sociocultural hurdles of sustainable hospitality management · sociocultural hurdles of sustainable...

APJIHT Vol. 4 No. 1 March 2015

77Sociocultural Hurdles of Sustainable Hospitality ManagementAsia-Pacific Journal of Innovation in Hospitality and TourismAPJIHT Vol. 4 No. 1 March 2015 pp. 77-92

ISSN 2289-1471

Review Paper

Sociocultural Hurdles of Sustainable Hospitality Management

Annina Binder and Peter VargaEcole hôtelière de Lausanne, HES-SO / University of Applied Sciences, Switzerland

© The Author(s) 2015. This article is published with open access by Taylor’s Press.

Abstract: Sustainability in the hospitality industry has been an area of growing interest among stakeholders in the last decades. However, sustainable projects that are often proposed by foreign/international stakeholders have met various obstacles during their implementation. Beyond economic and political barriers, this paper focuses on sociocultural specificities that jeopardize sustainable projects in luxury hotel settings in Bali, Indonesia. Through unique organizational and communal values such as bapakism, banjar, kira kira and suka duka, the paper highlights the complexity of the local sociocultural environment that plays a crucial role in managerial decisions at luxury hotels. Understanding these sociocultural specificities of the Balinese society will facilitate the efficient implementation of projects in the field of sustainable development. In a more general context, the research indicates the importance of both creating awareness of local sociocultural dynamics and establishing efficient intercultural communication among stakeholders that influence the future success of development projects in Bali.

Keywords: Sustainable development, intercultural communication, luxury hospitality, Balinese culture, sociocultural awareness

Suggested citation: Binder, A. & Varga, P. (2015). Sociocultural hurdles of sustainable hospitality management. Asia-Pacific Journal of Innovation in Hospitality and Tourism, 4(1), 77-92.

Introduction

Bali, a volcanic island in Indonesia, has experienced massive tourism growth from 30,000 tourist arrivals in 1970 to 7.6 million in 2011 (BPS Provinsi Bali, 2012). The Balinese population benefited from this growth which provided employment opportunities and regional development. However, this growth also had an adverse impact on the local communities and on the nature of the island by contributing to environmental pollution and the deterioration of natural and cultural resources (Tang, 2004).

Correspondence: Peter Varga, University of Applied Sciences, Switzerland. Email : [email protected]

10.7603/s40930-015-0005-7


78 Annina Binder & Peter Varga

In response to the environmental and health issues caused by the uncontrolled waste management of the tourism industry in Bali, Caritas Switzerland, a Swiss-based non-governmental organization launched a recycling project (Sertori, 2011). Caritas collects used cooking oil from hotels and restaurants. The used cooking oil is transported to a recycling plant in northern Denpasar, where the oil is chemically and mechanically filtered and transformed into biodiesel (Christensen, 2012; Nurhayati, 2012). This biodiesel is then resold to the participating hotels as industrial diesel which can be used for hotel generators. The hotels therefore benefit from reduced carbon emissions and are able to advertise their sustainability efforts in their annual reports.

The project also aims to protect the health of the population by regulating the oil. However, many oil collectors sell the used cooking oil to middlemen who illegally mix it so that it appears to be new (First biodiesel plant....., 2013). This refined oil is sold on the local market to warungs – small food stalls – where the oil is reheated for food preparation. As a result, the reheated oil presents a significant public health risk, which could be otherwise minimized through the oil regulation of the Caritas project (Christensen, 2012; Sertori, 2011).

Even though the Balinese hotels and the environment would benefit from the project, a major challenge for the project team was to get a buy-in from the hotels and restaurants. A significant number of hotels and restaurants participated in the project and in January 2013, Caritas started transforming the used cooking oil into biodiesel (Nurhayati, 2012). However, at the initial phase of the project, the number of hotels willing to join the project was lower than anticipated, resulting in the amount of used cooking oil being too small for the project to be economically viable (Caritas Switzerland, 2011).

As such, the goal of this paper is to explore the major reasons for the unwillingness of hotels to participate in this recycling project. The authors focused on the organizational decision-making factors in luxury hotel settings in order to understand latent cultural and societal factors, their impacts on the project, and the decisions made by the hotel managers. The paper intends to answer the following question: To what extent do sociocultural and organizational factors impact sustainable projects in the Balinese hotel industry?

Sustainability in Decision-Making

Organizational decision-making to participate in a sustainable project depends on internal and external drivers. Internally, an environmental commitment is often highly significant for future managerial and strategic decisions. This commitment depends on organizational objectives and characteristics (Bonilla-Priego, Najera & Font, 2011; Poudyal, Siry & Bowker, 2012). An internal barrier to decision-making


79Sociocultural Hurdles of Sustainable Hospitality Management

is the threat of change. Individuals may resist change because they have worked in a company for a long time and are afraid to abandon longstanding practices (Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2007).

One of the major external drivers, besides environmental regulations (Kirk, 1995) is stakeholder pressure (Henriques & Sadorsky, 1999). According to Freeman (1984), a stakeholder can be defined as “any group or individual who can affect or is affected by the achievement of the organization’s objectives” (p. 46). Freeman (1984) also underlines the idea that if a company wants to optimize its operation, it should understand the different interests of its stakeholders and their power relations. Johnston & Tyrell (2005) emphasized that finding a consensus among various stakeholders on innovation and changes in relation to development at a company is very challenging. The fact that different stakeholders often have dissimilar needs and desires can create contradictions at the company. Countries with highly centralized decision-making practices might have sociocultural barriers that hamper unanimity among stakeholders’ interests (Sofield, 2000; Song, Liu, & Chen, 2012).

One way to understand the context of these stakeholder interests could be by improving intercultural communication practices that can enhance the understanding of the specific sociocultural factors involved in local dynamics. Academic and business-oriented scholars continuously try to comprehend intercultural communication in today’s globalized world. Among these, Geertz Hofstede, Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, and the Globe Project Team have attempted to categorize various cultural dimensions that characterize specific national cultures.

On the other hand, various authors (Shi-xu, 2012; Flyvbjerg, 2001; Hollinger, 1994; Smart, 2003) consider that there are tendencies of overgeneralization and universalization in today’s social sciences both in theoretical and practical applications concerning culture and cultural manifestations. Others such as Billig (1995) and Piller (2011), adopt a cultural relativist perspective and consider these nation-based cultural dimensions too general as they lead to a misunderstanding of the local sociocultural context. The Oxford Dictionary defines cultural relativism as “the theory that beliefs, customs, and morality exist in relation to the particular culture from which they originate and are not absolute” (online Oxford Dictionary, n.d.).

Hence, the authors of the present paper adopted this cultural relativist perspective and considered that nation-based stereotypes and prejudices often imply the simplification of cultural encounters and contribute to imprecise and unspecific business decision-making procedures. Piller (2011) called it “banal nationalism” that characterizes nation-state culture as one, without paying special attention to peculiarities of local contexts, such as the Balinese Hindu culture where a unique sociocultural environment has been formed due to its particular history.

Nevertheless, the authors of this paper also consider that macro-level cultural dimensions can serve as a base for more precise analyses of specific sociocultural



settings. For instance, the Globe Project Team framework extends the classical Hofstede model, which is based on five cultural dimensions (a sixth dimension was added in 2010) to a more explicit theory because it identifies nine cultural competencies which enable us to understand differences among cultures. These are power distance, uncertainty avoidance, gender egalitarianism, assertiveness, future orientation, human orientation, performance orientation and in-group collectivism (Chhokar, Brodbeck & House, 2007). This set of dimensions is the most comprehensive set of cultural dimensions available today (Connerley & Pedersen, 2005).

According to these cultural dimensions, the Indonesian society is organized in rigid hierarchies where age and status act as the main defining characteristics (Lee, 2007). Existing power relations are not questioned (The Hofstede Center, n.d.) and decision-making is centralized (Martin and Thomas, 2002). Indonesians try to avoid conflicts, driven by the desire for a harmonious lifestyle (Irawanto, 2009). So, they do not show negative emotions but communicate indirectly and ambiguously, meaning that they would never refuse by saying “no” (Foss, 2009; Lange, 2010). In addition, they are short-term orientated and the future is considered secondary. Therefore, they live without long-term planning and focus on achieving quick results and short-term gains (Ruppert, 2004).

Indonesia is a collectivist society where the interests of families and communities are more important than individualism (Dickson, Hanges & Lord, 2001; Irawanto, 2009). As a consequence, many positions within companies and business deals are awarded to group or family members (Martin & Thomas, 2002), implying practices such as nepotism and collusion (Robertson-Snape, 1999). The collectivism leads to “groupthink” which is a phenomenon that can entail poor decision-making within a deeply involved group (Johnson, 2001).

Research Methodology

Qualitative research explains social aspects, cultural differences, opinions and attitudes (Joubish, Khurram, Ahmed, Fatima & Haider, 2011). It also increases the possibility of gaining an understanding of the research subject (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011) and is essential in explaining human actions (Genzuk, 2003). As such, the qualitative research approach was considered appropriate for this research as the factors influencing hotels’ decision-making have yet to be clearly identified. Semi-structured interviews and six weeks of field research in Bali were therefore conducted in order to understand the context of the project and the Balinese sociocultural environment. The interviews were based on organizational factors while the cultural analyses relied on the field research.

According to Genzuk (2003), in field research, the extent of participation in the project and community can vary greatly from immersion as a full participant



to a spectator role. In the role as a spectator, field research included site visits to the Caritas plant in Denpasar and to hotels situated in southern Bali. In order to analyze the intercultural communication and to familiarize with the sustainable project, the researchers accompanied Caritas on hotel visits. Moreover, the researchers intended to immerse themselves in Balinese culture and festivals during the six weeks allocated to field work to better understand the value and cultural specificities.

To understand better the factors behind the reluctance of participation in the recycling project, only upscale, chain-affiliated hotels that had already been contacted by Caritas and were unwilling to join the project, were included in the interview sample. These hotels were chosen for their category, their internationality or their affiliation with a hotel chain, because businesses with these characteristics have a positive approach towards sustainable initiatives (Àlvarez Gil, Jiménez & Céspedes, 2001; Claver-Cortés, Molina-Azorin, Pereira-Moliner & López-Gamero, 2007; Poudyal et al., 2012).

Fifteen semi-structured interviews with nineteen representatives were conducted. Fourteen of them were face-to-face interviews and one was carried out by email due to time constraints. Thirteen interviews were conducted with hotel management staff and two with Caritas representatives. The field research in Bali included site visits to the recycling plant in Denpasar and hotel visits with Caritas to familiarize themselves with the project.

The audio recordings helped identify quotes used in the thematic analysis. Summaries about the themes discussed in the interviews were created and the quotations coded (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Further codes from the observed data were integrated in the analysis. These codes were then clustered into themes starting with basic subjects moving towards more specific ones (Attride-Stirling, 2001).

Sociocultural Barriers to Sustainability

A major challenge for Caritas and the researchers was to communicate with the hotel representatives. It became evident that communication behaviors in Indonesia differ greatly from those in Western countries. The hotel representatives often gave ambiguous answers to Caritas and to the researchers in order to avoid conflicts (Irawanto, 2009; The Hofstede Center, n.d.). For example, they never refused to participate in the project by answering “no”, to avoid upsetting anyone (Lee, 2007; Ruppert, 2004).

Another difficulty that was encountered was that the contact person for the targeted hotels kept changing. The researchers were redirected from one employee to another several times, which is a typical illustration of an Indonesian cultural characteristic. In general, Indonesians do not like to take decisions or initiatives (Martin & Thomas, 2002). None of the managers felt responsible for the project since



sustainability was not mentioned in the job description. Responsibility-shrinking is probably more pronounced because of the hierarchical structure and the society’s centralized system in terms of decision-making. Moreover, the hotel representatives did not discuss the project internally with management. This communication gap implied that many decision-makers in the hotel did not know about the project.

We send emails to all the people that we talked to, but they still don’t seem to know about the project (personal communication, March 26, 2013).

The ability of a company to implement changes is essential for organizational decision-making. For the hotels in Bali, implementing internal changes is a challenge as traditionally, employees hold a position for a long period of time. They are generally loyal to the hotel. In turn, the hotel management tends to support its staff and therefore, does not participate in any sustainable project. In collectivist societies, the interests of employees are protected and hotel management prefers not to upset staff with changes (Irawanto, 2009). This creates a permanent conflict with expatriate hotel managers as they cannot carry out projects, for example, oil recycling, due to their unfamiliarity with local sociocultural dynamics.

Henriques and Sadorski (1999) and Thomas-Hope (1998) agreed that stakeholder pressure can bring about changes in sustainability management. Yet, the Indonesians want harmony and are not aware of urgency (Foss, 2009; Lange, 2010). The interviews revealed that although pressure from associations, hotel management and the government is lacking, there is support to implement sustainable measures. The only influential pressure in the Indonesian society comes from social networks (Ruppert, 2004).

Even though the hotels are located in urban areas, the community in Bali is highly significant so that many traditional relationships have survived the external influences of urbanization and mass tourism (Lietaer & DeMeulenaere, 2003). Consequently, many Balinese work within family and community circles. In order to support them, business deals between hotel staff and waste collectors are often made within that circle. For example, in 8 of the 13 hotels interviewed, the used cooking oil was sold to the surrounding community through personal contacts by the kitchen team. This illustrates how sustainable perspectives are neglected by short-term socioeconomic decisions made by specific groups.

In addition, these business deals have an impact on the suka duka of the hotels, which is another characteristic of this collectivist society. Suka duka is a specific concept which may only exist in Bali. It refers to a group-organization historically set up in the villages of Bali, which is now used by hotel employees for internal matters. Some refer to it as an employee welfare organization (Nurhayati, 2012). Generally, in hotels, suka duka appears in the food and beverage and housekeeping departments



due to the high number of staff especially locals (personal communication, March 20, 2013).

Each month, a representative collects money from each member staff. This money, together with the money of the sale of the used cooking oil, plastic bottles and others is collected in a fund and shared for suka duka which means “good and bad times”. Mostly it is used for duka or “sadness”, whereby staff members receive money if a family member passes away, has an accident or needs help (personal communication, March 18, 2013). For suka or “happiness”, the fund is used if somebody gets married, for hindu religious ceremonies or when the suka duka community undertakes trips and organizes activities (personal communication, March 20, 2013).

Thus, the kitchen staff manages the used cooking oil and sells it to preferred collectors from their communities. This exchange has a dual effect in the community. The oil contributes directly to job creation and generates economic benefits for the larger community. On one hand, the oil will be reused by warungs, food street vendors and on the other hand, the suka duka community receives the income from selling the oil and adds it to the food and beverage suka duka fund. The hotel management avoids interfering with this traditional suka duka system of personal contacts and social structure for the purposes of harmony and resistance to change.

We contacted ICA, the Culinary Association where all chef cooks of the hotels are members. They take care most of the time the used cooking oil. We tried to be in the monthly meetings to give out brochures and just to talk to the cooks. But they don’t allow us as they say it is for fun and it is a gathering. It is just like a drinking together and you cannot go there to do an official presentation or to give out brochures. We talked several times with the chairman, secretary, treasury but they said no (personal communication, March 26, 2013).

Hence, due to its strong involvement and societal power, the suka duka community should be considered as a primary stakeholder if management wishes to carry out innovative projects, such as oil recycling. In this way, the community connections and collectivism provide great opportunities to external stakeholders who wish to implement projects in close collaboration with the community. Therefore, sustainable projects should involve the local community in decision-making.

Another highly significant feature is bapakism, which means “paternalism”. Bapakism is used in Indonesia to describe the complex social relationship and concentration of authority. Bapak is a leader and his people are called anak buah, which means “children”. They are like an extension of the family. The bapak is expected to meet material, spiritual and emotional needs and represents not only wealth, information and wisdom, but also respect, affection and solicitude. In return, the anak buah needs to support the bapak by participating in family ceremonies



and political parties, and by paying deference to him. Traditional authority and patronage in Indonesia are called bapak-anak buah relationships and are significant to Indonesia’s social and political life. These relationships show dependence and drive social actions; they also explain the separation of the internal feelings (Jackson & Pye, 1978).

Belonging to a community is an intense experience in Bali, as there are powerful structures - the banjar - which refers to the civil community. In fact, communities in Bali not only unify various groups and families but also safeguard their cultural heritage when required (Lietaer & DeMeulenaere, 2003). Even though several generations of families have lived in urban Bali, the traditional banjar still plays an important role in their life. This community involvement is embedded in the cultural heritage of the island and supported by the Hindu religion (Lietaer & DeMeulenaere, 2003).

As an illustration, the banjar is held together through a dual currency system. One currency is the Rupiah, the national currency, and the other one is nayahan banjar meaning “work for the common good of the banjar” (Lietaer & DeMeulenaere, 2003). This system demonstrates that time devoted to the banjar is as important as the currency. Due to this consistent system and structure, the Balinese have the ability to both borrow suitable foreign values and maintain their own identity (Picard, 1990).

In Indonesia, people see the present moment as being the most important. The past plays a minor role in their concept of time and the future is also secondary (Ruppert, 2004). Time is not money in Bali (Foss, 2009). One of the reasons for this is the religious understanding of reality. Balinese think that the world is too complex for humans to understand. If the reality cannot be ascertained, there is certainly no point in planning or theorizing (Martin & Thomas, 2002). Therefore, there is little business planning, there is significant interest in short-term gains and the focus is on achieving quick results (The Hofstede Center, n.d.). Thus, the direct benefit of negotiations has to be apparent (Ruppert, 2004). In the project, the financial benefit of oil recycling was not clear enough for hotels to recognize it.

In Bali, the common approach to life is relaxed and flexible as the main objective is to maintain harmony (Foss, 2009). The Balinese mentality is referred to as kira kira, which means “approximately” and is generally applied to all situations (Lee, 2007). Balinese do not rush in negotiations; the lack of urgency implies that punctuality, efficiency, and deadlines are not important (Lange, 2010). They are not familiar with terms like hurry, egoism, envy or eagerness and are usually humble and satisfied with their lives, probably because of their abundant natural resources and their belief in destiny (Lee, 2007). Similarly, time is considered a limitless pool and is often referred to as “rubber time”, which illustrates its flexibility. Balinese are relaxed and do not



like to hurry or deal with matters urgently. So foreigners should avoid pressuring the Balinese (Lange, 2010; Lewis, 2006; Ruppert, 2004).

International hotel chains established themselves in Bali as a consequence of globalization. Foreign-born expatriate managers often lack the understanding and social connections that regulate social networks such as suka duka, bapakism, banjar and kira kira. Since the traditional authority has been shifted to foreign leadership in many of these luxury hotels, the question of trust and dependency among different stakeholders brings up many challenges. It is particularly important in today’s fast-changing business environment where changes and innovations, such as sustainable initiatives, are expected to be implemented swiftly.

Concluding Remarks and Recommendations

This research paper presented the difficulties arising in the implementation of an innovative project in Bali, Indonesia. Caritas demonstrated its ability in initiating a sustainable project of recycling used cooking oil in the Balinese hotel industry. However, various organizational and sociocultural factors that influence the decision-making of hotels prevent most of these hotels from having a forward-thinking involvement in the project. The different sociocultural characteristics of the Balinese society discussed in the paper explain that collectivism and group thinking are the major issues which interfere with proposed sustainable initiatives, such as recycling of used cooking oils in upscale hotels. The Balinese communities, including the banjar neighborhood, the suka duka group, and the close relationship between hotel staff and waste collectors are social structures which, together with the kira kira mentality, affect the decision-making of Balinese people. As a result, it is not the hotel managers who decide how the used cooking oil is used, but the suka duka group as they are more connected and powerful.

In order to raise awareness about the project, it is advisable to make direct contact with the food and beverage suka duka teams. With increased awareness, the communities may embrace the values of sustainability while maintaining their cultural identity (Lietaer & DeMeulenaere, 2003; Picard, 1990). Another recommendation to overcome the barrier of relationships between hotel staff and waste collectors is to work more closely with communities in Bali. To implement a development project, it is necessary to gain the support of the community as this is the best way to influence its members to take part (Irawanto, 2009; Martin & Thomas, 2002). This approach is difficult as there are many communities and banjars in Bali. It may require more resources and skills from stakeholders, but it would increase the awareness and ensure the implementation of the project.

Sustainability is becoming an integral part of today’s business models. The hospitality industry is no exception; therefore, sustainable initiatives, projects and



innovations need to be accepted by all the relevant stakeholders of a company. This is probably easier to achieve in environments that are culturally-homogenous compared to heterogenous sociocultural environments. This is the case in luxury hotels at exotic destinations where the communication gap between locals and expatriate managers is significant. One solution could be bringing in experts such as anthropologists, sociologists or communication experts with unique skills and a thorough understanding of local dynamics into the projects. By doing so, expatriate managers could understand and incorporate local sociocultural specificities in their business models that could facilitate not only innovative project management but the hotel’s daily operations too.

Limitations and Directions for Future Research

This study looked into a concrete sustainable initiative which operates in a unique social, economic and environmental context from the cultural relativist perspective. The findings may therefore not be entirely applicable to other projects or locations. One potentially tenuous aspect of the research is the sample size, 15 semi-structured interviews were conducted with 19 hotel representatives during the 6 weeks of field work, and limited to upscale hotels. Therefore, the authors are unable to draw general conclusions from the actual results. Yet, the knowledge gained from this exploratory research is applicable to intercultural projects in Bali as the circumstances are similar to those of this project. They may additionally be used as a comparison for enterprises in other locations and cultures. Throughout the analyses, the banjars and the suka duka communities appeared to be the primary stakeholders in any development project.

To conclude, suka duka, kira kira, banjar and bapakism are specific sociocultural characteristics of the Balinese and, to a certain extent, the Indonesian society. A deeper awareness of these characteristics could create better intercultural communication among stakeholders in this initiative. Consequently, this would improve managerial practices and contribute to a more successful implementation of future business and sustainability projects in Bali.

Open Access: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC-BY 4.0) which permits any use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and the source are credited.

References

Álvarez Gil, M. J., Jiménez, J. B., & Céspedes Lorente, J. J. (2001). An analysis of environmental management, organizational context and performance of Spanish hotels. Omega - The International Journal of Management Science, 29(6), 457–471. Retrieved from the ABI/INFORM Global database.



Attride-Stirling, J. (2001). Thematic networks: An analytic tool for qualitative research. Qualitative Research, 1(3), 385–405. Retrieved from the Sage Publications database.

Billig, M. (1995). Banal nationalism. London: Sage Publications.Bonilla-Priego, M. J., Najera, J. J., & Font, X. (2011). Environmental management decision-

making in certified hotels. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 19(3), 361–381. Retrieved from the ABI/INFORM Global database.

BPS Provinsi Bali. (2012). Bali in figures 2012. Denpasar: BPS Provinsi Bali. Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research

in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. Retrieved from the Taylor & Francis Online database.Caritas Switzerland. (2011, February). Recycling used cooking oil and transforming it into

biodiesel: Combating climate change and poverty on Bali, Indonesia. Denpasar, Bali: Caritas Switzerland.

Chhokar, J. S., Brodbeck, F. C., & House, R. J. (2007). Culture and leadership across the world the GLOBE book of in-depth studies of 25 societies. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Christensen, P. (2012). The problem of used cooking oil disposal. Caritas Switzerland turns Bali’s used cooking oil into biodiesel. Bali Advertiser - Advertising for the Expatriate Community. Retrieved from http://www.baliadvertiser.biz/articles/feature/2012/cooking_oil.html

Claver-Cortés, E., Molina-Azorín, J. F., Pereira-Moliner, J., & López-Gamero, M. D. (2007). Environmental strategies and their impact on hotel performance. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 15(6), 663–679. Retrieved from the ABI/INFORM Global database.

Connerley, M. L., & Pedersen, P. (2005). Leadership in a diverse and multicultural environment: developing awareness, knowledge, and skills. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications.

Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.) (2000). Sage handbook of qualitative research (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications.

Dickson, M. W., Hanges, P. J., & Lord, R. G. (2001). Trends, developments and gaps in cross-cultural research on leadership. Advances in Global Leadership, 2, 75–100.

Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development. (2007). Multi-stakeholder management: Tools for stakeholder analysis: 10 building blocks for designing participatory systems of cooperation. Eschborn: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit.

First biodiesel plant in Bali, Indonesia, undergoes commissioning. (2013, January). Biodiesel Magazine. Retrieved from http://www.biodieselmagazine.com/articles/8924/first-biodiesel-plant-in-bali- indonesia-undergoes-commissioning

Foss, A. (2009). Communicaid. Retrieved from http://www.communicaid.com/cross-cultural-training/culture-for-business-and-management/doing-business-in/Doing-business-in-Indonesia.php

Freeman, R. E. (1984). Strategic management: A stakeholder approach. Boston: Pitman.Flyvbjerg, B. (2001). Making social science matter: Why social inquiry fails and how it can

succeed again. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Genzuk, M. (2003). A synthesis of ethnographic research. Los Angeles, US: Center for

Multilingual, Multicultural Research, Rossier School of Education, University of



Southern California.Henriques, I., & Sadorsky, P. (1999). The relationship between environmental commitment

and managerial perceptions of stakeholder importance. Academy of Management Journal, 42(1), 87–99. Retrieved from the ABI/INFORM Global database.

Hollinger, R. (1994). Postmodernism and the social sciences: A thematic approach. London: Sage Publications.

Irawanto, D. W. (2009). An analysis of national culture and leadership practices In Indonesia. Journal of Diversity Management, 4(2), 41–48. Retrieved from The Clute Institute database.

Jackson, K. D., & Pye, L. W. (1978). Political power and communications in Indonesia. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Johnson, P. (2001). Effects of groupthink on tactical decision-making. Kansas: Fort Leavenworth.Johnston, R.J., & Tyrrell, T.J. (2005). A dynamic model of sustainable tourism. Journal of

Travel Research, 44(124), 124–134.Joubish, M. F., Khurram, M. A., Ahmed, A., Fatima, S. T., & Haider, K. (2011). Paradigms

and characteristics of a good qualitative research. World Applied Sciences Journal, 12(11), 2082–2087.

Kirk, D. (1995). Environmental management in hotels. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 7(6), 3–8. Retrieved from the ABI/INFORM Global database.

Lange, J. S. (2010). Human resource management in Indonesia: Important issues to know before establishing a subsidiary in Indonesia. Hamburg: Diplomica Verlag.

Lee, S. (2007). Interkulturelles Asienmanagement Indonesien, Malaysia, Singapur. Renningen: Expert-Verlag.

Lewis, R. D. (2006). When cultures collide leading across cultures: A major new edition of the global guide (3rd ed.). Boston: Nicholas Brealey International.

Lietaer, B., & DeMeulenaere, S. (2003). Sustaining cultural vitality in a globalizing world: The Balinese example. International Journal of Social Economics, 30(9), 967–984. Retrieved from the Emerald database.

Martin, M., & Thomas, A. (2002). Beruflich in Indonesien: Trainingsprogramm für Manager, Fach- und Führungskräfte. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.

Nurhayati, D. (2012, August). High hopes for cooking oil recycling project. The Jakarta Post. Retrieved from http://www.thejakartapost.com/bali-daily/2012-08-01/high-hopes-cooking-oil- recycling-project.html

Oxford Dictionaries’ Online Dictionary. Retrieved January 3, 2015, from http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/cultural-relativism

Picard, M. (1990). Cultural tourism in Bali: Cultural performances as tourist attraction. Indonesia, 49, 37–74.

Piller, I. (2011). Intercultural communication: A critical introduction. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

Poudyal, N. C., Siry, J. P., & Bowker, J. M. (2012). Stakeholders’ engagement in promoting sustainable development: Businesses and urban forest carbon. Business strategy and the environment, 21(3), 157–169. Retrieved from the Wiley InterScience database.



Robertson-Snape, F. (1999). The new politics of corruption. Third World Quarterly, 20(3), 589–602.

Ruppert, C. (2004, 12). Eidam und Partner. Retrieved from Eidam und Partner: http://www.krefeld.ihk.de/media/upload/ihk/imap/20090421/indonesien_beruflich_in_04.pdf

Sertori, T. (2011, December 5). Solving Bali’s cooking oil crisis. The Jakarta Post, p. 21. Shi-xu. (2012). Why do cultural discourse studies? Towards a culturally conscious and critical

approach to human discourses. Critical Arts: South-North Cultural and Media Studies, 26(4), 484–503.

Smart, B. (2003). Economy, culture and society: A sociological critique of neo-liberalism. Buckingham and Philadelphia: Open University Press.

Sofield, T. H. (2000). Rethinking and reconceptualizing social and cultural issues in Southeast and South Asian tourism development. In M. C. Hall, & S. Page (Eds.), Tourism in South and Southeast Asia (pp. 45–57). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Song, H., Liu, J., & Chen, G. (2012). Tourism value chain governance: Review and prospects. Journal of Travel Research: A Quarterly Publication of the Travel and Tourism Research Association, 52(1), 15–28.

Tang, J. (2004). A case study of a hotel solid waste management program in Bali, Indonesia. Waterloo: University of Waterloo.



Appendix 1

Explications of Bahasa concepts

Bapakism The word Bapak means father in the Indonesian language. Bapakism describes complex social relationships and the concentration of authority. In the Indonesian business environment, a person who achieves a position of authority and becomes a decision maker, he is recognized as being a Bapak. A Bapak expects deference and obedience from subordinates. While he has the responsibility to look after and care for them, he also expects their loyalty and respect.

Banjar Banjar means neighborhood and is a social governance structure in village communities. The banjar has a council that meets twice a month and determines religious events, collects money for ceremonies, allocates temple maintenance, oversees land sales, etc.

Kira kira An Indonesian mentality which means “approximately” and is exercised in all life situations.

Suka duka Suka means happiness and Duka means sadness. Suka duka is a group-organization set up in the villages and hotels in Bali. Each month, a representative collects money from each member. This money is gathered in a fund and shared for good and bad times, such as deaths, accidents, weddings, ceremonies, community activities.

Warung Small food stalls in local markets.



Appendix 2

Topics Name of IntervieweePosition of Interviewee

Interviewee Chain NameNr of hotels in chain

Chain Nr of staff in hotelNr of roomsStar categoryLocation

Hotel Have you heard about Caritas before?Do you know about Caritas’ cooking oil project?

Caritas When were you informed about the project?Until now, how many times did you communicate with Caritas?Are you willing to participate in the Recycling Used Cooking Oil Project?Why yes/no? - Please explain your answer!

Project Is there a person/group responsible for sustainability in the hotel?Who is he/she?Was/were the responsible person(s) replaced since the first time Caritas contacted you?Who is/are the person(s) responsible for taking the final decision about the hotel’s participation in the project?Have you discussed the project with the concerned departments?Is/are there internal disagreement(s) concerning participation in the project? Please explain?

Responsibility&Decision-making

What do you consider more important to the hotel?- Public image - with tourists- Financial competitivess- Compliance with regulations and standards- Environmental responsibility- Shareholder relationshipsOthers

Oilcollector

Do you already have an appropriate oil collector?Where does the oil get recycled and how is it used by the collector?Do you plan to monitor the company to ensure ethical use of the oil in the future?



Corporateculture

Have you already implemented sustainable practices in the hotel/chain?What are those practices and why did you decide to implement them?Is sustainability mentioned in the hotel’s mission, vision and values?

Financialattitude

Please explain the benefits of participating in the Caritas project.Please explain the costs of participating in the Centers project.Who benefits from the money you receive from selling the used cooking oil?What do they use the money for?Did you talk to them about the Caritas project?Would you favor a sustainable oil collector if Caritas compensated you financially?

Legitimization & Stakeholders

Please name all major stakeholders of the hotel.From whom did you hear about the project? Government - Associations - Caritas - OtherDo you feel pressured by them concerning the Caritas Project?Would a participation in the Caritas project reduce possible liability risks?Are the customers of your hotel concerned about sustainability?Do you think the oil recycling issue is urgent and should be more regulated in Bali?Do you think more environmentally-friendly visibility at the hotel would give you a competitive advantage?Do you think participation in the Caritas project would improve the overall image of the hotel?What could be improved to encourage hotels to participate in the Caritas project?

sociocultural hurdles of sustainable hospitality management · sociocultural hurdles of sustainable...

Documents