sometimes quicklyin response to weather extremes. Inmost cases, it will be advisable to devel-op strategies that allow us to live withincreasing disturbance and stress inforests, especially as the climate contin-ues to warm. For example, it will beincreasingly important to keep forests“healthy” through density managementand other practices that encourage highvigor. Reducing hazardous fuel load-ings, especially in the WUI, will be criti-cal in dry, fire-prone forests.

The good news is that this sort ofactive management and planning inanticipation of changing conditionscan reduce risk and the severity ofshort-term and long-term hazards.Foresters have been dealing with dis-turbances and other “surprises” fordecades. Based on a strong scientificfoundation compiled on the effects offorest disturbance, we should be ableto successfully address many of ourfuture challenges. ◆

David L. Peterson is a research biolo-gist with the US Forest Service PacificNorthwest Research Station in Seattle,Wash. He can be reached at [email protected]. Jessica E. Halofsky is a researchecologist with the University of Wash-ington School of Environmental andForest Sciences, also in Seattle. She canbe reached at [email protected].


BY BECKY K. KERNS

xotic invasiveplants (here-

inafter invasiveplants) are recentlyintroduced nonnativespecies that are orhave the potential tobecome successfullyestablished or naturalized, and spreadinto new localized natural habitats.These species are often referred to sim-ply as “weeds.” However, invasiveplants differ from weeds one might seein the garden in that they can success-fully establish and spread to new habi-tats after their introduction, withoutfurther assistance from humans. Theirintroduction and establishment is likelyto cause substantial economic or envi-ronmental harm. Foresters may belargely familiar with state-listed noxiousweeds, as these species often requiremitigation during or after managementactions. But not all invasive plants arenecessarily recognized as state noxiousweeds. Table 1 lists examples of plantsthat can invade western upland forestsand woodlands.

In general, the detrimental effects ofinvasive plants may include reducedtree recruitment and/or survival, areduction in native biodiversity, changes

in species composition, loss of habitatfor dependent species (e.g., wildlife),changes in biogeochemical cycling, andalteration of disturbance and hydrologicregimes (see case study sidebar). Butsome claims about the negative impactsof these species are disputed or laterdiscovered to be more subtle or com-plex. For example, the presence of actu-al toxic and detrimental levels of allelo-pathic compounds associated withspotted knapweed has been called intoquestion. Some invasive plants alsooffer new ecosystem services, such asbioenergy opportunities or wildcraftedmedicines. Sometimes invasive plantscan also preserve ecosystem function,and in some cases their eradication mayhave unanticipated or negative results.

Millions of hectares of US wildlandsare infested with invasive plants andbillions of dollars are spent every year

mitigating or controlling impacts.However, the economic impacts ofmost invasive plants are poorly docu-mented and can be controversial. Thisis generally due to a lack of quantitativeinformation on impacts and the spatialextent of infestations, and challenges inassessing nonmarket costs to societyand the environment such as changesin fire frequency, wildlife habitat, aes-thetics, and biodiversity. The spatialextent of many invasive plants at anypoint in time has also proven to be dif-ficult to determine, limiting assessmentof overall impacts.

How does plant invasion happen?

The process of invasion can be bro-ken into three phases: introduction, col-onization, and naturalization. Sourcesor vectors for exotic species introduc-tion are highly variable but typically

E

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Common Origin Form Species Potential Environmental ImpactName

Cheatgrass Eurasia Annual Bromus Community type conversion; decreases nativegrass tectorum diversity; alters fire frequency, successional

patterns, and nutrient cycling.

Yellow Eurasia Annual Centaurea Reduces forage; decreases native diversity; star-thistle forb solstitialis depletes soil moisture; reduces productivity in

agricultural systems.

Spotted Europe Biennial/ Centaurea Reduces native diversity, cryptogam cover, soilknapweed perennial stoebe fertility; reduces forage production; poisonous

forb to horses; increases bare ground, surface water runoff, stream sedimentation; allelopathic.

Scotch Europe Shrub Cytisus Interferes with conifer establishment; reducesbroom scoparius growth and biomass of trees; alters community

composition and structure; increases soil nitrogen; toxic to livestock.

English Europe Vine Hedera Alters community structure; decreases nativeivy helix diversity; weakens or kills host trees; can

negatively impact water quality and increase soil erosion and soil nitrogen.

St. Eurasia, Subshrub Hypericum Crowds out native species and forage; toxicJohnswort N. Africa prolificum to livestock.

SOURCE: Varied sources on file with the author

Table 1. Examples of some exotic plants that have had significantly invadedwestern forests and woodlands and their potential impact


include plants or seeds imported forhorticulture, intentional introductions(e.g., seeds for erosion control), or acci-dental seed transfer via animals andequipment. However, only a small per-centage of exotic plants that are intro-duced to a new region actually estab-lish, colonize, and become invasive.

During the introduction phase,plants may be present in an area or ona site at low levels for many years ordecades, and then rapidly expand dur-ing the colonization phase. Detectionand rapid response to invasive plantintroductions is an economically effec-tive way to manage invasive plants.Control during the colonization phasecan be expensive, and eradication afternaturalization is unlikely. A speciesbecomes naturalized in its new regionwhen it can maintain its populationand is incorporated into the existingflora. Most state and other agenciesremove invasive plants from their nox-ious weed lists after naturalizationbecause the populations are too diffi-

cult or expensive to control or eradicate(e.g., cheatgrass is not on most statenoxious weed lists).

Invasive species seem to have traitsor combinations thereof that enablethem to gain an advantage over nativespecies. These include, but are not lim-ited to: fast growth, rapid reproduction,high dispersal ability, generalism, andadaptability. However, researchers dis-agree about how useful such traits arefor understanding whether or not aplant will be invasive. The successfulinvasion of a forested community orsite is influenced by several other fac-tors related to specific site conditionssuch as the environment, disturbancehistory, resource availability (water,nutrients), health and vigor of the exist-ing plant community, and the quality,quantity, and frequency of invadingorganisms (propagule supply).

Invasion and the role ofdisturbance

The importance of disturbance andinterplay with available resources, suchas water and nutrients, is a key factor inplant invasions. Natural and anthro-pogenic disturbances such as fire, land-slides, volcanic activity, logging, androad building alter resource availabilityin forests by opening canopies and

exposing mineral soil. These types ofdisturbances allow more light to reachthe forest floor and can increase avail-able soil water. Invasive plants are par-ticularly prone to spreading after fire,especially if burn effects are severe.Similar trends are reported for thinningand logging. Generally, the more highlydisturbed the area (e.g., high severityburn conditions, logging landings) themore likely it is that invasive plants mayestablish. Even patches of weeds canserve as sources of propagules and canmake the surrounding area more vul-nerable to invasion.

Invasive plants have been describedas both “passengers” and “drivers” ofenvironmental change. From the pas-senger perspective, the species becomedominant as a result of human actionsor natural disturbance. Rather thandriving the transformation of plantcommunities, the invasive plants arepassengers of more fundamental envi-ronmental change that is limiting to theexisting flora (e.g., reduced dispersaldue to fragmentation, altered distur-bance regimes, climate change).

The driver perspective infers thatinvasive plants become dominant as aresult of a variety of related means gen-


PHOTO COURTESY OF DALE WHALEY

Noxious weeds can become attachedto vehicles and transported to newsites.

Case Study: Invasive Annual GrassesInvasive annual grasses such as

cheatgrass (Table 1; others includemedusahead, Taeniatherum caput-medusae, and North Africa grass,Ventenata dubia) are recognized assome of the most important ecosys-tem-altering species in the west.Cheatgrass is prevalent in low-ele-vation forests, woodlands, andrangelands of the interior westernUS. Following disturbances such asfire, logging, and thinning, thisspecies is capable of invading andcreating surface fuel continuitybetween arid lowlands into foresteduplands. Species traits enhance its ability to exploit soil resources after disturbanceand to increase its dominance in the community. Sometimes this dominance maybe persistent. Of particular concern are effects of fuel and fire management onexotic annual grass invasion. Reducing fuels and reintroducing fire is a high priorityfor forest and rangeland restoration and management in dry interior environments.However, these areas are often near abundant exotic annual grass seed sources.

After establishment, cheatgrass tends to alter the fire regime. The fine, continu-ous, and highly combustible fuels dry early in the season, which can increase thelength of the fire season and also increase how frequently areas burn.

PHOTO COURTESY OF BECKY KERNS

In this eastern Oregon ponderosa pineforest, cheatgrass is invading an areathat experienced overstory treemortality after a prescribed fire.

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BY KAREN RIPLEY

orest insects andpathogens often

get the blame forcausing disturb-ances—especiallynoticeable, simulta-neous tree death,defoliation, or dis-ease. Although exotic species do causedramatic, persistent changes, theactivities of native species are morecommonly part of how a normal forestecosystem develops and stays robust.Occasionally, native insects andpathogens can cause severe disturb-ances with long-term effects, but theyhave usually been aided by extensivepre-disposing factors such as severedrought or forest composition changescaused by long-term fire suppressionor unsustainable management prac-tices. Managers can take action now toexclude exotic pests and reduce recog-nized vulnerability to native pests,extreme weather, and severe wildfire.

There’s no doubt that exotic pestscan really knock an ecosystem off kil-ter. Thanks to white pine blister rust,western white pine is now presentacross only about 5% of its past range,

leaving mixed conifer forests withoutthe benefit of this root disease-resist-ant, mast-producing, fast-growingpine tree component. The emerald ashborer has urban foresters alarmed thatthe handsome, adaptable ash treesalong city streets throughout the coun-try will be decimated (baseball batmakers and riparian advocates areconcerned too). Balsam woolly adelgidthreatens subalpine fir seed produc-tion and survival in the warmer, usual-ly lower-elevation parts of its range,possibly leading to forest successionon alpine meadows and avalanchechutes veering different directions.

Because of exotic pests, trees willdie. Ecosystems will be changed andhabitats will be lost. This is the mostextreme, irreversible category ofinsect- or pathogen-related distur-bance. The Washington InvasiveSpecies Council’s 2008 Strategic Plan“Invaders at the Gate” (www.invasive-species.wa.gov/documents/InvasiveSpeciesStrategicPlan.pdf) recom-mends short-term actions like enhanc-ing early detection and rapid responsecapabilities for dealing with exoticpests. Forest managers can occasional-ly host exotic pest detection traps butcan always be aware to report observa-

tions of suspicious symptoms or mor-tality to state Agriculture, Forestry, orUniversity Extension offices. Familiarizeyourself with your state’s PrioritySpecies. Washington’s list of 50 PrioritySpecies can be found at www.invasive-species.wa.gov/mgt_priorities.shtml;the chart includes electronic links toinformation about each pest (37 arealready present in Washington) and“What should I do if I find one?”

Native insects and pathogens alsocause mini-disturbances as they kill,defoliate, or injure their host trees.Plenty of examples exist of how thisactivity is obviously the grease thatkeeps a “normal” forest robust. Do youhave a forest plantation that is plaguedby foliage disease? Check the siterequirements and source of theseedlings. Persistent foliage diseasesmay be clues to off-site trees that aren’table to thrive in the environment theyhave been planted. Do you have hun-dreds of Douglas-fir saplings growinglike dog hair? As light and waterbecome more limited, the less com-petitive trees tend to be put out oftheir misery by opportunists like sec-ondary Douglas-fir engraver beetles orArmillaria root disease.

When the least competitive, mal-adapted, or unlucky trees have beenkilled, the survivors take advantage ofadditional resources and relinquishedgrowing space. The same is true for thenon-host trees and understory plantsbeneath and near intense defoliation,such as an alder stand that’s beingconsumed by tent caterpillars or leafbeetles. In this case these adjacentplants and defoliation survivors growlike crazy, taking advantage of addi-tional light and a liberal sprinkling ofcaterpillar feces fertilizer that mayhelp them persist until the next insectoutbreak or until the alder reaches itsnormal life span and passes from thesite.

Disturbance or diversity?

When native insects or pathogensprevent full-site occupation by vigor-ous conifers, does that indicate a dis-turbance is taking place or is thebroader ecosystem being expressed?Pockets of laminated root rot canspread slowly in the vicinity of dis-eased stumps and roots, killing sus-ceptible ingrowth and causing wind-


Forest Insects and Pathogensas Disturbance Agents

F

throw that perpetuates forest openings and shifts composi-tion from conifers to flowering plants or other non-hostspecies. Laminated root rot is also commonly expressed onsites with high water tables, probably favored because theshallow rooting zone allows lots of root-to-root contact thatenables the pathogen to spread and infect any ingrowth.Although the Douglas-fir production may be interrupted,the forest ecosystem may be thriving. Similarly, low numbertree killers like endemic bark beetle populations or top-killing stem cankers promote gaps and snag habitat fea-tures that are part of a healthy ecosystem.

Not normal

The perfect storms for native insects or pathogens tocontribute to significant, lasting ecosystem disturbancearise when the forest or environment has departed fromthe conditions wherein the pests and host trees co-evolved.Although mountain pine beetle has always been capable ofkilling mature lodgepole pine, the unusually warm temper-atures that improved winter survival, synchronized beetlegenerational development periods, and stressed continu-ous expanses of larger trees created a cake walk for beetlesthat previously had been challenged to skillfully locate,cooperatively attack, and infect target trees with sapwood-colonizing fungi necessary to overcome host defenses.Eighty-eight million acres of lodgepole forests have beenkilled because huge expanses of older trees were availableand unprotected by normal weather, and highly versatilebeetles responded.

Although dwarf mistletoe has always been a part of inte-rior western forests, its abundance and prevalence nowthreaten the occurrence of large trees on many sites. Treeswill either: 1) never grow to sizes the species are capable ofreaching because of direct infection; or 2) be killed whenwildfires rage through a fuel-packed environment.

It is the forests that are pre-disposed to disturbance—byoverstocking, fuel build up, monotonous composition, uni-form structure, or compromised seed sources—that arereally at risk of a major disturbance by insects or pathogensthat derails the ecosystem. We can’t see all the parametersof the future clearly, but we can recognize and attempt tomitigate many features that make our forests vulnerable todramatic, severe disturbance. Actions now that excludeexotic pests and reduce recognizedvulnerability to native pests, extremeweather, or wildfire are smart manage-ment choices to conserve functionalforest ecosystems and productivityinto the future. ◆

Karen Ripley is Forest Health Programmanager for the Washington Depart-ment of Natural Resources in Olympia.She can be reached at [email protected].


PHOTO COURTESY OF KAREN RIPLEY

This pine tree was recently killed by bark beetles. Youfinish the caption:

(a) The beetles are carrying an exotic magenta-stainfungus that’s native to China. This is the start of a gravedisturbance and means significant changes to pineforests. (Unlikely, but possible)

(b) The tree was wounded by a lightning strike. The wood isdeeply cracked. The resulting food and habitat resource willbe a boon to local woodpeckers. (Normal)

(c) The tree occupies a dry rocky site that, due to recentand likely-to-worsen high summer temperatures and lowwinter snowpack, is anticipated to be unlikely to sustaintree cover into the future. More trees are likely to die onthis site so be alert to salvage. Spend your next manage-ment dollar to thin the crowded stand on the adjacentnorthern aspect. (Reasonable on some sites)

BY THERESA B. JAIN

e refer to fire asa natural dis-

turbance, but unlikeother disturbancessuch as forest insectsand diseases, fire hashad an intimate rela-tionship withhumans. Fire facilitated human evolu-tion over two million years ago whenour ancestors began to use fire tocook. Fire empowered our furbearersto adapt to cold climates, allowinghumans to disperse and settle intoNorth America when they migratedover the land bridge on the BeringStrait. American Indians used firethroughout North America because itwas an ideal tool to chase away preda-tors, clear land, facilitate travel, andincrease hunting opportunities. Tribesalso used fire to regenerate edibleplants such as berry bushes and camasfor food and to rejuvenate beargrassand willow to produce supple materi-als for basketry. American Indiansused fire to fell trees, and shapecanoes, weapons shafts, and bows.Finally, fire was used as an instrumentof war or as a ruse to escape from war-ring tribes. Tribes rarely extinguishedfires and they allowed fires to burnhundreds to thousands of acres.Human- and lightening-ignited firescontributed to landscape diversity.

As settlers moved into the West inthe late 1800s, they transformed ourforests and fire regimes. Gold and sil-ver brought thousands of miners tothe region, and commerce followedwith hotels, restaurants, general stores,and other business ventures that creat-ed towns throughout the Northwest.Many settlers used fire in a similarfashion as the American Indian tribesto clear land for farming, grazing, or

prospecting. However, the largest andmost damaging fires arose from primi-tive logging practices, sparks fromtrains, and human carelessness (e.g.,abandoned campfires). Individualsalso started fires to create work (fire-

fighting) or to retaliate against othersfor real and perceived wrong doings.Unregulated grazing altered surfacefuels between the mid-1800s andearly-1900s. Overgrazing changedplant communities and reduced grassand favored woody vegetation, alteredthe surface fuels, and lengthened thefire return interval.

After the 1910 wildfires, societychanged their cavalier approach to fireand began to recognize fire as adestructive force. This view promptedmanagers and scientists to develop asystematic approach to fire suppressionthrough the 1910s and 1920s. World WarII’s innovative war tactics introducednew firefighting capabilities. Paratroop-ers introduced during the war led tousing smoke-jumpers as an initial

attack method, and surplus jeeps andhelicopters combined with improvedroad access enhanced suppressionefforts that decreased the total acresburned in the western US during the1950s through 1987. This decrease alsocoincided with cooler and wetterweather that enhanced fire suppressionabilities but perpetuated regeneration.As the century progressed, the adventof successful fire suppression, harvest-ing practices, and the introduction ofdiseases, the forests of the Northwest(eastern Oregon and Washington,Idaho, Montana) shifted from pon-derosa pine, western larch, and westernwhite pine to less fire resilient species.True firs flourished and so did root dis-ease and insect epidemics that resultedin an overall decrease in forest healthand an increase in hazardous fuel con-ditions. In the high elevation forests,fire suppression allowed lodgepole pineto age, thus becoming susceptible tomountain pine beetle. In 1988, 12 firesburned more than 1.42 million acres oflodgepole pine forests within theGreater Yellowstone ecosystem. A third

PHOTO COURTESY OF ANDRIS EGLITIS, DESCHUTES NATIONAL FOREST

This mountain pine beetle infestation at Mount Jefferson is taken from theWarm Springs Indian Reservation.

The Human and Fire Connection

W

The Dictionary of Forestry defines afire regime as the frequency, extent,intensity, severity, and seasonality offires within an ecosystem. Termssuch as “frequent, low-intensity sur-face fire” or “mixed and variable fireregime” are used to classify a fireregime.

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(794,000 acres) of Yellowstone NationalPark burned and cost the United Statesgovernment $120 million to fight.Yellowstone was the first large fire theUnited States had experienced indecades, but it definitely was not goingto be the last.

The 2000 fire season burned nearly7 million acres and cost the UnitedStates government $1.6 billion. Thesefires led to a shift in fire policy. First,Congress directed the five federalagencies (Forest Service, Bureau ofLand Management, Park Service,Bureau of Indian Affairs, and Fish andWildlife Service) to standardize allaspects of wildfire response. Second,Congress established the National FirePlan to diminish the growing threats oflarge, costly, and life-threatening wild-fires. This plan provided funding toensure sufficient firefighting resources,to rehabilitate and restore fire-dam-aged ecosystems, to reduce fuels inforests and rangelands (particularlynear communities), and to work withlocal residents to reduce fire risk andimprove fire protection. Even with thisplan, large fires have continued toburn Northwest landscapes, includingthe 2002 Biscuit Fire (500,000 acres),2007 Cascade Complex (302,376 acres),and 2006 Tripod Complex (113,011acres) that burned close to a combinedone million acres.

In 2009, the Federal LandAssistance, Management andEnhancement (FLAME) Act directedthe development of the NationalCohesive Wildland Fire ManagementStrategy (cohesive strategy). The cohe-sive strategy uses a collaborative

process at all levels of government andnon-governmental organizations andthe public to seek national all-landssolutions to wildland fire managementissues. The cohesive strategy is to sys-tematically develop a dynamicapproach to: 1) restore and maintainresilient landscapes; 2) create fire-adapted communities; and 3) improvesuppression response to wildfires(www.forestsandrangelands.gov/strat-egy/overview.shtml).

Fires do have significant positiveeffects on forest ecosystems and createconditions that sustain many forestcharacteristics we value. They producesnags and down wood for bats, birds,and mammals to use for dens, perch-es, and hiding cover. They kill treesand create openings where grasses,forbs, and shrubs flourish, and thatenhance forage for ungulates (deer,elk, and moose). Soils, if scorched byfire, can release nutrients allowingquick vegetation recovery. In dry andmixed-dry conifer forests, ponderosapine and western larch flourishedbecause fires removed competition.After fire, lodgepole pine forests regen-erate and begin another growthcycle—a positive outcome from theYellowstone fires. Fuel (live and deadvegetation), topography, and weatherinfluence wildfire behavior and effects,and historically this combination pro-duced a complex mosaic of vegetationcompositions and structures thatmade these forests fire resilient.

Large fires will continue to occur,particularly if hot, dry summerslengthen the fire season. Fuel treat-ment placement and effectiveness can

mitigate fire’s destructive role; howev-er, fuel treatments also have limita-tions. They will not fire proof a forest.Fuel includes all live and dead vegeta-tion and given the right conditions(wind, drought, high temperatures),fires can burn through fuel treatmentsin undesirable ways. Fuel treatmentscontinue to grow and develop overtime, thus fuel maintenance is a nec-essary piece of fuels management.Even large and extensive landscape-level fuel treatments may not reducethe size of area burned or how quicklya fire burns through a landscape.However, if applied in the right place,fuel treatments can provide suppres-sion opportunities and alter post-fireoutcomes. The challenge is to identifythe best places (close to homes and inthe landscape), treatment methods,and maintenance schedules so when awildfire does occur, it performs as weexpect and actually contributes to thefuture resilience of our forests. ◆

Theresa B. Jain is a research foresterwith the Rocky Mountain ResearchStation in Moscow, Idaho. She can bereached at 208-883-2331 [email protected].

For Further ReadingPausas J.G. and Keeley, J.E. Aburning story: the role of fire in thehistory of life. BioScience 59(7):593-601.

Pyne, S.J. 1982. Fire in America: acultural history of wildland and ruralfire. Princeton, NJ: PrincetonUniversity Press. 654 p

Mann, C.C. 2011. 1493: uncoveringthe new world Columbus created.New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 535 p.Jain, Theresa B.; Battaglia, Mike A.;Han, Han-Sup; Graham, Russell T.;Keyes, Christopher R.; Fried,Jeremy S.; Sandquist, Jonathan E.2012. A comprehensive guide to fuelmanagement practices for dry mixedconifer forests in the northwesternUnited States. Gen. Tech. Rep.RMRS-GTR-292. Fort Collins, CO:U.S. Department of Agriculture,Forest Service, Rocky MountainResearch Station. 331 p.


BY GLENN AHRENS

xtreme wind-storms serve as a

periodic reminder ofthe importance ofwind as a recurrentdisturbance agent inthe forest. While rare,catastrophic windevents are often seen as the exceptionrather than the rule, and forestersneed to plan for the full spectrum ofacute and chronic effects of wind.Strong winds are actually a relativelyfrequent phenomenon in the PacificNorthwest, even in areas away fromcoastal or montane extremes. Weatherrecords for Portland and Seattle showstorms with winds exceeding 55 mphoccurring dozens of times over the last54 years, and even hurricane-forcewinds are not so rare in the lifespan ofa tree (see Table 1). Windthrow hazardsincrease as trees grow in height, and

given that foresters commonly managetrees attaining heights of 100-200 feet,there is no escape from the need forserious consideration of wind hazards.

While wind as a disturbance agentseems complex and unpredictable,there is a growing body of work thatwill help foresters both understandlocal wind climate and manage forestson wind-prone landscapes. As anExtension forester on the north coastof Oregon stationed in Astoria, I was inthe middle of the “Great Coastal Galeof December 2007.” High winds> 30 mph were nearly continuous for40 hours, gusting 80-90 mph on flatground and hitting 125-140 mph atstations in more wind-prone topogra-

phy. Blowdown occurred across tens ofthousands of acres of forest. In theaftermath, I found a great deal ofresearch on assessment and manage-ment of wind risk in forests around theworld including the Pacific Northwest.This information was recently summa-rized in an excellent synthesis paperby Dr. Stephen J. Mitchell, an interna-tional leader in the field of wind andforestry at the University of BritishColumbia. (S.J. Mitchell. 2013. Wind asa natural disturbance agent in forests: asynthesis. Forestry, v. 86, pp. 147-157.http://forestry.oxfordjournals.org/content/86/2/147.full.pdf )

Generally, the first step in under-standing and managing wind risk is anevaluation of forest trees or stands

based on the key factors influencingwindthrow hazard. A general hazardevaluation guide is illustrated in Table 2.

Basic tree, stand, and site condi-tions are more important than speciesalone for determining wind hazard.Other factors being equal, deciduoustrees—such as red alder, bigleaf maple,and black cottonwood—are less proneto wind compared to evergreenconifers. This is due to lack of leavesduring the winter storm season andthe generally lower crown density ofdeciduous trees, providing less of a“sail” in the wind. Among the conifers,western redcedar and Douglas-fir aremost resistant to wind. Sitka spruce isintermediate. Less resistant species arewestern hemlock and shore pine.

Foresters should become familiarwith the “acclimative responses” of dif-ferent tree species to wind andchanges in wind exposure from silvi-cultural practices. Younger, shortertrees are generally safer in the wind.The best opportunity to cultivate char-acteristics that minimize wind risk(promote healthy trees adapted to thesite and acclimated to the site wind


Forestry inthe Wind

E

WIND FORCE FACTORS

HIGH HAZARD LOWER HAZARD

• Topographically exposed locations: • Topographically protected locationscrests, saddles, upper slopes, etc. • Boundaries on the lee edge of a stand

• Boundaries on the windward edge • Short treesof a stand • Small open crowns

• Tall trees• Large dense crowns

RESISTANCE TO OVERTURNING OR BREAKAGE

HIGH HAZARD LOWER HAZARD

• Trees with low taper and no butt flare • Trees with high taper and large• Height to diameter ratio >90 butt flare• Shallow rooting or shallow soils (<0.4m) • Height to diameter ratio <70• Root rot areas • Deep rooting or deep soils (<0.8)• Poorly drained soils • No evidence of root rot

• Well drained soils

OTHER FACTORS

HIGH HAZARDS LOWER HAZARD

• Moderate to extensive natural • No natural windthrow present on site windthrow present on site or on or on similar adjacent cuttingsimilar adjacent cutting boundaries boundaries

• Pit and mound micro-topography • No evidence of pit and moundmicrotopography

Weather StationWinds exceeding 55 mph

(“Storm” force)*Winds exceeding 74 mph

(“Hurricane” force)*

Astoria, OR 30 9

Portland, OR 24 2

Seattle, WA 20 1

*Beaufort Scale SOURCE: The Storm King Website, compiled by Wolf Read, www.climate.washington.edu/stormking/

Adapted from Windthrow Handbook for BC Forests, Stathers, Rollerson, and Mitchell 1994www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/docs/wp/wp01.pdf

Table 1. Frequency of windstorms from 1950-2004 (number of events)

Table 2. Wind Hazard Evaluation Factors in Forests


environment) is in theearly stages of standdevelopment.

Several approachescan be taken to mini-mize damage in the faceof wind hazards. Somegeneral silviculturalalternatives for manag-ing forest stands to min-imize wind damageinclude:

• Establish evenagedstands at relatively lowdensities and maintainlow density by thinningin order to develop andmaintain stable treesthroughout the life of thestand. Stable trees haverelatively high taper, a lowratio of height:diameter(H:D <70, expressingheight and diameter inthe same units). Preventover-dense stand condi-tions from ever develop-ing. This approach isoften best for maintain-ing silvicultural options over the longerterm.

• In evenaged stands, develop and/ormaintain higher density stands withinter-tree damping—avoid excessiveopening of dense stands and designstand edges or boundaries to preventsudden exposure. Options are limitedto either very light thinning or clearcut-ting on relatively short rotations.

• In unevenaged stands, maintainstability of dominant trees in theprocess of managing the size distribu-tion to produce relatively low densitiesof dominant trees (low level of crowncompetition between dominant trees).This also maintains more options forcontinued management with objec-tives to grow older (taller) forestsrequiring long-term wind stability.

When you know that harvesting willexpose new stand edges to the wind,sometimes you can minimize risk via:

• Smoothing boundaries—rough orjagged edges of stands are more vul-nerable to wind damage.

• Placing clearcut boundaries wherethey are sheltered from or parallel toprevailing storm winds.

• Reducing the canopy at theexposed edge by pruning and even top-

ping to reduce abruptness of the edge.While the research pertinent to

managing forests in the wind is advanc-ing rapidly, more work is needed toadapt this interdisciplinary work forapplication. Mapping of wind hazardsto forests is underway for Washingtonstate (current project at University ofBritish Columbia by S.J. Mitchell et. al).Work on modeling the responses oftrees and stands to wind are ongoing,led by researchers in the PacificNorthwest and the United Kingdom.The most recent development isWindFIRM/ForestGALES_BC, a mecha-nistic model for predicting windthrowin partially harvested stands in BritishColumbia. Extension of these kinds ofwindthrow hazard maps and modelingtools is needed for application acrossthe Pacific Northwest region.

Ultimately, integration of the

research in several key areas will helpforesters manage trees and forests forthe winds of the future. This includesdevelopment of better tools for:(1) mapping and predicting regionalwind climate and wind hazards due tointeraction of wind with local terrain;(2) predicting tree and stand stabilityresulting from alternative silviculturalregimes; and (3) assessing tree andstand stability based on effects of soilson both productivity and anchorage.

Foresters can look forward to usingthese tools to plan site specific silvicul-ture to integrate local wind hazards ina landscape context. ◆

Glenn Ahrens is an OSU Extensionforester for Clackamas, Marion, andHood River counties. He can be reachedat 503-655-8631 or [email protected].

PHOTOS COURTESY OF GLENN AHRENS

Before and after photos from the Great Coastal Gale of December 2007 at Mail Creek inClatsop County, Ore. The photo on the left was taken in September 2006 and shows a densewestern hemlock stand exposed by an adjacent timber harvest. The December 2007 photoon the right shows complete wind breakage on the north-facing slope—the lee side of thehill in the zone of turbulence. For a reference point, note the old stump in the lower rightcorner of both photos.

FOREST RESOURCES TECHNOLOGY• SAF Accredited •

Ron Boldenow, Ph.D., C.F., ForestryRebecca Franklin, Ph.D., DendrochronologyBret Michalski, M.S., Wildlife Science

http://cocc.edu/forestry E-mail: [email protected] (541) 383-7756

CENTRAL OREGON COMMUNITY COLLEGE Bend, Oregon


BY PATRICK PRINGLE

ree rings of sub-fossil forests are

unlocking secretsabout the past histo-ry of earthquakes,volcanoes, and land-slides in the PacificNorthwest and else-where. The tree victims are found inmore than 50 different locations inOregon and Washington. Dead treesare labeled “subfossil” when they havebeen preserved with little or no per-mineralization. Some subfossil trees

are found sub-merged in inter-tidal zones alongcoastal BritishColumbia,Washington,Oregon, and theSalish Sea. Thesubsided treesindicate theselocations likelydropped dra-matically duringgreat earth-quakes; the treesshow the scale ofthe movement(as much as 3 m)and the treerings record the timing of those events.In valleys of rivers that head on volca-noes, it is a common occurrence tofind forests buried by far-flowing vol-canic debris flows (lahars) and lahar-derived sediment-rich floods (seeFig. 1). Closer to the volcano, treesmight be charred and/or buried bypyroclastic flows (hot avalanches ofash and rock).

Landslides can bury forests or blockstreams to create landslide-dammedlakes that drown forests (see Fig. 2).Many of these landslides, most inWashington State, were likely triggeredby ancient earthquakes, and thus dat-ing the trees via radiocarbon and pos-sibly by tree rings could estimate thetiming of the earthquakes. At least twofaults, the Saddle Mountain fault andTacoma fault in Washington, and twolava flows impounded water to drownancient forests (at Merrill Lake inWashington and Clear Lake in Oregon).

Glacial deposits buried trees, and localstanding (unburied or partially buried)“ghost” forests, such as the one on thesouth flank of Mount Hood, are pre-served near timberline—the ones atMount Hood might have been killed bya pyroclastic flow. Still other subfossiltrees are preserved in dunes.

Lewis and Clark were among thefirst to document subfossil trees in thePacific Northwest. On October 30,1805, near the mouth of the WhiteSalmon River along the Columbia,Clark writes1: a remarkable circum-stance in this part of the river is, theStumps of pine trees are in maneyplaces are at Some distance in the river,and gives every appearance of the riversbeing damed up below from Somecause which I am not at this timeacquainted with...

And also on October 30, from thepresent location of Cascade Locks,Ore., Clark notes that rocks there hadfallen into and obstructed the riverand…“must be the Cause of the riversdaming up to Such a distance above”(to drown trees along its banks).

Botanist Donald Lawrence, a nativeof Portland, Ore., was a pioneer in

Buried and Submerged Forests of Washingtonand Oregon: Time Capsules of Environmentaland Geological History

T

PHOTO COURTESY OF PATRICK PRINGLE

Figure 1. Photo of an in situ subfos-sil Douglas-fir (about 10 feet indiameter) at Orting, Wash., that wasburied by the Electron Mudflow fromMount Rainier about A.D. 1502-03.

PHOTO COURTESY OF PATRICK PRINGLE

Figure 2. This 1992 photo shows a subfossil forest inSpider Lake in the southeast Olympic Mountains. Thetrees were killed about 1,100 years ago when a rock ava-lanche blocked a tributary in the headwaters of the middlefork of the Satsop River.

1 All Lewis and Clark quotes use theoriginal journal spelling, capitalization,and punctuation.

studies of the subfossil trees in thePacific Northwest. Having read Lewisand Clark’s interpretations, Donaldand his wife Elizabeth spent decadesinvestigating the geologic and botani-cal history of the Columbia Gorge.They counted more than 3,000 of thesubmerged forest trees along thebanks of the Columbia River upstreamof the great landslide. The trees arenow drowned again by the BonnevilleDam impoundment. Lawrence sam-pled the snags beginning in the mid-1930s, and in 1958 he and Elizabethpublished the first radiocarbon dateson what is now called the Bonnevillelandslide, which at one time haddammed the entire Columbia to formthe “Bridge of the Gods.” Some of thestumps sampled by Lawrence are visi-ble in a 1909 George Weister phototaken at Wyeth, Ore. (see Fig. 3).Lawrence began sampling the sub-merged forest trees in 1934 and con-tinued his work for nearly 60 years,publishing papers on the subject in1936, 1937, and 1958.

During field work in 1987 Lawrence

noted with dis-appointmentthat all his sam-ples of the sub-merged foresthad disap-peared—diskshe had stored athis mother’shouse had van-ished, and hehad assumedthe ones locatedat the ForestryBuilding inPortland werelost when thebuilding burnedin 1964. But in2001, research colleague NathanReynolds inquired about the slabs atthe World Forestry Center (WFC), andstaff there said they had some slabsstored in a large crate that might be ofinterest. Inside the crate were two disksof the submerged forest trees that hadbeen sampled by Lawrence as well astwo disks from living trees that he had

hoped to use for ring matching! In a great twist of luck, the disks

had been on loan to ThorntonMunger, director of the PacificNorthwest Forest and RangeExperiment Station, at the time of theforestry building fire and had ulti-mately been returned to the WFC!



PHOTO COURTESY OF OREGON HISTORICAL SOCIETY

Figure 3. Photo of the submerged forest of the Columbia atWyeth, Oregon. The view is to the north with WindMountain in the background.

BY JOHN WALKOWIAK, JOHNNY HODGES, AND ED SHEPARD

AF President Dave Walters openedhis first SAF Council meeting on

March 28-30 at the Embassy Suites OldTown in Alexandra, VA. The main orderof business was to meet and interviewcandidates for SAF’s new CEO. A SearchCommittee led by Past SAF PresidentsRoger Dziengeleski and Joann Cox,along with many others, worked for thepast several months with Chip Mageeof Signature Search to identify andmeet qualified candidates.

The committee provided Councilwith three highly qualified candidateswith vast natural resources and non-profit organizational experience. Eachcandidate presented their qualifica-tions and their view on the futureneeds of SAF. An officers’ interviewteam of President Walters, Past PresentCox, Vice President Bob Alverts, andInterim EVP Louise Murgia conducted

additional intensive interviewing. Eachinterview also involved personalityand leadership analysis testing by con-sultant Dave Goodenough of Seattle.In the end, candidates performed at ahigh level and any of the three wouldbe great leaders for SAF, but based onthe recommendation of the interviewteam, a decision for the new SAF CEOwas approved by Council. PresidentWalters will pursue negotiations onsalary and starting date. In order tomaintain candidates’ confidentiality,an official announcement fromPresident Walters will come out soonthat identifies the new SAF CEO (thisinformation was not available at presstime).

While the SAF officers were involvedin the in-depth CEO interview process,District 4 Representative Hodgespresided over the remainder of theCouncil meeting. SAF continues tograpple with our finances as member-ship (although relatively stable at the11,900-12,000 member level) saw 7%

more of our current Gold member levelrenew at the Silver membership level,thus reducing revenue. For the close ofthe 2013 budget cycle, SAF had a$260,000 loss that was covered by ourinvestment proceeds.

For 2014, SAF has a balanced budg-et that will utilize proceeds from thefinal payment of the sale of the WildAcres property (to close on August 22)investment proceeds and will defercertain staff, equipment, and Councilexpenses. Working with SAF CFO JorgeEsguerra, the Finance Committee hasdeveloped improved reporting andtracking of finances. Originally, theThomas Busch Trust indicated thattheir donation could be used for SAFoperations, but before funds werereceived, the Trust trustee clarified thatthe proceeds had to be used for an SAFawards fund, which we do not have.With Trust’s trustee concurrence, SAFCouncil approved placing $220,000 inthe Mollie Beattie Fund and $52,000 inthe Gregory Fund. The Gregory Family


SAF Council Update: CEO Decision Made

Left to right: 2014 Council represen-tatives Johnny Hodges, Ed Shepard,and John Walkowiak.

S

Norm MichaelsForestry LLC

Forest management tomeet your goals

• Management Plans • Reforestation• Timber inventory • Timber cruising

Over 40 years managing forests inOregon and Washington

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provided a matching $34,000 dona-tion. Once the final balloon paymentfor the Wild Acres sale is received,Council selected the services ofWilmington Trust (now operated byM&T Bank) as our investment advisorand is finalizing investment guidelines.

Based on recommendations of theMembership and Credentialing TaskForce, Council approved minor clarify-ing changes to the SAF mission state-ment:

The mission of the Society ofAmerican Foresters is to advance sus-tainable management of forest resourcesthrough science, education, and technol-ogy to enhance the competency of itsmembers; to establish professional excel-lence; and to use our knowledge, skillsand conservation ethic to ensure thehealth, integrity and use of forests tobenefit society in perpetuity.

District 7 Council Member KimSteiner of Penn State and chair of thead hoc Governance DocumentCommittee led discussion on pro-posed SAF governance documentsinvolving Articles of Incorporation andBylaws in order to comply with thenew DC Incorporation Law. Based oncomments and input from Council,the committee will further refine andpresent recommendations at the June7-8 Council meeting. Plans are todevelop a communications plan andshare recommendations with mem-bership well in advance of the Octoberelections.

There was extensive discussionregarding efforts for all parts of SAF to“live the brand” involving “Thrivingforests, essential resources, and astrong community.” Council voted tochange “a strong community” to

“strong communities” to better reflectSAF’s regional perspectives. Councilwill continue to review and refinebased upon member recommenda-tions.

District 3 Council Member J. Lopezasked Council to reconsider reestab-lishing the National LeadershipAcademy that was suspended in 2009to encourage and invest in new leader-ship. Christopher Whited, SAFMembership director, provided infor-mation on how younger members useextensive technology to communicate.He provided several initiatives thatboth the Strategic Planning Committeeand House of Society Delegates (HSD)will investigate along with recommen-dations from the CommunicationsCommittee’s final report prioritizingyoung member recruitment and recog-nition, along with ways to increase thevalue of Gold and Platinum SAF mem-bership.

Council was updated on prepara-tions for the 2014 annual conventionthat will be co-located with theInternational Union of Forest ResearchOrganizations (IUFRO) world con-gress, the first in North America since1971. Over 2,500 delegates from acrossthe world including our joint partners,the Canadian Institute of Forestry(CIF), are expected to come to SaltLake City from October 8-11. SAFmembers will be able to register forthe SAF/CIF convention separatelyfrom IUFRO delegates at lower costsand will be able to attend eitherSAF/CIF or IUFRO events Thursday-

Saturday. SAF/CIF field trips will notbe held, but SAF members can attendone of 27 different IUFRO field trips onWednesday. If you are planning toattend the Salt Lake City Convention,you are encouraged to seek lodgingarrangement early by going towww.safconvention.org.

Council and staff continued workon investigating options for regionalassistance to state societies and chap-ters, and improving cost effectivenessof Certified Forester (CF) andContinuing Education credits (CFE).For those who have read Jim Collins’sGood to Great book, Council is finaliz-ing a Big Hairy Audacious Goal(BHAG) to help inspire SAF’s vision forthe next 30+ years. Finally, as we hire anew CEO, Council will be developingKey Performance Indicators or KPIs forboth the new CEO as well as forCouncil. This evaluation hopes toremain simple but complete, and willinvolve a 360-degree review from staffand committees.

The next Council meeting is set ofJune 7 and 8 in Bethesda, MD. ◆

This Council report is a joint effortbetween District 1 Council Representa-tive John Walkowiak (253-320-5064,[email protected]); District 2Council Representative Ed Shepard(503-487-6423, [email protected]);and District 4 Council RepresentativeJohnny Hodges (970-226-6890,[email protected]).


UW Student Chapter RegenerationThe University of Washington School of Environmental and Forest

Sciences Student Chapter of SAF hosted the February meeting for the SouthPuget Sound Chapter. Students prepared a pasta dinner for approximately 30professionals and students. The speaker was Bruce Lippke, professor emeri-tus, who spoke on the role of forests, management, and forest products oncarbon mitigation.

The student chapter has regenerated with guidance from Matthew Aghai,PhD student with previous leadership at Purdue and the University of Idaho.New officers are Sam Israel (MFR) chapter chair; Tessa Putz (ESRM, senior),chair-elect; and Marissa Bass (ESRM, sophomore), treasurer. Eric Turnblom,associate professor of forest growth and yield modeling, sampling and inven-tory, and biometrics, is the faculty advisor.

The UW Student Chapter will be assisting with presentations and logisticsat the WSSAF annual meeting at Pack Forest May 7-9.

erally having to do with species traits,competitive interactions with otherspecies, and their ability to useresources like soil, water, and nutrientsmore effectively. Given that the intro-duction and spread of invasive plantsare often accompanied by otherhuman-caused changes to the land-scape, it is often difficult to determinewhether these species are the passen-gers or drivers of observed changes incommunity composition. It is most

likely that both the passenger and drivermodels come into play.

Climate change and invasiveplants

Climate change will alter the envi-ronmental conditions under whichplant species can establish, survive,reproduce, and spread. Increased tem-perature, longer growing seasons, lesssnow, and more common drought con-ditions are expected to increase plantstress and decrease a species’ ability tosurvive in the drier, warmer, and lowerparts of its range. These conditions mayreduce the range of some invasive

plants, but new habitat, once too coldand/or wet, may become available.Therefore climate change could enableinvasive plants to survive outside theircurrent ranges and/or expand currentranges. Changes in species growth, pro-ductivity, and reproduction may alsochange as the climate changes. Someevidence exists that invasive plants maybe better able to adjust to rapid changesin environmental conditions thanspecies that tend not to be invasive.

It is well established that increases inCO2 can significantly stimulate photo-synthesis. Increases in productivity inresponse to elevated CO2 have been doc-umented for many invasive plantspecies including cheatgrass, Canadathistle (Cirsium vulgare), spotted knap-weed, and yellow star-thistle. However,plant response to increased CO2 outsideof the laboratory is less predictable. Theactual response of plants may be limitedby other nutrients and water availability.Another consideration is that more CO2

can increase plant water use efficiency,which can help plants deal with drought,and decreased water availability orincreased salinity (for plants with the C3

or cool season photosynthetic pathway).In general, future climate change willprobably increase the likelihood of inva-sion of forestlands and the conse-quences of those invasions. ◆

Becky K. Kerns is a research ecologistwith the Disturbance and RestorationTeam, Threat Characterization andManagement Program, Forestry SciencesLaboratory, USDA Pacific NorthwestResearch Station in Corvallis. She can bereached at [email protected].


Disturbance Factor inPlant Invasions(CONTINUED FROM PAGE 7)

PHOTO COURTESY OF SASHA SHAW

Trees covered with English ivy havea harder time withstanding strongwinds and can be prone to disease.

Northwest Wood-Based Biofuels andCo-Products Conference, Apr. 28-30,Seattle, WA. Contact: Vikram Yadama,[email protected], http://nara-renewables.org/blog/?p=280.

Understanding Wood BehaviorDuring Cutting, Shaping, andDrying, Apr. 30, Tillamook BayCommunity College, Tillamook, OR.Contact: Jim Reeb, [email protected], or Emily Henry, [email protected], http://calendar.oregon-state.edu/event/90290/.

Oregon SAF Annual Meeting,Apr. 30-May 2, Seven Feathers CasinoResort, Canyonville, OR. Contact: MarkBuckbee, 541-580-2227, [email protected], www.forestry.org.

Washington State SAF AnnualMeeting, May 7-9, Pack Forest,Eatonville, WA. Contact: Paula Hopkins,360-492-5441, [email protected].

Alaska SAF Annual Meeting,May 14-17, Juneau, AK. Contact: WayneNicolls, 907-780-6318, [email protected].

Washington Farm ForestryAssociation annual meeting,May 15-17, Bellingham, WA. Contact: WFFA,360-736-5750, [email protected].

Western Forest Economists annualmeeting, May 18-20, Missoula, MT.Contact: Keith Stockman, 406-329-3549,[email protected].

2nd Annual Western HardwoodAssociation Convention andExposition, May 19-22, Holiday InnAirport, Portland, OR. Contact: Daveor Kristine at 360-835-1600, [email protected], http://western-hardwood.org/ICE2014.html.

Forest Insect and DiseaseIdentification and ManagementWorkshop, May 20-22, Coeur d’Alene,

ID. Contact: Candee Wilfong, 208-765-7201, [email protected] if you are a feder-al or tribal worker, or Tom Eckberg, 208-666-8625, [email protected] if youwork for the state or in private industry.

Practical Applications in VegetationManagement, sponsored by OSAF CoosChapter, June 4, North Bend, OR. Contact:Scott Nichols, 541-290-7266, [email protected].

Oregon Small Woodlands Associa-tion annual meeting, June 26-28, SevenFeathers Casino, Canyonville, OR. Contact:OSWA, 503-588-1813, [email protected].

Applied Forest Finance Workshop,July 14, DoubleTree Hotel, Portland, OR.Contact: WFCA.

National Tree Farmer Convention,July 17-19, Pittsburgh, PA. Contact: 202-765-3660, [email protected], www.tree-farmsystem.org/tree-farmer-convention.

The Basics of Forestland andTimber Appraisal, July 28-Aug. 1,Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR.Contact: WFCA.

Forest Products Forum 4, Sept. 16,World Forestry Center, Portland, OR.Contact: Greg Lewis, 978-496-6335,[email protected], http://wwotf.world-forestry.org/wwotf10/.

Who Will Own the Forest?10,Sept. 16-18, World Forestry Center,Portland, OR. Contact: Sara Wu, 503-488-2130, [email protected],http://wwotf.worldforestry.org/wwotf10/.

Access, Easements, Rights-of-Wayand Timber Trespass: What EveryForest Manager Needs to Know,Sept. 25 in Grand Mound, WA. Contact:WFCA.

SAF National Convention, Oct. 8-11,Salt Lake City, UT. Contact: ChristopherWhited, 301-897-8720, [email protected],www.xcdsystem.com/saf/site14/.

Pacific Northwest ReforestationCouncil, Nov. 16, Heathman Lodge,Vancouver, WA. Contact: WFCA.

Forestry/Songbird Symposium,Nov. 18, Linn County Expo Center, Albany,OR. Contact: Fran Cafferata Coe, 503-680-7939, [email protected],www.cafferataconsulting.com.

Forestry Leadership Academy,Jan. 16-17, 2015, Oregon Garden Resort,Silverton, OR. Contact: Amanda Mattern,503-224-8046, [email protected].

Washington State SAF LegislativeReception, Jan. 22, Olympia, WA.Contact: Ellie Lathrop, 360-274-3057,[email protected].


Calendar of Events

Contact InformationWFCA: Western Forestry andConservation Association, 4033 SWCanyon Rd., Portland, OR 97221, 503-226-4562, [email protected],www.westernforestry.org.

Send calendar items to the editor [email protected].

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Robert “Bos” Bosworth1940-2014

Robert “Bos”Bosworth, 73, passedaway unexpectedly onJanuary 17 at his homein Bonners Ferry, Idaho.Bos grew up in NewMexico and received abachelor’s degree in for-est management from the University ofMontana in 1962 and a master’s degree inforestry from the University of Idaho in1974. During his school years, he was veryactive in clubs and activities, includingsports, band, forestry club, Chi Sigma Phi,and the Forester’s Ball.

Bos served in the Army and spent 13months in Korea, after which he marriedJill in 1965. He spent 26 years as a fire/silvi-culture assistant and district silviculturiston the Bonners Ferry Ranger District of theIdaho Panhandle National Forest. He was acertified Silviculturist and fire manager.Bos joined SAF in 1967 and was very activeat all levels including chair and chair-electof the Inland Empire, general chair of thenational SAF convention in 1989, SAFCouncil representative for District 1 from1991-1993, SAF vice-president in 1995, andpresident in 1996. He was the first fieldforester ever elected president of SAF. Hewas named Fellow in 1987.

Logger sports were very important toBos and he won several world champi-onships with his son, Carson. His daughter,Megan, and grandsons Hunter and Sawyeralso participated with Bos in logger sports.His dedication to family and wide-spreadparticipation in SAF and other programsprovided inspiration for many.

In honor of Bos’ influence on and com-mitment to SAF, a special fund is being

established in his honor by the InlandEmpire Society. The Robert “Bos” BosworthInland Empire SAF Leadership SponsorFund will focus on the support of activeleadership activities. Bos believed that thedevelopment of leadership skills was keyand this sponsorship encourages IESAFmember participation and leadershipwithin the entire SAF organization. If youwould like to donate to this fund, pleasecontact Tera King at 208-883-4488 x133 [email protected].

Bos was loved and highly respected inall aspects of his life and will be deeplymissed by all who knew him. He left somevery large shoes to be filled.

Robert W. Mezger1922-2014

Robert W. Mezger, 91,passed away January 9surrounded by family.Bob was raised in NewJersey and attendedPenn State University.He took a leave fromcollege from 1942-1945to serve in the US Army Air Corps as a sec-ond lieutenant. He married Patricia Cosleywhile still in the service in 1945. He fin-ished forestry school in 1947 at Penn Stateand went on to receive a Master’s degreefrom the University of California atBerkeley.

Bob became a forester in the PacificNorthwest and Idaho, working for theBureau of Indian Affairs, Klamath IndianReservation, and the US National BankTrust Department until he retired at 65.Though retired, Bob continued to work inthe industry he loved. He bought forestproperty, was named the American TreeFarm Program’s Western Region TreeFarmer of the Year in 2008, and published abook in 2013 titled “A Forest History of theOregon’s Klamath Basin 1910-1980.”

Bob was a 67-year member of SAF. Hewas active in the First United MethodistChurch and participated in many areasfrom teaching Sunday school to singing in

the choir. He was a member of many othercommunity organizations including theRotary Club and YMCA. His favorite things,though, were being with his family and histrees. People loved Bob’s sense of humor,his patience, work ethic, and his apprecia-tion for diversity.

Ronald “Ron” Dippold1935-2014

Ron Dippold, 78, of Juneau, Alaska,passed away January 17 due to cancer com-plications. Ron was born in Cheektowaga,NY and graduated from the Syracuse Schoolof Forestry. He served as a LieutenantCommander in the US Navy and thenjoined the US Forest Service.

Ron was a dedicated forester and mem-ber of SAF, joining in 1958. He received his50-year certificate from Governor SarahPalin at the 2007 Alaska SAF annual meet-ing in Juneau.

Ron was fortunate to spend most of hiscareer in his beloved Alaska. He had a pas-sion for skiing and was active in the JuneauSki Patrol for 52 years. He served as south-east regional director for the AlaskaDivision of the Red Cross, held many RedCross certification classes, and was anactive member of that organization for 50years. In addition to skiing, he took greatjoy in his immediate and extended family.A celebration of Ron’s life will be held whenski season is over in late spring.

George Hartman1923-2013

George B. Hartman, Jr. passed awayNovember 4, 2013, just short of his 90thbirthday. George had a love of athletics andexcelled at football, basketball, and trackthroughout his high school years at AmesHigh School in Ames, Iowa. At Iowa StateCollege, he was a center fielder for theCyclones and joined Phi Delta Theta frater-nity while studying forestry.

In 1943, George was sent overseas withthe Army to India. He became a cartogra-pher for the 653rd TopographicalEngineering Battalion and helped the Alliesby creating complex artillery maps. Hereturned home in 1945 and was able to fin-ish his forestry degree at Iowa State in1948. George moved to Burns, Ore., afteraccepting a position with Edward HinesLumber Company. He enjoyed cruisingtimber and playing baseball there in asemi-pro league. Then, George marriedDorothy Goins in 1955, moved to Portland,and began work with the Bureau of LandManagement.

George worked for BLM as a biometri-


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cian for the next 30 years and earned hismaster’s degree in 1968 from SyracuseUniversity in New York. Portland adoptedan NBA franchise in 1970 and George sub-mitted the name “Trail Blazers” for theteam thinking of the Oregon Trail. Georgeand a few others received official congratu-lations on successfully naming the newNBA team, “The Portland Trail Blazers.”

The United States Department of theInterior also recognized George’s accom-plishments by honoring him with theDistinguished Service Award in 1988.

For the next 17 years, George and hiswife traveled extensively until her passingin 2008. George was a helpful, caring, anddevoted husband and father who will begreatly missed.

Carl A. Newport1924-2014

Carl Newport passed away March 5 inBend, Ore., just four days shy of his 90thbirthday. Carl was encouraged to continueschooling from his high school biologyteacher, set his sights on becoming aforester, and then enrolled at theUniversity of Michigan.

In 1942, Carl enlisted in the UnitedStates Army Air Force. Two years later whilestationed at an air base in Ainsworth,Nebraska, he met his wife Gwen Remingtonand they married in 1947. Carl received hisB.S. in Forest Management, and they head-ed west to begin his career as a forester asdistrict ranger in Gunnison, Colorado. Theyspent several summers in the RockyMountains, living in wall tents and moun-tain cabins.

In the fall of 1950, the family relocated toCorvallis, Ore., where Carl pursued his M.S.in Forest Management. In 1951 he enrolledat New York State College and received hisPh.D. in Forest Economics. They movedback to Colorado for him to teach foresteconomics at Colorado State University inFort Collins. In 1957 he rejoined the USForest Service, where he spent the next nineyears of his career, eventually becoming theassistant station director of the PacificNorthwest Experiment Station. In 1966 hejoined the forestry consulting firm Mason,Bruce and Girard where he remained untilretiring in 1994.

In 1971, Carl and Gwen built their homeat Black Butte Ranch and Carl loved to dis-play his photography in the communitythroughout his retirement. Carl joined SAFin 1948 and was elected Fellow in 1988. Heremained active in forestry during retire-ment and served as a member on theBoard of Directors for the World ForestryCenter. ◆

he Coos Chapter of the OregonSAF is hosting a one-day work-

shop on Practical Applications inVegetation Management on June 4 atthe Mill Casino in North Bend.Pesticide credit hours and SAF CFEcredits will be available.

A wide range of topics will be pre-sented including:

• Why we manage competing vege-tation;

• Vegetation management timelinefrom pre-harvest application to siteprep to release;

• Plant mode of action;• Neighbor relations;• Weeds developing resistance to

herbicide;• Safety in the real world;• Integrated solutions to problem

weeds;• How much is enough? (economic

analysis basics).Cost for the workshop is $75 if reg-

istered by May 14. Workshop flyerswere mailed to Oregon SAF members.

For additional information, contactScott Nichols at 541-290-7266 [email protected], or visitwww.forestry.org. ◆


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With assistance from staff at the WFC,we were able to sample the wood.Radiocarbon analysis of the drownedforest disks facilitated by anotherresearch colleague, Jim O’Connor ofthe US Geological Survey, showed theydied in the mid-1400s, and tree ringanalysis indicates that the ring patternof the two drowned forest samples cor-relates with that of a tree that hadbeen buried by the Bonneville land-slide and was recovered during excava-tions for the second powerhouse in1978. We are continuing our tree-ringstudies of Lawrence’s samples in hopesof dating the Bonneville landslidemore precisely.

My own investigations of buriedtrees began in 1983 with US GeologicalSurvey colleague Ken Cameron andwere initially focused on Mount Hoodand the buried forests there describedby Lawrence and USGS geologist“Rocky” Crandell. A turning point forKen and me came when we realizedthat Lewis and Clark’s observations ofthe “Quicksand” River—now renamedthe Sandy River—probably were notlong after an eruption and lahar fromMount Hood.

On November 3, 1805, Clark hadwritten: [we] “halted at the mouth of alarge river on the Lard Side, This river

throws out emence quanty of quickSand and is verry Shallow, the narrowestpart 200 yards wide bold Current, muchresembling the river Plat, Several Islandsabout 1 mile up and has a Sandbar of 3miles in extend imedately in its mouth,discharging it waters by 2 mouths, andCrowding its Corse Sands So as to throwthe Columbia waters on its Nothernbanks, & confdg it to 1/2 ms. in width...”(confined it to 1/2 mile width).

Given that the buried trees we wereseeing along the Sandy and Zigzagrivers might have died only a couplecenturies earlier and that there weremuch older trees growing in localitiesof the Mount Hood National Forest, itseemed imperative to try using treerings to solve the case. We teamed upwith USGS geologist Thomas Pierson,who was also using tree rings to betterunderstand the effects of the MountHood eruptions on the Sandy River.Cross dating revealed the trees haddied after the end of the growing sea-son in 1781 and before the growingseason of 1782, and the sedimentationin the Sandy River continued fordecades after the eruption, thusexplaining Lewis and Clark’s curiosityabout the “quick sand” river.

Dendrochronologist DavidYamaguchi has dated several pastexplosive eruptions of Mount St. Helensto within a year or two by studying sub-fossil trees buried in pumice and ashfrom ancient Mount St. Helens erup-

tions, as well as the ring patterns of liv-ing trees that survived the ashy bom-bardment but recorded trauma in theirtree rings. He later teamed up withUSGS geologist Brian Atwater to datethe death of trees in the coastal ghostforest of western Washington to about1700. Japanese historical records of an“orphan tsunami” showed that a greatearthquake (~ Mg. 9) had occurred onthe Cascadia Fault on the evening ofJanuary 26, 1700! In a separate study,dendrochronologist Gordon Jacoby alsodated the Cascadia earthquake to about1700.

While this article describes selectedsubfossil forests of the Pacific North-west, it is not by any means an exhaus-tive listing. For example, the ages ofmore than 30 landslides have been esti-mated by radiocarbon dating of associ-ated subfossil wood or by dating of vol-canic ash. However, fewer than 25 per-cent of these allow constraint of theactual timing of tree mortality, andmore sampling will be required toobtain outer wood. Additional tree-bearing lakes have been discovered butnot sampled, and more than two dozencandidate sites lack reconnaissance.Many likely record paleo-earthquakes,but funding for radiocarbon dating is anongoing challenge.

Aside from providing clues to thetiming of the geologic events or distur-bances that killed subfossil forests, thesamples of these trees are of great valueas repositories of climate and environ-mental information and should bearchived for future studies. We haveestablished a small tree-ring lab atCentralia College via a Department ofEducation grant so we can use tree-ringresearch as a tool for teaching scienceand training future researchers. We arealso collaborating via a National ScienceFoundation grant to develop under-graduate science curriculum that usestree-ring data. Selected students arestudying the subfossil wood and helpingto unlock the secrets in the rings. ◆

Patrick Pringle is an associate professorof Earth Science at Centralia College inCentralia, Wash. He can be reached at360-736-9391 x550 or [email protected].


Buried and SubmergedForests(CONTINUED FROM PAGE 15)

Editor’s Note: To keep SAF membersinformed of state society policy activities,Policy Scoreboard is a regular feature in theWestern Forester. The intent is to provide abrief explanation of the policy activity—youare encouraged to follow up with the listedcontact person for detailed information.

Wildfire Management. While theSAF’s Committee on Forest Policy is inthe process of revising the expired SAFposition statement on Wildland FireManagement, the National CohesiveWildland Fire Management Strategy(CS) is moving from the developmentphase to implementation. Meanwhile,the federal fire management agenciesare preparing the third QuadrennialFire Review (QFR). Previous effortswere completed in 2005 and 2009.According to a US Forest Service FactSheet, the CS and QFR efforts comple-ment each other. To keep up to date onthese developments, subscribe to theWestern Region Cohesive Strategynewsletter by asking Kate Lighthall,[email protected], to add youto the WRSC email list. Contact: JayO’Laughlin, Inland Empire SAF, 208-885-5776, [email protected].

Collaborative efforts on Idaho’snational forests attract policy-makers’ attention. In February, 80people attended the Idaho ForestRestoration Partnership’s fourth annu-al winter conference. Company execu-tives, loggers, environmentalists, andothers shared success stories andtalked about how to speed up forest

restoration. To date, nine collaborativegroups have accounted for 130 millionboard feet of timber in the pipeline oralready cut in the last five years. Thatsuccess brought US Forest ServiceChief Tom Tidwell and all four mem-bers of Idaho’s congressional delega-tion to participate in the recent work-shop. Conference agenda, presenta-tions, and associated references areavailable online at http://idahoforest-partners.org/reference-library.html.Contact: Jay O’Laughlin, InlandEmpire SAF, 208-885-5776, [email protected].

Unclear Outlook for O&C LandsBills. In December, Senator RonWyden introduced a bill (S. 1784) toaddress concerns about future man-agement of the BLM O&C lands, whichspan about 2.4 million acres primarilyin western Oregon. Wyden’s bill followsa similarly focused set of amendmentsby Rep. Peter DeFazio in a bill (HR1526) that passed the full House inSeptember. Although the House bill’spassage and a February hearing on theSenate bill have provided somemomentum, their collective future is

uncertain given some important dif-ferences in the bills and other majorissues. For example, some features ofthe House bill resulted in a veto threatby the President and interest groupsare strongly divided about both billsand related concerns about the O&Clands.

Another notable development isWyden’s departure as chair of theSenate Energy and Natural ResourcesCommittee, which has yet to vote onS. 1784, to assume chairmanship ofthe Senate Finance Committee. Thescope and complexities of the Houseand Senate bills are substantial, butOSAF is planning to respond with acomment letter to the Oregon delega-tion sometime this spring, with afocus on forestry issues and relatedscience and practice by professionals.The text and current status of theseand other forestry-related bills intro-duced in Congress can be found viahttp://thomas.loc.gov and furtherinformation typically is available at thewebsites of the bills’ primary sponsors.Contact: Paul Adams, OSAF Policychair, 541-737-2946; [email protected]. ◆


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