SOCIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION

A LOGICAL SYSTEM THAT A LOGICAL SYSTEM THAT DERIVES KNOWLEDGEDERIVES KNOWLEDGE

FROM DIRECT, FROM DIRECT, SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATIONSYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION

Macionis, Sociology Macionis, Sociology Chapter TwoChapter Two

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Overall Goals of Chapter TwoOverall Goals of Chapter Two

Gain a working knowledge of what scientific sociology means to society

Understand the process of the sociological investigation

Ability to discuss methodical approaches to methodical approaches to social researchsocial research

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Forms of TruthForms of Truth Belief or faith: focus on ultimate Belief or faith: focus on ultimate

causescauses Expert testimonyExpert testimony Simple agreementSimple agreement ScienceScience

Logical system that bases knowledge on Logical system that bases knowledge on direct systematic observationdirect systematic observation

Proximate causes of eventsProximate causes of events Empirical evidence: information we can Empirical evidence: information we can

verify with our sensesverify with our senses

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Common Sense Versus Scientific EvidenceCommon Sense Versus Scientific Evidence

““Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.”law.”

““The United States is a middle-class society in which most The United States is a middle-class society in which most people are more or less equal.”people are more or less equal.”

““Differences in the behavior of females and males are just Differences in the behavior of females and males are just ‘human nature.’ ”‘human nature.’ ”

““People change as they grow old, losing many interests as they People change as they grow old, losing many interests as they focus on their health.”focus on their health.”

““Most people marry because they are in love.”Most people marry because they are in love.”

Which statements are true?Which statements are true?

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Three Frameworks forThree Frameworks forSociological InvestigationSociological Investigation

Scientific sociologyScientific sociology The study of society based on systematic The study of society based on systematic

observation of social behaviorobservation of social behavior Empirical evidence: we can verify it with our sensesEmpirical evidence: we can verify it with our senses Concepts, variables, and measurementConcepts, variables, and measurement

Interpretive sociologyInterpretive sociology The study of society that focuses on the meanings The study of society that focuses on the meanings

people attach to their social worldpeople attach to their social world

Critical sociologyCritical sociology The study of society focusing on the need for The study of society focusing on the need for

changechange

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Correlation Does Not Mean CausationCorrelation Does Not Mean Causation

Cause and effectCause and effect A relationship in which change in one variable causes A relationship in which change in one variable causes

change in anotherchange in another Types of variables Types of variables (what we measure)(what we measure)

IndependentIndependent: the variable that causes the change : the variable that causes the change DependentDependent: the variable that changes (it’s value : the variable that changes (it’s value

dependsdepends upon the independent variable) upon the independent variable) CorrelationCorrelation

A relationship by which two or more variables change A relationship by which two or more variables change togethertogether

Spurious correlationSpurious correlation An apparent, though false, relationship between two or An apparent, though false, relationship between two or

more variables caused by some other variablemore variables caused by some other variable

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Scientific Sociology TerminologyScientific Sociology Terminology ConceptsConcepts

A mental construct that represent some part of the A mental construct that represent some part of the world in a simplified formworld in a simplified form

VariablesVariables Concepts whose values change from case to caseConcepts whose values change from case to case

MeasurementMeasurement A procedure for determining the value of a variable A procedure for determining the value of a variable

in a specific casein a specific case Operationalizing a variableOperationalizing a variable

Specifying exactly what is to be measured before Specifying exactly what is to be measured before assigning a value to a variableassigning a value to a variable

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Scientific Sociology TerminologyScientific Sociology Terminology

ReliabilityReliability – consistency in measurement – consistency in measurement Does an instrument provide for a consistent Does an instrument provide for a consistent

measure of the subject matter?measure of the subject matter?

Can we depend on it.Can we depend on it.

ValidityValidity – precision in measuring exactly – precision in measuring exactly what one intends to measurewhat one intends to measure Does an instrument actually measure what it Does an instrument actually measure what it

sets out to measure?sets out to measure?

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Sociological Research MethodsSociological Research Methodsa Systematic Plan for Conducting Researcha Systematic Plan for Conducting Research

Experiment – a research method for Experiment – a research method for investigating cause and effect under highly investigating cause and effect under highly controlled conditionscontrolled conditions

Hypothesis – an unverified statement of a Hypothesis – an unverified statement of a relationship between variables (an educated relationship between variables (an educated guess)guess)

Placebo – a treatment that seems to be the Placebo – a treatment that seems to be the same but has no effect on the experimentsame but has no effect on the experiment

Hawthorne effect – a change in a subject's Hawthorne effect – a change in a subject's behavior caused by the awareness of being behavior caused by the awareness of being studiedstudied

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Survey ResearchSurvey ResearchA Research Method in Which Subjects Respond to a Series of A Research Method in Which Subjects Respond to a Series of

Statements or Questions in a Questionnaire or InterviewStatements or Questions in a Questionnaire or Interview

PopulationPopulation The people who are the focus of the researchThe people who are the focus of the research

SampleSample The part of the population that represents the The part of the population that represents the

wholewhole Random SampleRandom Sample

Drawing a sample from a population so that Drawing a sample from a population so that every element of the population has an equal every element of the population has an equal chance of being selectedchance of being selected

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Other Research MethodsOther Research Methods InterviewsInterviews

A series of questions a researcher administers A series of questions a researcher administers in person to respondentsin person to respondents

Participant observationParticipant observation A research method in which investigators A research method in which investigators

systematically observe people while joining in systematically observe people while joining in their routine activitiestheir routine activities

Secondary analysisSecondary analysis A research method in which a researcher uses A research method in which a researcher uses

data collected by othersdata collected by others

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Interplay Between Theory & Method Inductive logicInductive logic

Reasoning that transforms specific Reasoning that transforms specific observations into general theoryobservations into general theory

Induction “increases” from specific to generalInduction “increases” from specific to general

Deductive logicDeductive logic Reasoning that transforms general theory into Reasoning that transforms general theory into

specific hypotheses suitable for testingspecific hypotheses suitable for testing Deduction “decreases” from general to Deduction “decreases” from general to

specificspecific

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Figure 2-2 Figure 2-2 Deductive and Inductive Logical ThoughtDeductive and Inductive Logical Thought

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10 Steps In 10 Steps In Sociological InvestigationSociological Investigation

1.1. Select and define topicSelect and define topic2.2. Review the literatureReview the literature3.3. Develop key questions to askDevelop key questions to ask4.4. Assess requirements for study Assess requirements for study 5.5. Consider ethical issuesConsider ethical issues6.6. Select a research methodologySelect a research methodology7.7. Collect the dataCollect the data8.8. Interpret the findingsInterpret the findings9.9. State conclusionsState conclusions10.10. Publish the findingsPublish the findings

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How People Lie With StatisticsHow People Lie With Statistics

People select their dataPeople select their data Data may not be the whole truthData may not be the whole truth

People interpret their dataPeople interpret their data As if numbers can only mean one thingAs if numbers can only mean one thing

People use graphs to “spin” the truthPeople use graphs to “spin” the truth Manipulating timeframes on graphsManipulating timeframes on graphs Using scale to inflate or deflate a trendUsing scale to inflate or deflate a trend

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For Next WeekFor Next Week

Read Chapters 3, 4, 5Read Chapters 3, 4, 5 Complete Essay Questions for PP C & Complete Essay Questions for PP C &

DD

"The uncreative mind can spot the wrong answer, but it takes a creative mind to spot the wrong question." - Anthony Jayy