solar energy conversion and photoenergy systems: thermal systems and desalination … ·...
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SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) i
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY
SYSTEMS Thermal Systems and Desalination Plants
Solar Energy Conversion and Photoenergy Systems Thermal
Systems and Desalination Plants - Volume 1
No of Pages 477
ISBN 978-1-84826-375-8 (eBook)
ISBN 978-1-84826-825-8 (Print Volume)
Solar Energy Conversion and Photoenergy Systems Thermal
Systems and Desalination Plants - Volume 2
No of Pages 423
ISBN 978-1-84826-376-5 (eBook)
ISBN 978-1-84826-826-5 (Print Volume)
Solar Energy Conversion and Photoenergy Systems Thermal
Systems and Desalination Plants - Volume 3
No of Pages 503
ISBN 978-1-84826-377-2 (eBook)
ISBN 978-1-84826-827-2 (Print Volume)
Solar Energy Conversion and Photoenergy Systems Thermal
Systems and Desalination Plants - Volume 4
No of Pages 451
ISBN 978-1-84826-378-9 (eBook)
ISBN 978-1-84826-828-9 (Print Volume)
Solar Energy Conversion and Photoenergy Systems Thermal
Systems and Desalination Plants -Volume 5
No of Pages 467
ISBN 978-1-84826-379-6 (eBook)
ISBN 978-1-84826-829-6 (Print Volume)
Solar Energy Conversion and Photoenergy Systems Thermal
Systems and Desalination Plants - Volume 6
No of Pages 443
ISBN 978-1-84826-416-8 (eBook)
ISBN 978-1-84826-866-1 (Print Volume)
For more information of e-book and Print Volume(s) order please click here or contact
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SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) ii
VOLUME I
Solar Energy and Photochemical Energy Systems 1
Juliaacuten Blanco Gaacutelvez and Sixto Malato Rodriacuteguez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain
1 Introduction
2 Problems for Sustainability in the 21st Century
21 The Water Problem
22 The Energy Problem
23 The Global Warming Problem
3 Basic Solar Energy Data
31 The Potential of Solar and Renewable Energies
32 From the Sun to the Earth The 500-Second Trip
33 Brief History of Solar Energy
4 Solar Technologies
41 Generalities
42 Photovoltaic Technology
43 LowMedium Temperature Solar Collectors
44 Concentrating Solar Power (CSP)
45 High concentration of solar energy
5 Solar Energy Applications
51 Power Production
52 Industrial Process Heat
53 Solar Fuels
54 Solar Energy Application to Water Processes
55 Metallurgical and Advanced Materials Applications
56 Solar Energy Integration in Buildings
57 Other Applications of Solar Energy
6 Conclusions
Renewable Energy Sources 44
Antonia V Herzog Timothy E Lipman and Daniel M Kammen Energy and Resources Group
Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory (RAEL) University of California Berkeley USA
1 Introduction
2 Biomass Energy
21 Introduction
22 The Future Role of Biomass
23 Biomass Energy Conversion Technologies and Applications
231 Combustion
232 Gasification
233 Anaerobic Digestion
234 Liquid Biofuels
24 Implementation of Biomass Energy Systems
241 Biomass Resources
242 Environmental Impacts and Benefits
243 Economic and Production Issues
25 Conclusions
3 Wind Energy
31 Introduction
32 Economics of Wind Energy
33 Potential for Wind Energy Technical Resource and Environmental Issues
34 Selected Country Profiles and Government Incentives to Promote Wind Energy
341 United States
342 Germany
343 Denmark
344 Spain
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) iii
345 Great Britain
346 Developing Countries
35 Conclusions
4 Solar Photovoltaic and Solar Thermal Technologies
41 Solar Photovoltaics
42 Solar Thermal Systems
5 Hydropower
51 Introduction
52 Capacity and Potential
53 Small Hydro
54 Environmental and Social Impacts
55 Conclusions
6 Geothermal Energy
61 Introduction
62 Capacity and Potential
63 Environmental Impacts
64 Conclusions
7 Renewable Energy System Cost and Performance
71 Recent Progress in Renewable Energy System Costs and Performance
72 Lessons Learned in Developing Countries
73 Leveling the Playing Field
731 Public and Private Sector Investment Issues
8 Conclusions
Solar Radiation Energy (Fundamentals) 100
L Wald Centre for Energy and Processes Ecole des Mines de Paris France
1 Introduction
2 Energy Emitted by the Sun
3 Sun-Earth Geometry - Time
31 Sun-Earth Astronomy
32 Sun-Earth Distance
33 Solar Declination
34 Geocentric and Geographic Coordinates
35 Legal Time and Solar Time
4 Sun Geometry Perceived by an Observer ndash Radiation at the Top of the Atmosphere
41 Sun Geometry Perceived by an Observer
42 Sunrise Sunset and Daylength
43 Incidence on Slopes - Radiation at the Top of the Atmosphere
5 Concepts of Scattering and Absorption - Terrestrial Radiation
6 Radiative Transfer in the Atmosphere ndash Spectral Distribution of the Radiation
7 Radiative Components at Ground Level
8 Conclusion
Photovoltaics 135
A Luque and I Tobiacuteas Universidad Politeacutecnica de Madrid (UPM) Spain
1 Introduction
2 What We See Today
3 History
4 Photovoltaic Generation
41 The Photovoltaic Effect
42 Solar Cells and Modules
5 The Solar Resource
51 Solar Radiation
52 The Potential of Photovoltaics
53 Radiation Data Sources
54 Radiation on Arbitrarily-tilted Surfaces
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) iv
55 Shading Losses
6 Photovoltaic Applications
7 Technology
71 Silicon Solar Cells
72 Thin Film Solar Cells
73 Concentrators
8 The Future of PV
81 Prospective
82 A New Generation of PV
9 Conclusion
Low Temperature Solar Collectors 172
Soteris A Kalogirou Higher Technical Institute Nicosia Cyprus
1 Introduction
11 Energy Related Environmental Problems
12 Renewable Energy Systems
2 Low Temperature Solar Collectors
21 Flat Plate Collectors (FPC)
211 Glazing Materials
212 Collector Absorbing Plates
213 Flat Plate Collector Configurations
22 Compound Parabolic Collectors (CPC)
23 Evacuated Tube Collectors (ETC)
3 Thermal Analysis of Collectors
4 Performance of Solar Collectors
41 Collector Thermal Efficiency
42 Collector Incidence Angle Modifier
43 Collector Time Constant
44 Collector Quality Tests and Preliminary Collector Selection
45 Modeling of Solar Systems
451 The F-CHART Method
5 Solar Collector Applications
51 Solar Water Heating Systems
511 Thermosiphon Systems (Passive)
512 Integrated Collector Storage Systems (Passive)
513 Direct Circulation Systems (Active)
514 Indirect Water Heating Systems (Active)
515 Air Systems for Hot Water Production (Active)
52 Solar Space Heating and Cooling
521 Air Systems
522 Water Systems
523 Heat Pump Systems
53 Solar Cooling
531 Adsorption Units
532 Absorption Units
54 Industrial Process Heat
541 Solar Industrial Air and Water Systems
55 Solar Desalination Systems
56 Solar Drying
6 Conclusions
Medium Temperature Solar Concentrators (Parabolic-Troughs Collectors) 227
E Zarza Unit of Solar Concentrating Systems Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea Spain
1 Introduction
2 Parabolic-trough Collectors Working Principle and Components
3 Optical Thermal and Geometrical Losses in a Parabolic-trough Collector
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) v
4 Energy Flow and Thermal Energy Delivered by a Parabolic-trough Collector
5 Design of Solar Fields with Parabolic-trough Collectors
6 Different Ways to Couple a Parabolic-trough Solar Field with an Industrial Process
61 Unfired Steam Generator (OilWater Heat Exchanger)
62 Flash-steam Systems
63 Direct Steam Generation
7 The Direct Steam Generation Technology
8 Thermal Energy Storage Systems for Parabolic-trough Collectors
81 Single-medium Storage Systems
82 Dual-medium Storage Systems
9 Electricity Generation with Parabolic-trough Collectors
High Temperature Solar Concentrators 256
Robert Pitz-Paal Institute of Technical Thermodynamics German Aerospace Center (DLR) Germany
1 Introduction
2 Theoretical Background
21 Concentration of Radiation
22 Conversion of Radiation to Heat
23 Conversion of Heat to Electricity
3 Technical Concepts
31 Parabolic Dishes
32 Central Receiver Systems
33 Solar Furnaces
4 Conclusions
Solar Ponds 299
Aliakbar Akbarzadeh and John Andrews School of Aerospace Mechanical and Manufacturing
Engineering RMIT University Melbourne Australia
Peter Golding Department of Metallurgical amp Materials Engineering University of Texas at El Paso
500 W University Avenue El Paso USA
1 What is a Solar Pond
2 The Design and Performance of Solar Ponds
21 Design Principles
211 Designing for an Application
212 Making Use of Local Resources
213 Matching Thermal Output to End-Use Requirements
22 Site Characteristics
23 Thermal Output and Sizing
24 Site Preparation Excavation and Lining
25 Sources of Salt
26 Source of Water
27 Setting-Up and Maintaining the Salinity Profile
28 Pond Clarity
29 Heat Extraction
210 Monitoring Key Parameters
211 Calculating and Measuring Pond Performance
212 Costs and Economic Evaluation
213 Environmental Benefits and Sustainability
3 Experimental and Demonstration Solar Ponds
31 Introduction
32 Israeli Solar Ponds
33 RMIT University Solar Ponds
34 UTEP High-Performance Solar Pond
4 Applications of Solar Ponds
41 Heating
42 Aquaculture and Biotechnology
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) vi
43 Desalination
44 Electrical Power Production
45 Salinity Mitigation
46 Production of Chemicals
5 State of the Art and Future Directions
Solar Irradiation and TiO2 Render Materials Self-Cleaning 320
P Pichat Photocatalyse et Environnement CNRSEcole Centrale de Lyon (STMS) France
1 Introduction
2 Preparing Coating and Incorporating TiO2 Thickness of the TiO2-containing Layer
3 Increasing the Photocatalytic Efficacy Better Harvesting Sun Light
4 Hydrophilicity Induced by Solar Irradiation Contributes to the Self-cleaning Effect
5 Limitations to the Self-cleaning Effect
6 Measurements of the Self-cleaning Efficacy
61 Field Tests
62 Laboratory Tests
621 Tests Conditions
622 Deposited Compounds for the Tests
623 Methods for Measuring the Cleaning Efficacy
624 Measurement of the Hydrophilicity
7 Measurements of the Mechanical and Optical Properties of Self-cleaning Materials
8 Can Self-cleaning Materials Significantly Contribute to Outdoor Air Pollutants Removal
9 Do TiO2-containing Self-cleaning Materials Present a Potential Health Risk
10 Commercialization of Self-cleaning Materials and Coatings
Photosynthetic Microorganisms and Valuable Products 339
F G Acieacuten Fernaacutendez J M Fernaacutendez Sevilla and J A Saacutenchez Peacuterez Universidad de Almeriacutea Spain
1 Introduction
2 Factors Affecting Photosynthetic Microorganisms
21 Light and Photosynthesis Rate
22 Average Irradiance
23 Nutrients
24 Temperature
25 Energy Supply
3 Photobioreactors
31 Designs
311 Open Reactors
312 Closed Reactors
313 Comparative Analysis
32 Quality
33 Safety
4 Biomass and Product Recovery
5 Industrial Applications
51 Waste Treatment
511 Water Treatment
512 Flue Gases Treatment
52 Production of High-Value Products
521 Carotenoids
522 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
523 Phycobiliproteins
Elaboration and Testing Of Materials Using Concentrated Solar Energy 363
G Flamant and M Balat-Pichelin Processes Materials and Solar Energy Laboratory (PROMES-CNRS)
7 rue du Four Solaire Font Romeu France
1 Brief history of the use of solar energy to transform matter
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) vii
2 Main characteristics of solar furnaces
3 Elaboration of materials using concentrated solar energy
31 Surface treatments
32 Melting and purification of bulk materials
33 Production of chemical commodities and ceramics
34 Elaboration of carbon molecules nanomaterials and thin films
4 Testing of materials using concentrated solar energy
41 Original devices at the focus of solar furnaces
42 Test of materials for aerospace applications
421 Atmopsheric re-entry (oxidation and catalycity)
422 Solar probe mission
43 Test of materials for future system of energy production
5 Conclusion
Index 389
About EOLSS 395
VOLUME II
Solar Distillation 1
Gopal Nath Tiwari and Hriday Narayan Singh Center of Energy Studies Indian Institute of Technology
India
1 Importance of Water
11 Water Sources
12 Water Demand
13 Drinking Water Quality
2 Water Pollution and its Effect
3 Principles of Solar Distillation A State of the Art
4 Classification of Solar Distillation Systems
41 Passive Solar Still
411 Conventional Solar Still
412 New Design Solar Still
42 Active Solar Distillation
421 Nocturnal Production
422 Pre-Heated Water Application
423 High Temperature Distillation
5 Heat and Mass Transfer in Solar Distillation
51 Background
52 Internal Heat Transfer
521 Convective and Evaporative Heat Transfer Coefficients
522 Radiative Heat Transfer Coefficient
523 Total Internal Heat Transfer coefficient
53 External Heat Transfer
531 Top Heat Loss Coefficient
532 Bottom and Sides Loss Coefficient
6 Performance of Solar Still
61 Thermal Modeling of Solar Still and Effect of Meteorological and other Parameters
62 Passive Solar Still
63 Active Solar Still
64 Economic Evaluation
641 Introduction
642 Economic Analysis
643 Preparation of Drinking Water
7 Conclusions and Recommendations
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) viii
Solar Photochemistry 67
Juliaacuten Blanco Gaacutelvez and Sixto Malato Rodriacuteguez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain
1 Solar Chemistry
2 Artificial Solar Photochemical Processes
3 Biological Photosynthetic Processes
4 Photochemical Synthetic Applications
41 Photooxygenation of Furfural
42 Synthesis of substituted Pyridines
43 Solar photo-production of Caprolactam
44 Photochemical synthesis of Thiohelicenes
45 Photocyclisation of substituted Benzylidenes to annulled Quinolines
46 Other solar driven photochemical processes
5 Solar Photocatalytic Processes to Water Contaminants Treatment
51 Heterogeneous titanium dioxide solar detoxification
52 Homogeneous solar photocatalytic processes
6 Gas Phase Photocatalytic Treatment Processes
7 Pilot Scale Solar Photochemical Facilities
8 Conclusions
Photochemical Conversion of Solar Energy 96
S Malato Rodriacuteguez and J Blanco Gaacutelvez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT SPAIN
1 Introduction
2 Photochemistry Principles
21 The Light
22 The Power of Light
3 The Solar Spectrum
31 Atmospheric Attenuation of Solar Radiation
32 Solar UV Photon Flux
4 Evaluation of Solar Photo Flux inside Photoreactors
41 Collector Efficiency
42 Actinometric Experiments
5 Simplified Methods for Comparing Experiments when working with Solar Radiation
51 Accumulated Energy
52 Secondary Actinometer
53 Standardized illumination time
Solar Photocatalysis and Water Treatment Detoxification and Disinfection 117
S Malato Rodriacuteguez and J Blanco Gaacutelvez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain
1 Introduction
2 Fundamental Parameters in Solar Photocatalysis
21 Direct Photolysis
22 Radiant Flux
23 Initial Concentration of Contaminant
3 Factors Affecting Solar Photocatalysis
31 Influence of Oxygen
32 Influence of Catalyst Concentration
33 Temperature Influence
34 pH Influence
4 Solar Photocatalytic Degradation of Contaminants
41 Improving Solar Photocatalysis Efficiency
42 Combining Solar Photocatalysis and Biotreatment
5 Solar Photocatalytic Disinfection of Water
51 Effect of Solar Radiation on Microorganisms
52 Microorganism Inactivation by Titanium Dioxide Photocatalysis
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) ix
Solar Photochemistry Technology 139
J Blanco Gaacutelvez and S Malato Rodriacuteguez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain
1 Introduction
2 Solar Collectors for Photochemical Processes
21 Parabolic Trough Collectors (PTCs)
22 One-Sun Collectors
23 Compound Parabolic Concentrators (CPCs)
24 Holographic Collectors
3 Peculiarities of Solar Tracking and Non-Tracking Systems
4 Technological Issues
41 Photochemical Reactor
42 Reflective Surfaces
43 Piping
44 Radiation Absorption
5 Gas-Phase Photochemical Technology
Solar Photochemistry Applications 163
J Blanco Gaacutelvez and S Malato Rodriacuteguez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain
1 Introduction
2 Solar Photocatalytic Treatment Plants
3 Cost Estimations
4 Water Phase Photocatalytic Applications
41 Phenols
42 Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
43 Pharmaceutical Compounds
44 Wood Preservative Waste
45 Agrochemical Wastes (Pesticides)
46 Seaport Tank Terminals
47 Removal of Hazardous Metal Ions
48 Cyanide degradation
49 Groundwater Decontamination
5 Water Disinfection
6 Gas-Phase Photocatalytic Applications
7 Contaminated Landfill Cleaning
Research and Environmental Issues in The 1990s 184
S Malato Rodriacuteguez and J Blanco Gaacutelvez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT SPAIN
1 Introduction
2 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of Chlorophenols
3 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of Pesticides
4 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of NBCS
5 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of Cyanide
6 Solar Photo-Fenton
61 Photo-Fenton Treatment of Pesticides
62 Photo-Fenton Treatment of Olive Mill Wastewater
7 Photoelectrochemical Reactors Development
Mathematical Models of Solar Energy Conversion Systems 205
Viorel Badescu Candida Oancea Institute Polytechnic University of Bucharest Romania
1 Introduction
2 Properties of Radiation Fluxes
21 Photons in Discrete Quantum States
22 Photons in Continuous Spectrum
23 Properties of Photon Fluxes
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) x
24 Spectral Property Radiances for Blackbodies and Band-gap Materials
3 Concentration of Solar Radiation
31 The Lagrangian of Beam Radiation
32 Upper Bounds on Solar Radiation Concentration
33 Geometrical Concentration Ratio for Several Mirrors
331 Spherical mirrors
332 Paraboloidal Mirrors
333 Cylinder Parabolic Mirrors
34 Perturbing Factors
4 Photothermal Conversion
41 Detailed Balance Models
411 The End-user Requires a Heat Flux
412 The End-user Requires Mechanical Power
42 Models Based on Spectrally Integrated Fluxes
421 The End-user Requires Heat The Flat Plate Solar Collector
422 The End-user Requires Work Solar Power Generation
423 Upper Bounds on Solar Energy Conversion Efficiency into Work
43 Discussion and Perspectives
5 Photovoltaic Conversion
51 Models Based on the Diode Equation
52 Models Based on Detailed Balance Equations
521 Radiation Received From the Environment Neglected
522 Radiation Received From the Environment Included
523 The Solar Cell Equation
53 Discussion and Perspectives
6 Photochemical Conversion
7 Conclusion
Multiple Effect Distillation of Seawater Using Solar Energy ndash The Case of Abu Dhabi Solar
Desalination Plant 256
Ali M El-Nashar International Center for Water amp Energy Systems Abu Dhabi United Arab Emirates
1 Introduction
2 History of Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant
3 Description of Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant
31 Plant Description
311 The solar heat collector subsystem
312 The heat accumulator subsystem
313 MED evaporator subsystem
32 Design Features
4 Measurements and Data Acquisition System
41 Measuring the heat collected in block F
5 Data Analysis
51 Calculating the solar radiation on absorber plate
52 Calculating the performance of the collector bank
53 Calculating the performance of the evaporator
531 Calculating the brine concentration at each effect
532 OHTC of heater (first effect)
533 Average OHTC of other evaporator effects
534 Average OHTC of preheaters
535 OHTC of condenser
536 Evaporator economy
6 Weather Condition in Abu Dhabi
7 Operating Characteristics
71 Heat collecting subsystem
711 Heat collector efficiency
712 Daily heat collection efficiency
72 Heat accumulator system
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xi
721 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
722 Thermal stratification ratio
73 Evaporating system
731 Evaporator performance
74 Performance of the plant
8 Plant Maintenance and Modifications
81 Heat collecting system
811 Cleaning the solar collector field
812 Corrosion of the collector air vent valves
813 Vacuum loss inside glass tubes
814 Scale prevention
815 Anti-corrosion chemical for use in the heat collecting water
816 Measures against power failure
82 Evaporating system
821 Evaporator pump maintenance
822 Inspection of the evaporator
823 Change in operating sequence
825 Modification of the method of feeding sealing water to the priming vacuum pump
824 Modification of the system for injecting anti-scale chemical
9 Simulation Program and its Validation
91 Simulation program
911 Outline
912 Flow chart of the SOLDES program
913 Program Input and output data
914 Mathematical Models
92 Comparison of simulation and actually measured Values
10 Evaluation of the Test Plant
101 Optimum operating conditions
102 Simulation results
103 Evaluation of the solar plant
11 Economic Considerations and Comparison with Conventional MED Plants
111 Basic economic parameters
112 Capital equipment cost
1121 Capital cost of MED evaporator
1122 Capital cost of solar thermal collectors
1123 Capital cost of heat accumulator
1124 Capital cost of steam generator for conventional MED systems
1125 Capital cost of diesel generator
113 Operation and maintenance expenses
1131 Consumable chemical expenses
1132 Electrical energy consumption
1133 Spare parts cost
1134 Personnel cost
114 Estimating the cost of water produced
12 Results of the Economic Study
13 Conclusion
131 System Reliability
132 Response to varying weather condition
133 Establishment of a method for cleaning of solar collectors
134 Comparison of the test plant results with that of the basic design
Index 335
About EOLSS 341
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xii
VOLUME III
Solar Irradiation Fundamentals 1
Zekacirci Sen Istanbul Technical University Maslak 34469 Istanbul Turkey
1 Introduction
2 The Sun
3 Atmospheric effects and Electro-magnetic Radiation (EMR) spectrum
4 Astronomic effects
5 Meteorological effects
51 Cloud Index
6 Topographic effects
7 Solar parameters
71 Solar geometry quantities
711 Earth eccentricity
712 Declination angle
713 Zenith angle
72 Solar time quantities
721 Solar time
722 Equation of time
723 Apparent solar time (AST)
73 Solar irradiation quantities
731 Solar constant
732 Irradiation path
8 Solar radiation modeling
81 Solar energy laws
82 Solar irradiation calculation
83 Estimation of clear sky radiation
84 Irradiation model
9 Astronomic calculations
91 The Daily Solar Profile
92 Daily solar energy on horizontal surface
93 Solar energy on inclined surface
10 Solar-Hydrogen Energy
11 Conclusions
Direct Solar Energy 67
S C Bhattacharya and S Kumar Energy Program Asian Institute of Technology Pathumthani
Thailand
1 Introduction
11 A Brief History of Energy
12 Origin of Solar Energy
13 Solar Thermal Energy
14 Photovoltaics (PV)
15 The Future of Solar Energy
2 Solar Radiation
21 Sun and Earth
22 Solar Radiation Estimation
3 Solar Thermal Conversion
31 Solar Collectors
311 Flat Plate Collectors
312 Concentrating Collectors
313 Evacuated Type Collectors
314 Selective Surfaces
32 Solar Water Heating
321 Introduction
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xiii
322 Natural Circulation Systems
323 Forced Circulation Systems
324 Materials Used in Solar Water Heaters
325 Advantages and Disadvantages
33 Solar Space Heating
331 Active Systems
332 Passive Systems
333 Solar District Heating
34 Solar Thermal Power Generation
341 Introduction
342 Parabolic Trough Systems
343 Power Towers
344 Parabolic Dish
35 Solar Drying
351 Introduction
352 Types of Solar Drier
353 Advantages of Solar Drying
4 Solar Photovoltaic Conversion
41 Solar Cells and Modules
42 Other Components of PV Systems
43 PV Applications
5 Other Solar Technologies
51 Solar Photochemical Conversion
52 Space Solar Power
521 Introduction
522 The SSP Concept
523 Promise and Problems
524 Future Prospects
6 Solar Energy Storage
61 Solar Thermal Energy Storage
611 Sensible Heat Storage
612 Latent Heat Storage
613 Chemical Energy Storage
614 Solar Electrical Energy Storage
7 Environmental Impacts of Solar Energy
71 General Impacts
72 Solar Thermal Systems
73 PV Systems
74 Health and Environmental Aspects
75 Energy Payback and CO2 Abatement
76 Other implications
761 Batteries
762 Operation and Decommissioning
8 The Way Forward
81 General
82 Solar Thermal Systems
83 PV Systems
9 Concluding Remarks
Solar Drying - A Technology for Sustainable Agriculture and Food Production 112
RJ Fuller Principal Fellow IDTC Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of
Melbourne Australia
1 Introduction
2 Drying Fundamentals
3 Sun vs Solar Drying
4 Types of Solar Dryer
41 Direct Mode
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xiv
42 Indirect Mode
43 Mixed Mode
44 Further Classifications
441 Natural Convection
442 Forced Convection
45 Other Differences
451 Supplementary Energy
452 Air Flow Direction
453 Heat Transfer Fluid
454 Thermal Storage
5 Solar Dryers in Practice
51 Direct mode natural convection dryers
52 Direct Mode Forced Convection Dryers
53 Indirect Mode Forced Convection Dryers
6 Performance Evaluation of Solar Dryers
61 Overall System Drying Efficiency
62 Pick-up Efficiency
63 Solar Collection Efficiency
64 Performance of Solar Dryers
65 Comparative Testing
7 Designing Solar Drying Systems
71 Rules-of-Thumb
72 Sizing Equations
73 Chart Methods
74 Simulation Techniques
8 Non-technical Factors
81 Economics
82 Practical Issues
83 Technology Transfer
84 Developing Country Issues
85 Industrialized Country Issues
9 Prospects and Future Developments
91 Technical Developments
92 Costs
93 Design
94 External Factors
10 Conclusions
A Short Historical Review of Renewable Energy 136
E Delyannis NCSR Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems ldquoDemokritosrdquo Aghia Paraskevi
Greece
A El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority (WEA) Abu-Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
11 The History of Renewable Energy Achievements
12 The Set-up of this Historical Review
2 The Renewable Energies in the Antiquity
21 From Legends to the First Written Documents
3 The Power of the Sun
31 The Dawn of the History
32 The Capture of the Suns Radiation
321 Antiquity to Middle Age The Philosophers
322 Renaissance to the 20th Century The Founders
323 The 20th Century The Engineers
324 The Present Times The Technologists
4 The Development of the Solar Distillation
41 From Philosophy to Practice
42 The First Large Applications
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xv
43 The Last 50 Years
5 Solar Driven Desalination
51 General Considerations
52 The Solar Driven Distillation Plants
53 Freezing Plants
54 Electrodialysis Plants
55 Solar Powered Reverse Osmosis Plants
6 The Energy of the Mother Gaia
7 The Power of Aeolos
71 The Aeolian Gods
72 The Harvest of the Winds Energy
73 The Raise and the Fall of Windmills
74 Wind Turbine Generation
8 The Power of the Moving Water
81 Hydraulic Power
9 The Impulsive Power of Poseidon
91 The Power of the Waves
92 The Tides and their Energy
93 The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) System
Renewable Energy Resources 186
V Belessiotis and E Delyannis NCSR Demokritos Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems
Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun as an Energy Source
21 The Availability of Solar Energy
22 Application of Solar Energy to Desalination
3 The Geothermal Energy
31 Introduction
32 The Geothermal Resources System
321 Hydrothermal Reservoirs
322 The Geopressurized Reservoirs
323 The Hot Dry Rocks
33 The Available Resources
34 The Geographic Distribution of Reservoirs
35 The Geothermal Brines
36 Application of Geothermal Resources
4 The Hydraulic Energy
41 Introduction
42 The Available Hydropower Resources
43 Limit of Hydropower Output
5 Wind Energy Resources
51 The Origin of Wind
52 The Distribution of Wind Forces
53 Wind Speed Distribution
54 The Utilization of the Wind Energy
6 Biomass as an Energy Source
61 Introduction
62 The Origin of Biomass
63 The Alternate Biomass Products
64 Biomass Residues
641 The Crop Residues
642 Fuel Wood
643 Sugar Crops
644 Livestock Manure
65 Refuse and Municipal Sewage
66 Plantation Biomass
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xvi
7 Thermal Energy from Biomass
71 Introduction
72 The Energy Conversion Methods
73 Environmental Impacts of Biomass Energy Sources
8 The Ocean Systems Energy Resources
81 Introduction
82 The Energy of the Waves
821 The Origin of the Waves
822 Distribution of Wave Resources
83 The Tidal Power as Energy Source
831 The Generation of Tides
832 The Tidal Potential
84 The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) Source
841 The Trapping of the OTEC Energy
Desalination with Renewable Energy - A Review 227
Ali M El-Nashar 22 Ahmed Gharbo St Apt 703 Zizinia Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Commercial Desalination Processes and Their Energy Consumption
21 Description of the Commercial Desalination Processes
211 Distillation Processes
212 Membrane Processes
22 Technical and Economic Characteristics of Commercial Desalination Processes
3 Available Renewable Energy Sources
31 Solar Energy
32 Wind Energy
33 Geothermal Energy
34 Other Renewable Energy Sources
4 Devices for Transforming Renewable Energy into Useful Energy for Desalination
41 Solar Collectors
42 Solar Ponds
43 Photovoltaic Cells
44 Wind Turbines
5 Coupling of Desalination Processes and Renewable Energy
51 Direct and Indirect Coupling of Solar Energy and Desalination
511 Direct coupling (Solar still technology)
512 Indirect Coupling
52 Desalination Systems Driven by Solar Thermal Energy
521 Solar Thermal Collectors-MSF Desalination
522 Solar Thermal Collectors-MED Desalination
53 Desalination Systems Driven by Wind Energy
531 Wind-MVC Systems
532 Wind-RO Systems
54 Desalination Systems Driven by Solar Photovoltaics (PV)
55 Hybrid Desalination Systems
6 Current Status
7 Selection Criteria among Different RE Desalination Technologies
8 Performance of Selected RE Desalination Projects
81 Solar Stills
82 Wind-Energy Driven RO Desalination Technology
83 PV-Powered Seawater RO System
84 Abu Dhabi Solar MED Desalination Plant
9 Economics of RE Desalination
91 Financial Analysis
92 Cost of Water from RES Desalination Plants
10 Conclusion
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
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Renewable Energy and Desalination Systems 301
Asghar Husain International Center for Water and Energy Systems (ICWES) Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
11 Need for Desalination
2 What Is Sustainability
3 Review of Desalination Technologies
31 Thermal-Based Processes
32 Membrane ndash Based Technologies
33 Renewable Energies
4 Desalination Using Solar Energy
41 Direct Utilization of Solar Radiation in the Solar Still
42 Solar Collectors
43 Solar Concentrating System
44 Solar Ponds
45 Photovoltaic Cells
46 Storage of Solar Energy
5 Desalination Using Other Renewable Energies
51 Wind Energy
52 Geothermal Energy
53 Wave Energy
54 Tidal Energy
55 Ocean Temperature Difference or Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
56 Hydraulic Energy
57 Biomass as Energy Source
6 Concluding Remarks
Why Use Renewable Energy for Desalination 342
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 The Need of Desalination for Economic Development in Remote Arid Areas
3 The Need of Energy for Desalination
4 The Availability of Renewable Energy
5 The Economic and Social Benefits of Using Renewable Energy for Desalination
6 Examples of Arid Remote Regions where Renewable Energy for Desalination can have a High
Economic Potential
61 The Southern and Eastern Mediterranean Regions
62 The Mediterranean Islands
63 The Arab Gulf Region
7 Conclusions
Thermal Energy Storage 356
Hassan E S Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Solar Energy Storage
12 Thermal Energy Storage
13 Thermal Storage Efficiency
14 Thermal Insulation
2 Sensible Heat Storage
21 Introduction
22 Low Temperature Sensible Heat Storage
221 Storage in Liquids
23 Intermediate and High Temperature Sensible Heat Storage
231 Storage in Fluids
232 Storage in Solids
233 Storage in Fluid-Solid Media
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xviii
24 Concluding Remarks
3 Latent Heat (Phase Change) Storage
31 Introduction
32 Low Temperature Latent Heat Storage
321 Phase Change Materials
322 Storage Systems Problems
33 Intermediate and High Temperature Latent Heat Storage
34 Concluding Remarks
35 Heat of Vaporization
4 Combined Sensible and Latent Heat Storage
5 Closing Remarks
6 Some Recent Developments
61 Sensible Heat Storage
62 Latent Heat Storage
621 Heat Transfer with Thermal Energy Storage
622 Storage System Performance
623 Solar Collector Integrated with Storage System
Electrical Energy Storage 387
J Garche Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research Baden-Wuumlrttemberg Germany
A Jossen Energy Storage and Energy Conversion Division Ulm Germany
1 Introduction
2 Systems with Internal Storage
21 Demands on the Battery
22 Lead-Acid Battery
221 Electrochemical Reactions
222 Operation values
223 Types of Lead-Acid Batteries
2231 Differentiation by electrodes
2232 Batteries with positive plates protected against active mass shedding
2233 Differentiation by container technology
224 Main Problems while Operation of Lead-Acid Batteries
2241 Charging and Overdischarge
2242 Deep Discharge
2243 Sulfation
225 Other Battery Systems
2251 Nickel-Cadmium Battery
2252 New Battery Systems
3 Systems with External Storage
31 Gas-Accumulator
32 Redox-Flow-Systems
4 Storage Sizing
Tidal Energy 406
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Consideration
5 Prospects
Index 416
About EOLSS 421
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xix
VOLUME IV
Desalination Using Tidal Energy 1
Abdalla S Hanafi Cairo University Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Tides
21 Spring and Neap Tides
3 Tidal Power Plants
31 Barrage
32 Locks and Gates
33 Power House
34 Basins
35 Storage
36 Economical Considerations
37 Tidal Sites
4 Tidal Desalination Technologies
41 Tidal-Vapor Compression Desalination
42 Tidal-Reverse Osmosis
421 Overall Analysis of the Reverse Osmosis Modules
43 Tidal - Electrodialysis (ED)
431 Electrodialysis DC Power
44 Tidal Freezing-Melting (FM)
441 Freezing-Melting System Analysis
5 Economic Comparisons with Wind and Solar Energy
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
15
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
22 Humidifying with cooling and dehumidifying processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in Desalination HD Process
25 Overview on Some desalination HD projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process description
32 The condenser in the SWGH
321 Different condenser layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot plant
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xx
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot plant
522 Performances of the SWGH
53 Case Study 3 The SWGH project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Wave Energy 81
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Considerations
5 Prospects
Wind Energy 97
B Sorensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Worldwide Distribution of Wind Energy Resources
11 Physical Potential Wind Maps
12 Practical Potential for Wind Turbines
13 Restrictions due to Competing Land Use
14 Off-Shore Potential
15 Methods for Determining Local Potential Atlas Technique
16 Overall Assessment of Potential
2 Wind Turbine Technology
21 Current Status and Prospects for the Future
22 Basic Theory Wind Turbine Types and Efficiencies
23 Prospects for Further Development
24 Current Penetration of Wind Power Utilization
25 National Plans and Future Prospects
26 Plant Lifetime and Reliability
27 Impacts on Requirements for Transmission and Back-Up
28 Energy Storage and Demand Management
3 Economic Social and Environmental Impacts of Wind Energy Utilization
31 Current Cost and Cost Trends
32 Employment Generation
33 Energy Balance
34 Noise
35 Aspects of Decentralized Energy Supply
36 Life-Cycle Estimate of Externalities Including Construction and Decommissioning Impacts
4 Evaluation of Greenhouse Warming Mitigation Potential of Wind Power
41 Assessment of Marginal Life-Cycle Impacts Including Greenhouse Warming
42 Elements of Non-Marginal Analysis of Energy Systems with Large Wind Power Share
43 Relationship between Demand Development and the Valuations of Wind Energy
44 Concluding Remarks
Availability of Wind Energy and Its Estimation 139
Richard Morris Richard Morris Associates Glasgow United Kingdom
1 The Sun as the Wind Driver
2 The Nature of Wind
3 Wind Power Statistics
4 Estimating Wind Power
5 Siting for Wind Energy
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxi
The Use of Geothermal Energy in Desalination 155
BW Tleimat Water Reuse Technology Alamo California USA
ADK Laird (deceased) Professor Emeritus and Director Emeritus Sea Water Conversion Laboratory
University of California Berkeley California USA
1 Introduction
2 Historical Perspective
3 Heat Transfer from Geothermal Reservoirs
4 Geothermal Energy Utilization
5 Electricity Generation
6 Water Production from Geothermal Sources
7 Idealized Liquid-dominated Reservoirs
8 Water and Power Generation Effects of Some System Parameters
9 Multiple-effect and Multistage Distillation Processes
10 Energy-budget Management
11 Processes for Decentralized Desalination
12 Water-budget Management
13 Solids-budget Management
Solar Photovoltaic Energy Conversion 181
G Schumm Zentrum fuer Sonnenenergie und Wasserstoff-Forschung Baden Wuerttemberg Stuttgart
Germany
1 The General Photovoltaic System
2 Non-Concentrating PV Systems
3 Tracking and Concentrating PV Systems
Flat-Plate Collectors 191
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Solar Collector Applications
3 Definitions
31 Solar Collectors
311 Solar Thermal Collector
312 Flat-Plate Collector
32 Construction Elements of a Solar Collector
321 Absorber Plate or Selective Surface
322 The Transparent Cover
323 The Collector Insulation
324 The Heat Transfer Medium
33 The Surface Areas
331 The Surface Area of the Absorber Plate
332 The Transparent Cover Surface
333 Total Surface Area
34 Operational Characteristics of the Collector
341 Collector efficiency (η)
342 Thermal Capacity of the Collector (C)
343 Pressure Drop (Δp)
344 Stagnant Conditions
345 Incidence Angle Coefficient (kθ)
35 The Characteristic Parameters of the Collector
351 The cover reflectance (ρc)
353 Cover Absorptance (αc)
352 Cover Transmittance (τc)
354 Coefficient of cover Emissivity (εc)
355 Coefficient of Absorber Emissivity
356 Selective Surface
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
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357 Selective Coat
358 Collector Efficiency Factor (Fprime) 359 Collector Flow Factor (FPrime) 3510 Collector Heat Removal Factor (FR)
3511 Collector Heat Loss Coefficient (UL)
4 Main Collector Components
41 The Solar Radiation Absorber
42 The Transparent Cover
43 Thermal Insulation
44 The Casing of the Collector
45 The Supporting of the Collector
5 The Solar Absorbers
51 Types of Solar Absorbers
511 Absorbers of Common Paint
512 Selective coat Absorbers
52 Forms of Absorbers and Tubes
521 General considerations
522 Sandwich Type Absorber
523 Roll Bond Tube Absorber
524 Soldered Type Absorbers
525 Absorbers with Ω Type Fins
6 Characteristics of Flat-Plate Collectors
61 General considerations
62 Installation Configuration of a Collector System
63 Orientation and Slope of the Collector
7 Dynamic Operational Characteristics of a Collector
71 The Incident Angle Coefficient
72 The Thermal Capacity of the Collector C
73 The Heat Removal Factor FR
8 The Thermal Characteristics of a Collector
81 Determination of the Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL
82 Determination of Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL for in Series Interconnection
83 Equivalent Thermal Loss between Tubes and Collector
84 The Influence of Wind Velocity
9 Shading of the Collectors
10 Basic Calculation Methods
101 Cover Reflectance
102 Cover Transmittance
103 The Transmittance-Absorptance Product
104 Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
105 Multi-Cover Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
11 The Heat Transfer Loss Coefficients
111 Loss Coefficient Uc
112 Loss Coefficient Ub
113 Loss Coefficient Us
114 The Collector Efficiency Factor Fprime 115 Collector flow factor FPrime Large Active Solar Systems Load 220
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and other Energy Systems National Centre for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Estimation of Thermal Load
21 Estimation of the Required Heat Qload
22 Estimation of the Required Heat for the Water Qw
23 Estimation of the Heat Loss in Distribution Pipes Qp
24 Estimation of Heat Loss in the Storage Tank Qt
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
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Large Active Solar Systems Typical Economic Analysis 225
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Cost of a Solar Hot Water System
21 Initial Capital Cost
22 Operational Costs
221 Cost of Fuel
222 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
223 Cost of Maintenance
224 Cost for Loans
225 Costs for Insurance
226 Miscellaneous Expenses
3 Cost of Conventional Hot Water System
31 Operational Costs
311 Cost of Fuel
312 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
313 Cost of Maintenance
4 Inflation
5 Rate of Interest
6 Methods of Life Cycle Cost
61 General
62 Present and Future Costs
63 Yearly Instalment
64 Yearly Expenses
7 Methodology
8 Present Value Factor
9 Comparison Methodology
Integration of Solar Pond with Water Desalination 240
U Fisher J Weinberg and B Doron Ormat Industries Ltd Yavne Israel
1 Introduction
2 Historical Background
3 The Solar Pond
31 Structure
32 Heat Absorption and Storage
33 Main Demands when Building a Pond
331 Surface Area
332 Surface Water Make-up
333 Concentrated Brine Supply
34 How to Build a Solar Pond
341 Geometry or Shape
342 Lining
343 Construction Materials in the Pond
344 Initial Filling and Build-up of Gradient
35 How to Control
36 Heat Losses (Ground Diffusion Evaporation)
361 Top Losses
362 Bottom Heat Losses
37 Disturbances
371 Algae
372 Corrosion
373 Wind
38 Heat Extraction
39 Fuel Assisted Solar Ponds
310 Maintenance
3101 Clarity
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3102 Cleaning of Wind Breakers
3103 Blow Down
3104 Make-up
3105 Leakages
311 Practical Size of a Single Pond
312 Investment in Solar Ponds
313 OampM Costs
4 Desalination Processes Coupled to the Solar Pond
41 Economic Aspects of Coupling Desalination Plants to Solar Ponds
411 Desalination Processes
412 The Choice and Proportion of Producing Heat and Power in the Solar Pond
4121 The Solar Pond Yield
4122 Desalination Plant Performance
4123 The Impact of Daily and Seasonal Fluctuations
4124 Economic Considerations and Evaluations
42 Experience with SP-Desalination Systems
43 Conclusions
Evacuated Tube Collectors 276
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Current Designs of Evacuated Tube Collectors
3 Thermal Analysis
4 Analysis of Flat Plate Evacuated Tube Collector
5 Analysis of Concentric-Tube Collector
6 Performance of Evacuated Tube Collectors
7 Case Study (Collector Field at the Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant)
71 Description of collector field
72 Performance of collector field
73 Economics
Parabolic Trough Collectors 299
Wolfgang Meinecke Deutsches Zentrum fuumlr Luft-und Raumfahrt eV (DLR German Aerospace Center)
Solar Energy Technology Division Koumlln Germany
1 Introduction
2 Brief History of Trough Development
3 State of the Art of Trough Applications
31 Conventional Thermal Water Desalination Applications
32 Solar Thermal Water Desalination Applications
33 Solar Electric Power Generation
34 Solar Process Heat Generation
35 Process Hot Water (Project Examples)
36 Process Steam (Project Examples)
37 Process Steam for Water Desalination (Project Examples)
38 Process Hot Air
4 Trough Technologies
41 LS 3 Trough Collector System
411 LS 3 Parabolic Reflector
412 Steel Support Structure
413 Absorber Element
414 Tracking System and Field Control System
415 Heat Transfer Fluid System
416 Steam Generator
417 Balance of Plant Technologies
418 Energy Storage System
42 IST Trough Collector System
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxv
421 IST Parabolic Reflector
422 Support Structure
423 Absorber Element
424 Tracking System and Field Control System
425 Heat Transfer Fluid System
426 Heat Exchanger
427 Balance of Plant Technology
428 Energy Storage
5 Prospects and Potential
51 Solar Electric Power Generation
52 Solar Process Heat Generation
53 Solar Thermal Water Desalination
6 Cost and Economic Aspects
61 Collector Investment Costs
611 LS 3 Collector Costs
612 IST Collector Costs
62 Other Economic Parameters
621 Fossil Fuel Prices
622 Solar Energy Yield
623 Solar Share
624 Plant Power Size
625 Capacity Factor
626 OampM Costs
627 Non-Technical Parameters
63 Costs of Solar Water Desalination
7 Conclusions
Index 363
About EOLSS 369
VOLUME V
Central Receivers 1
MM Elsayed Mechanical Engineering Department Kuwait University Safat Kuwait
1 Introduction
2 Heliostats Types and Design Shapes
3 Heliostat Angles
4 Heliostat Field Heliostat Layout
5 Heliostat Field Cosine Effect
6 Heliostat Field Preliminary Sizing of the Field
7 Heliostat Field Usefulness Efficiency
8 Reflected Solar Radiation
9 The Effective Sunshape
10 Principal Images and Relation between Receiver and Image Planes
11 Models to Predict the Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Image Plane
111 Incoming Ray Formulation
112 The Mirror Plane Formulation
113 Solar Disk Formulation
114 The Pinhole View
12 Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Receiver Surface Using the Separation of
VariableSuperposition Technique
121 Concept
122 Calculation of φ 123 Validation of Model Using Measurements
13 Receivers Types and Losses
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14 Preliminary Sizing of the Receiver
15 Overall System Optimization
Configuration Theoretical Analysis and Performance of Simple Solar Stills 98
A Kumar Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources Solar Energy Center New Delhi India
1 Introduction
2 Configuration of Simple Solar Stills
21 Basic Principle
22 Classification
23 Single Basin Solar Stills
24 Inclined Solar Stills
241 Basin Type Solar Stills
242 Wick Type Solar Stills
25 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
26 Solar Earth Water Stills
27 Plastic Solar Stills
271 Life Raft Solar Still
272 Circular Solar Still
273 Extruded Plastic Solar Still
274 Concentric Tube Solar Still
28 A Typical Solar Distillation Plant
3 Theoretical Analysis of Simple Solar Stills
31 Heat and Mass Transfer in Solar Stills
311 Inside the Solar Still
312 Outside the Solar Still
32 Solar Radiation Balance
321 Transmission through Top Cover
322 Absorption in the Top Cover
33 Energy Balance Equations
34 Solution Procedure
4 Performance of Solar Stills
41 Single Basin Solar Stills
42 Inclined Solar Stills
43 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
44 Solar Earth Water Stills
45 Plastic Solar Stills
46 Case Studies
461 Australia
462 Greek Islands
463 India
47 Suggested Practices for Installing Solar Stills
Development in Simple Solar Stills 169
Hassan ES Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Modified Simple (Passive) Stills
21 Basin Still
211 Single Slope versus Double Slope Basin Stills
212 Basin Still with Cover Cooling
213 Basin Still with Treated Cover Surface
214 Basin Still with Additional Condenser
215 Basin Still with Black DyeMuddy Water
22 Wick Stills
221 Single-wick Stills
222 Multi-wick Stills
223 Wick versus Basin Stills
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvii
224 Combined Wick-Basin Stills
23 Other Stills Configurations
231 Vertical Microporous Evaporator Still
232 Cascade Solar Still
233 Still Integrated with Greenhouse
3 Externally Heated (Active) Solar Stills
31 Introduction
32 Stills Coupled to a Solar Collector
321 Direct and Indirect Heating
322 Use of Dye and Cover Cooling
323 Other Solar Heaters
33 Stills Coupled with Solar Concentrator
34 The Use of Waste Heat in Solar Stills
4 Other Types of Solar Distillation Systems
41 Water Recovery from Air
Multi-Effect Solar Stills 197
HES Fath Al-Jubail 31951 Saudi Arabia
1 Why Multi Effect
2 Double Effect Basin Stills
21 Double Basins Stills
22 Double Effect Tilted Stills
23 Purging Vapor to a Second Effect
3 Multi-Effect Multi-Wick Stills
4 Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
41 Introduction
42 Mass Diffusion
43 Comparison between Diffusion and Basin Stills
44 Description of Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
45 Analysis and Performance Considerations
5 Other Distillation Systems
51 Stacked Tray Stills
52 Multi-Effect Humidification-Dehumidification
Materials for Construction of Solar Stills 218
TA Lawand and J Ayoub Brace Research Institute Canada
1 Introduction
2 General Specifications of Solar Stills
3 Transparent Cover
4 Basin Liner
5 Solar Still Frame
6 Sealants
7 Insulation
8 Auxiliaries - Piping Pumping and Reservoirs
Reverse Osmosis by Solar Energy 225
W Bucher DLR German Aerospace Research Establishment Cologne Germany
1 Introduction
2 Basic Parameters and Energy Demand for Osmosis
21 Physical Properties of Hyperfiltration
22 Energy required for the RO Process
3 Solar Power Conversion Systems
31 Solar Conversion Principles
32 Technical Data of Solar Energy Conversion Methods
33 RO Plant Operation Utilizing Variable Energy Sources
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
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4 Reverse Osmosis System Configuration and Operation Aspects
41 Process Design of RO Desalination Systems
42 Procedural Steps and Data for Water Treatment and Energy Consumption
43 Components of RO -Desalination
431 Membranes and Modules
432 High Pressure Pumps
433 Pressure Regulating Devices
5 Solar Powered Desalination Units
51 Specific Figures or RO Systems
52 Solar Power Concepts for RO Desalination
53 Operational Experience with Solar driven RO Systems
6 Costs
61 Specific Cost Figures for the Plant Components
62 Water Delivery Cost
Availability of Solar Radiation and Its Estimation 265
VG Belessiotis Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems National Center for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun and the Radiation Emitted
21 The Physics of the Sun
22 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
3 The Extraterrestrial Radiation
31 What is the Solar Constant
32 Variations of the Extraterrestrial Radiation
33 The Black-body Emittance and Absorptance
34 Blackbody Absorbers - Application to Desalination
4 The Co-ordinate Systems The Basic Solar Angles
41 The Earth-Sun Relationships
42 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Sky
43 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Celestial Sphere
44 Earth-Sun Geometric Relationship
45 Time and its Units - Day Length
46 Terrestrial Solar Radiation
461 Estimation of Radiation Availability
462 Average Radiation Values - Clearness Index
463 Clear Sky Radiation
464 Sky Radiation
47 Atmospheric Factors Affecting Radiation
5 Computation of Insolation at the Earths Surface
51 Insolation Data
52 Measurement of Solar Radiation
53 Models for Solar Radiation
54 Where the Models Apply
55 Tilted Surfaces - Absorptance of Solar Radiation
551 Fixed Tilted Surfaces
552 Tracking Surfaces
6 Applications of Solar Radiation
7 Impact of Solar Energy to the Environment
Economics of Small Solar-Assisted Multiple-Effect Seawater Distillation Plants 296
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Configurations
3 Design and Sizing Considerations
31 Thermal Energy Requirement
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxix
32 Pumping Requirements
33 Collector Performance
34 Sizing Thermal Collector Area
35 Sizing the PV System
351 Sizing the PV Array
4 Economic Ground Rules and Water Cost Optimization
41 Capital Equipment Cost
42 Operating Costs
43 Optimum Cost of Water for each Plant Configuration
5 Results
6 Conclusion
A Solar-Assisted Sea Water Multiple Effect Distillation Plant 15 Years of Operating
Performance (1985-1999) 316
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Basic Design Concept
21 General Plant Description
22 Design Specifications
23 Evaporator Heat Transfer Coefficient
24 Tube Dimensions Heat Transfer Areas and Materials
3 Performance during Commissioning Tests
31 The MES Evaporator
32 The Solar Collector Field
33 The Heat Accumulator
34 Total Plant Performance
4 Performance History
41 The MES Evaporator
42 The Solar Collector Field
43 The Heat Accumulator
431 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
4311 The heat balance method
4312 The direct temperature measurement method
4313 Thermal stratification ratio
44 Total Plant Performance
5 Major Maintenance Activities
51 Equipment Failure and Replacement
52 Acid Cleanings and Silt Removal from Evaporator
6 Evaluation of Water Cost
61 Capital Costs
62 Operation and Maintenance Costs
7 Conclusions
Mathematical Simulation of a Solar Desalination Plant 341
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Description
3 System Operating Conditions
31 Solar Heat Collecting Subsystem
32 Evaporator Subsystem
4 Mathematical Modeling of System Components
41 Solar radiation model
42 Ambient temperature model
43 Solar collector subsystem
431 Effect of shade on solar radiation
432 Effect of dust on transmissivity of glass tubes
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxx
433 Control of heat collecting operation
434 Heat collection by solar collectors
435 Heat loss from piping
4351 Piping specifications
4352 Standard pipe lengths
4353 Heat loss from piping during operation of heat collecting pump
4354 Heat loss from piping while the heat collecting pump is shutdown
4355 Correction of piping heat loss
44 Heat accumulator subsystem
441 Temperature distribution
442 MES evaporator subsystem
5 The Simulation Program
51 Program structure
52 Input and output data
6 Results
7 Conclusions
Index 379
About EOLSS 385
VOLUME VI
Modeling and Design of Solar Energy Systems Including Solar Economics 1
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 F-Chart Method
11 Performance and Design of Liquid-Based Solar Heating Systems
111 Storage Capacity Correction
112 Collector Flow Rate Correction
113 Load Heat Exchanger Size Correction
12 Performance and Design of Air-Based Solar Heating Systems
121 Pebble Bed Storage Size Correction
122 Air Flow Rate Correction
13 Performance and Design of Solar Service Water Systems
14 Thermosiphon Solar Water Heating Systems
15 General Remarks
2 Modeling and Simulation of Solar Energy Systems
21 Simple System Models
211 Pipe Losses
22 F-Chart Program
23 Trnsys Simulation Program
24 Limitations of Simulations
3 Solar Economic Analysis
31 Life Cycle Costing
32 Life Cycle Analysis Method
33 Payback Time
331 Not Discounted Fuel Savings
332 Discounted Fuel Savings
34 Alternative Method
341 System Optimization Using Economic Analysis
35 Uncertainties in Economic Analysis
Solar Energy Power Generation and Desalination Systems 47
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 Global Energy Problems and the Role of Renewables
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxi
11 Energy demand
12 Energy environmental problems and sustainable development
13 Water demand and consumption
14 Water and energy
15 Desalination and energy
16 Renewable energy technologies
2 Solar Collectors
21 Parabolic trough collectors
22 Fresnel collectors
23 Parabolic dish reflector
24 Heliostat field collector
3 Power Generation and Industrial Process Heat Systems
31 Parabolic trough collector systems
32 Power tower systems
33 Dish systems
34 Solar ponds
341 Heat extraction and applications
35 Industrial process heat systems
36 Solar industrial steam generation systems
4 Desalination Processes
41 Direct collection systems
42 Indirect collection systems
421 The multi-stage flash process
422 The multiple-effect distillation process
423 The vapor-compression process
424 Reverse osmosis
425 Electrodialysis
Solar Updraft Power Plant Technology Basic Concepts and Structural Design 94
Francesca Lupi University of Florence Florence Italy
Claudio Borri University of Florence Florence Italy
Wilfried B Kraumltzig Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
Hans-Juumlrgen Niemann Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
1 Solar Updraft Power Technology Introduction and Working Principles
2 History of the Solar Updraft Power Technology
21 Solar Tower Prototype in Manzanares (Spain)
3 Evaluation of Plant Efficiency
31 The Collector
32 The Chimney
33 The Turbines
34 Electric Power Generated by Supps
4 The Collector
5 Actions on Solar Updraft Towers
6 Wind Loading on Solar Updraft Towers
61 Wind Flow Structure in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer at High Altitudes
611 Boundary Layer Meteorology
612 The Ekman Spiral
613 Theoretical Considerations on the Mean Wind and Turbulence in the Ekman Layer
62 Modeling of the Wind Load on Solar Towers
621 Mean Wind Load
622 Response to Wind Turbulence
623 Fluctuating Wind Load
624 Equivalent Static Wind Pressures
625 Vortex Excitation
626 Other Effects The Effect of the Efflux
63 Wind Load on the Collector Roof
7 Structural Behavior of Solar Updraft Towers
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxii
71 Structural Elements of Solar Tower Shells
72 Some Typical Response Characteristics of Solar Tower Shells Vibration and Instability
Behavior
73 Non-Linear Tower Response
8 Structural Optimization of Solar Updraft Towers
81 The Role of the Stiffening Rings in the Structural Design of Solar Towers
82 Strategies of Optimization
9 Technology of Construction
Renewable Energy Potential in The Arab Region 162
Mohammed Mostafa El-Khayat General Manager of Planning New and Renewable Energy Authority
NREA Cairo Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Research Problem and Objectives
111 Research Problem
12 Research Objectives
2 Energy Demand
3 The Current Situation of Renewable Energy
31 Hydropower
32 Wind Energy
33 Solar Energy
34 Biomass and Geothermal Energy
4 Strategies
5 Institutional and Regulatory Framework
6 Main Policies and Incentives
7 RE Policies and Incentives Profiles
71 Algeria
72 Egypt
73 Jordan
74 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
75 Lebanon
76 Libya
77 Morocco
78 Palestine
79 Sudan
710 Syria
711 Tunisia
712 United Arab Emirates
713 Yemen
8 Financing Schemes and Investment Opportunities
9 Motivations and Barriers of Renewable Energy
10 Renewable Energy Initiatives
101 Arabian Initiatives
102 DESERTEC
11 Potential of Renewable Energy in the Region
12 The proposed mechanisms to enhance and accelerate the rate of using RE applications
13 The situation of localizing RE technologies
14 RE and climate change in Arab countries
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
198
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiii
22 Humidifying with Cooling and Dehumidifying Processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in HD Desalination Process
25 Overview on Some Desalination HD Projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process Description
32 The Condenser in the SWGH
321 Different Condenser Layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the Condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of Condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot Plant
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH Project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot Plant
522 Performances of the Pilot Plant
53 The SWGH Project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot Plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Evolution of Photovoltaic Materials for Renewable Energy Development 262
Abdelilah Slaoui InESS ndash CNRS ndash University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
Jef Poortmans IMEC Leuven Belgium
Marko Topic University of Ljubljana Faculty of Elec Eng Ljubljana Slovenia
Gavin Conibeer ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence UNSW Sydney Australia
1 General Introduction
2 Photovoltaic Materials and Technologies State of the Art
21 Crystalline Silicon
22 Thin Films
221 Amorphous Silicon
222 Nanocrystalline and Microcrystalline Silicon
223 Polycrystalline Silicon
224 Copper Indium Selenide Its alloys and Related Chalcopyrites
225 Cadmium Telluride
226 Materials for Photochemical Solar Cells
227 Materials for Organic Solar Cells
3 Next Generation Solar Cells
31 Introduction
32 Multiple energy level approaches
33 Multiple Exciton Generation solar cells
34 Intermediate Band (IB) cells
35 Hot carrier cells
4 Conclusions and Perspectives
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiv
Wind and Solar Renewable Energy Potential Resources Estimation 302
Philippe Drobinski Institut Pierre Simon LaplaceLaboratoire de Meacuteteacuteorologie Dynamique CNRSEcole
Polytechnique Palaiseau France
1 Renewable Wind and Solar Energies The Context
11 An Economical and Environmental Necessity
12 Energy Definitions and Units
2 Basic Knowledge in Geophysics for Energy Resource Evaluation
21 Earth Energy Budget and Atmospheric Motion
22 Near Surface Wind
23 Impacts of Clouds and Aerosols on Surface Solar Radiation
3 Wind Energy Resource
31 Wind Energy A Brief History
32 Wind Energy Resources Evaluation
33 Wind Energy Installed Capacity in the World
4 Solar Energy Resources
41 Solar Energy An Introduction
42 Worldwide Solar Heat
5 Methods for Wind and Solar Energy Resources Forecast
Index 353
About EOLSS 361
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) ii
VOLUME I
Solar Energy and Photochemical Energy Systems 1
Juliaacuten Blanco Gaacutelvez and Sixto Malato Rodriacuteguez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain
1 Introduction
2 Problems for Sustainability in the 21st Century
21 The Water Problem
22 The Energy Problem
23 The Global Warming Problem
3 Basic Solar Energy Data
31 The Potential of Solar and Renewable Energies
32 From the Sun to the Earth The 500-Second Trip
33 Brief History of Solar Energy
4 Solar Technologies
41 Generalities
42 Photovoltaic Technology
43 LowMedium Temperature Solar Collectors
44 Concentrating Solar Power (CSP)
45 High concentration of solar energy
5 Solar Energy Applications
51 Power Production
52 Industrial Process Heat
53 Solar Fuels
54 Solar Energy Application to Water Processes
55 Metallurgical and Advanced Materials Applications
56 Solar Energy Integration in Buildings
57 Other Applications of Solar Energy
6 Conclusions
Renewable Energy Sources 44
Antonia V Herzog Timothy E Lipman and Daniel M Kammen Energy and Resources Group
Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory (RAEL) University of California Berkeley USA
1 Introduction
2 Biomass Energy
21 Introduction
22 The Future Role of Biomass
23 Biomass Energy Conversion Technologies and Applications
231 Combustion
232 Gasification
233 Anaerobic Digestion
234 Liquid Biofuels
24 Implementation of Biomass Energy Systems
241 Biomass Resources
242 Environmental Impacts and Benefits
243 Economic and Production Issues
25 Conclusions
3 Wind Energy
31 Introduction
32 Economics of Wind Energy
33 Potential for Wind Energy Technical Resource and Environmental Issues
34 Selected Country Profiles and Government Incentives to Promote Wind Energy
341 United States
342 Germany
343 Denmark
344 Spain
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) iii
345 Great Britain
346 Developing Countries
35 Conclusions
4 Solar Photovoltaic and Solar Thermal Technologies
41 Solar Photovoltaics
42 Solar Thermal Systems
5 Hydropower
51 Introduction
52 Capacity and Potential
53 Small Hydro
54 Environmental and Social Impacts
55 Conclusions
6 Geothermal Energy
61 Introduction
62 Capacity and Potential
63 Environmental Impacts
64 Conclusions
7 Renewable Energy System Cost and Performance
71 Recent Progress in Renewable Energy System Costs and Performance
72 Lessons Learned in Developing Countries
73 Leveling the Playing Field
731 Public and Private Sector Investment Issues
8 Conclusions
Solar Radiation Energy (Fundamentals) 100
L Wald Centre for Energy and Processes Ecole des Mines de Paris France
1 Introduction
2 Energy Emitted by the Sun
3 Sun-Earth Geometry - Time
31 Sun-Earth Astronomy
32 Sun-Earth Distance
33 Solar Declination
34 Geocentric and Geographic Coordinates
35 Legal Time and Solar Time
4 Sun Geometry Perceived by an Observer ndash Radiation at the Top of the Atmosphere
41 Sun Geometry Perceived by an Observer
42 Sunrise Sunset and Daylength
43 Incidence on Slopes - Radiation at the Top of the Atmosphere
5 Concepts of Scattering and Absorption - Terrestrial Radiation
6 Radiative Transfer in the Atmosphere ndash Spectral Distribution of the Radiation
7 Radiative Components at Ground Level
8 Conclusion
Photovoltaics 135
A Luque and I Tobiacuteas Universidad Politeacutecnica de Madrid (UPM) Spain
1 Introduction
2 What We See Today
3 History
4 Photovoltaic Generation
41 The Photovoltaic Effect
42 Solar Cells and Modules
5 The Solar Resource
51 Solar Radiation
52 The Potential of Photovoltaics
53 Radiation Data Sources
54 Radiation on Arbitrarily-tilted Surfaces
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) iv
55 Shading Losses
6 Photovoltaic Applications
7 Technology
71 Silicon Solar Cells
72 Thin Film Solar Cells
73 Concentrators
8 The Future of PV
81 Prospective
82 A New Generation of PV
9 Conclusion
Low Temperature Solar Collectors 172
Soteris A Kalogirou Higher Technical Institute Nicosia Cyprus
1 Introduction
11 Energy Related Environmental Problems
12 Renewable Energy Systems
2 Low Temperature Solar Collectors
21 Flat Plate Collectors (FPC)
211 Glazing Materials
212 Collector Absorbing Plates
213 Flat Plate Collector Configurations
22 Compound Parabolic Collectors (CPC)
23 Evacuated Tube Collectors (ETC)
3 Thermal Analysis of Collectors
4 Performance of Solar Collectors
41 Collector Thermal Efficiency
42 Collector Incidence Angle Modifier
43 Collector Time Constant
44 Collector Quality Tests and Preliminary Collector Selection
45 Modeling of Solar Systems
451 The F-CHART Method
5 Solar Collector Applications
51 Solar Water Heating Systems
511 Thermosiphon Systems (Passive)
512 Integrated Collector Storage Systems (Passive)
513 Direct Circulation Systems (Active)
514 Indirect Water Heating Systems (Active)
515 Air Systems for Hot Water Production (Active)
52 Solar Space Heating and Cooling
521 Air Systems
522 Water Systems
523 Heat Pump Systems
53 Solar Cooling
531 Adsorption Units
532 Absorption Units
54 Industrial Process Heat
541 Solar Industrial Air and Water Systems
55 Solar Desalination Systems
56 Solar Drying
6 Conclusions
Medium Temperature Solar Concentrators (Parabolic-Troughs Collectors) 227
E Zarza Unit of Solar Concentrating Systems Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea Spain
1 Introduction
2 Parabolic-trough Collectors Working Principle and Components
3 Optical Thermal and Geometrical Losses in a Parabolic-trough Collector
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) v
4 Energy Flow and Thermal Energy Delivered by a Parabolic-trough Collector
5 Design of Solar Fields with Parabolic-trough Collectors
6 Different Ways to Couple a Parabolic-trough Solar Field with an Industrial Process
61 Unfired Steam Generator (OilWater Heat Exchanger)
62 Flash-steam Systems
63 Direct Steam Generation
7 The Direct Steam Generation Technology
8 Thermal Energy Storage Systems for Parabolic-trough Collectors
81 Single-medium Storage Systems
82 Dual-medium Storage Systems
9 Electricity Generation with Parabolic-trough Collectors
High Temperature Solar Concentrators 256
Robert Pitz-Paal Institute of Technical Thermodynamics German Aerospace Center (DLR) Germany
1 Introduction
2 Theoretical Background
21 Concentration of Radiation
22 Conversion of Radiation to Heat
23 Conversion of Heat to Electricity
3 Technical Concepts
31 Parabolic Dishes
32 Central Receiver Systems
33 Solar Furnaces
4 Conclusions
Solar Ponds 299
Aliakbar Akbarzadeh and John Andrews School of Aerospace Mechanical and Manufacturing
Engineering RMIT University Melbourne Australia
Peter Golding Department of Metallurgical amp Materials Engineering University of Texas at El Paso
500 W University Avenue El Paso USA
1 What is a Solar Pond
2 The Design and Performance of Solar Ponds
21 Design Principles
211 Designing for an Application
212 Making Use of Local Resources
213 Matching Thermal Output to End-Use Requirements
22 Site Characteristics
23 Thermal Output and Sizing
24 Site Preparation Excavation and Lining
25 Sources of Salt
26 Source of Water
27 Setting-Up and Maintaining the Salinity Profile
28 Pond Clarity
29 Heat Extraction
210 Monitoring Key Parameters
211 Calculating and Measuring Pond Performance
212 Costs and Economic Evaluation
213 Environmental Benefits and Sustainability
3 Experimental and Demonstration Solar Ponds
31 Introduction
32 Israeli Solar Ponds
33 RMIT University Solar Ponds
34 UTEP High-Performance Solar Pond
4 Applications of Solar Ponds
41 Heating
42 Aquaculture and Biotechnology
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) vi
43 Desalination
44 Electrical Power Production
45 Salinity Mitigation
46 Production of Chemicals
5 State of the Art and Future Directions
Solar Irradiation and TiO2 Render Materials Self-Cleaning 320
P Pichat Photocatalyse et Environnement CNRSEcole Centrale de Lyon (STMS) France
1 Introduction
2 Preparing Coating and Incorporating TiO2 Thickness of the TiO2-containing Layer
3 Increasing the Photocatalytic Efficacy Better Harvesting Sun Light
4 Hydrophilicity Induced by Solar Irradiation Contributes to the Self-cleaning Effect
5 Limitations to the Self-cleaning Effect
6 Measurements of the Self-cleaning Efficacy
61 Field Tests
62 Laboratory Tests
621 Tests Conditions
622 Deposited Compounds for the Tests
623 Methods for Measuring the Cleaning Efficacy
624 Measurement of the Hydrophilicity
7 Measurements of the Mechanical and Optical Properties of Self-cleaning Materials
8 Can Self-cleaning Materials Significantly Contribute to Outdoor Air Pollutants Removal
9 Do TiO2-containing Self-cleaning Materials Present a Potential Health Risk
10 Commercialization of Self-cleaning Materials and Coatings
Photosynthetic Microorganisms and Valuable Products 339
F G Acieacuten Fernaacutendez J M Fernaacutendez Sevilla and J A Saacutenchez Peacuterez Universidad de Almeriacutea Spain
1 Introduction
2 Factors Affecting Photosynthetic Microorganisms
21 Light and Photosynthesis Rate
22 Average Irradiance
23 Nutrients
24 Temperature
25 Energy Supply
3 Photobioreactors
31 Designs
311 Open Reactors
312 Closed Reactors
313 Comparative Analysis
32 Quality
33 Safety
4 Biomass and Product Recovery
5 Industrial Applications
51 Waste Treatment
511 Water Treatment
512 Flue Gases Treatment
52 Production of High-Value Products
521 Carotenoids
522 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
523 Phycobiliproteins
Elaboration and Testing Of Materials Using Concentrated Solar Energy 363
G Flamant and M Balat-Pichelin Processes Materials and Solar Energy Laboratory (PROMES-CNRS)
7 rue du Four Solaire Font Romeu France
1 Brief history of the use of solar energy to transform matter
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) vii
2 Main characteristics of solar furnaces
3 Elaboration of materials using concentrated solar energy
31 Surface treatments
32 Melting and purification of bulk materials
33 Production of chemical commodities and ceramics
34 Elaboration of carbon molecules nanomaterials and thin films
4 Testing of materials using concentrated solar energy
41 Original devices at the focus of solar furnaces
42 Test of materials for aerospace applications
421 Atmopsheric re-entry (oxidation and catalycity)
422 Solar probe mission
43 Test of materials for future system of energy production
5 Conclusion
Index 389
About EOLSS 395
VOLUME II
Solar Distillation 1
Gopal Nath Tiwari and Hriday Narayan Singh Center of Energy Studies Indian Institute of Technology
India
1 Importance of Water
11 Water Sources
12 Water Demand
13 Drinking Water Quality
2 Water Pollution and its Effect
3 Principles of Solar Distillation A State of the Art
4 Classification of Solar Distillation Systems
41 Passive Solar Still
411 Conventional Solar Still
412 New Design Solar Still
42 Active Solar Distillation
421 Nocturnal Production
422 Pre-Heated Water Application
423 High Temperature Distillation
5 Heat and Mass Transfer in Solar Distillation
51 Background
52 Internal Heat Transfer
521 Convective and Evaporative Heat Transfer Coefficients
522 Radiative Heat Transfer Coefficient
523 Total Internal Heat Transfer coefficient
53 External Heat Transfer
531 Top Heat Loss Coefficient
532 Bottom and Sides Loss Coefficient
6 Performance of Solar Still
61 Thermal Modeling of Solar Still and Effect of Meteorological and other Parameters
62 Passive Solar Still
63 Active Solar Still
64 Economic Evaluation
641 Introduction
642 Economic Analysis
643 Preparation of Drinking Water
7 Conclusions and Recommendations
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) viii
Solar Photochemistry 67
Juliaacuten Blanco Gaacutelvez and Sixto Malato Rodriacuteguez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain
1 Solar Chemistry
2 Artificial Solar Photochemical Processes
3 Biological Photosynthetic Processes
4 Photochemical Synthetic Applications
41 Photooxygenation of Furfural
42 Synthesis of substituted Pyridines
43 Solar photo-production of Caprolactam
44 Photochemical synthesis of Thiohelicenes
45 Photocyclisation of substituted Benzylidenes to annulled Quinolines
46 Other solar driven photochemical processes
5 Solar Photocatalytic Processes to Water Contaminants Treatment
51 Heterogeneous titanium dioxide solar detoxification
52 Homogeneous solar photocatalytic processes
6 Gas Phase Photocatalytic Treatment Processes
7 Pilot Scale Solar Photochemical Facilities
8 Conclusions
Photochemical Conversion of Solar Energy 96
S Malato Rodriacuteguez and J Blanco Gaacutelvez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT SPAIN
1 Introduction
2 Photochemistry Principles
21 The Light
22 The Power of Light
3 The Solar Spectrum
31 Atmospheric Attenuation of Solar Radiation
32 Solar UV Photon Flux
4 Evaluation of Solar Photo Flux inside Photoreactors
41 Collector Efficiency
42 Actinometric Experiments
5 Simplified Methods for Comparing Experiments when working with Solar Radiation
51 Accumulated Energy
52 Secondary Actinometer
53 Standardized illumination time
Solar Photocatalysis and Water Treatment Detoxification and Disinfection 117
S Malato Rodriacuteguez and J Blanco Gaacutelvez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain
1 Introduction
2 Fundamental Parameters in Solar Photocatalysis
21 Direct Photolysis
22 Radiant Flux
23 Initial Concentration of Contaminant
3 Factors Affecting Solar Photocatalysis
31 Influence of Oxygen
32 Influence of Catalyst Concentration
33 Temperature Influence
34 pH Influence
4 Solar Photocatalytic Degradation of Contaminants
41 Improving Solar Photocatalysis Efficiency
42 Combining Solar Photocatalysis and Biotreatment
5 Solar Photocatalytic Disinfection of Water
51 Effect of Solar Radiation on Microorganisms
52 Microorganism Inactivation by Titanium Dioxide Photocatalysis
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) ix
Solar Photochemistry Technology 139
J Blanco Gaacutelvez and S Malato Rodriacuteguez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain
1 Introduction
2 Solar Collectors for Photochemical Processes
21 Parabolic Trough Collectors (PTCs)
22 One-Sun Collectors
23 Compound Parabolic Concentrators (CPCs)
24 Holographic Collectors
3 Peculiarities of Solar Tracking and Non-Tracking Systems
4 Technological Issues
41 Photochemical Reactor
42 Reflective Surfaces
43 Piping
44 Radiation Absorption
5 Gas-Phase Photochemical Technology
Solar Photochemistry Applications 163
J Blanco Gaacutelvez and S Malato Rodriacuteguez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain
1 Introduction
2 Solar Photocatalytic Treatment Plants
3 Cost Estimations
4 Water Phase Photocatalytic Applications
41 Phenols
42 Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
43 Pharmaceutical Compounds
44 Wood Preservative Waste
45 Agrochemical Wastes (Pesticides)
46 Seaport Tank Terminals
47 Removal of Hazardous Metal Ions
48 Cyanide degradation
49 Groundwater Decontamination
5 Water Disinfection
6 Gas-Phase Photocatalytic Applications
7 Contaminated Landfill Cleaning
Research and Environmental Issues in The 1990s 184
S Malato Rodriacuteguez and J Blanco Gaacutelvez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT SPAIN
1 Introduction
2 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of Chlorophenols
3 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of Pesticides
4 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of NBCS
5 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of Cyanide
6 Solar Photo-Fenton
61 Photo-Fenton Treatment of Pesticides
62 Photo-Fenton Treatment of Olive Mill Wastewater
7 Photoelectrochemical Reactors Development
Mathematical Models of Solar Energy Conversion Systems 205
Viorel Badescu Candida Oancea Institute Polytechnic University of Bucharest Romania
1 Introduction
2 Properties of Radiation Fluxes
21 Photons in Discrete Quantum States
22 Photons in Continuous Spectrum
23 Properties of Photon Fluxes
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) x
24 Spectral Property Radiances for Blackbodies and Band-gap Materials
3 Concentration of Solar Radiation
31 The Lagrangian of Beam Radiation
32 Upper Bounds on Solar Radiation Concentration
33 Geometrical Concentration Ratio for Several Mirrors
331 Spherical mirrors
332 Paraboloidal Mirrors
333 Cylinder Parabolic Mirrors
34 Perturbing Factors
4 Photothermal Conversion
41 Detailed Balance Models
411 The End-user Requires a Heat Flux
412 The End-user Requires Mechanical Power
42 Models Based on Spectrally Integrated Fluxes
421 The End-user Requires Heat The Flat Plate Solar Collector
422 The End-user Requires Work Solar Power Generation
423 Upper Bounds on Solar Energy Conversion Efficiency into Work
43 Discussion and Perspectives
5 Photovoltaic Conversion
51 Models Based on the Diode Equation
52 Models Based on Detailed Balance Equations
521 Radiation Received From the Environment Neglected
522 Radiation Received From the Environment Included
523 The Solar Cell Equation
53 Discussion and Perspectives
6 Photochemical Conversion
7 Conclusion
Multiple Effect Distillation of Seawater Using Solar Energy ndash The Case of Abu Dhabi Solar
Desalination Plant 256
Ali M El-Nashar International Center for Water amp Energy Systems Abu Dhabi United Arab Emirates
1 Introduction
2 History of Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant
3 Description of Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant
31 Plant Description
311 The solar heat collector subsystem
312 The heat accumulator subsystem
313 MED evaporator subsystem
32 Design Features
4 Measurements and Data Acquisition System
41 Measuring the heat collected in block F
5 Data Analysis
51 Calculating the solar radiation on absorber plate
52 Calculating the performance of the collector bank
53 Calculating the performance of the evaporator
531 Calculating the brine concentration at each effect
532 OHTC of heater (first effect)
533 Average OHTC of other evaporator effects
534 Average OHTC of preheaters
535 OHTC of condenser
536 Evaporator economy
6 Weather Condition in Abu Dhabi
7 Operating Characteristics
71 Heat collecting subsystem
711 Heat collector efficiency
712 Daily heat collection efficiency
72 Heat accumulator system
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xi
721 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
722 Thermal stratification ratio
73 Evaporating system
731 Evaporator performance
74 Performance of the plant
8 Plant Maintenance and Modifications
81 Heat collecting system
811 Cleaning the solar collector field
812 Corrosion of the collector air vent valves
813 Vacuum loss inside glass tubes
814 Scale prevention
815 Anti-corrosion chemical for use in the heat collecting water
816 Measures against power failure
82 Evaporating system
821 Evaporator pump maintenance
822 Inspection of the evaporator
823 Change in operating sequence
825 Modification of the method of feeding sealing water to the priming vacuum pump
824 Modification of the system for injecting anti-scale chemical
9 Simulation Program and its Validation
91 Simulation program
911 Outline
912 Flow chart of the SOLDES program
913 Program Input and output data
914 Mathematical Models
92 Comparison of simulation and actually measured Values
10 Evaluation of the Test Plant
101 Optimum operating conditions
102 Simulation results
103 Evaluation of the solar plant
11 Economic Considerations and Comparison with Conventional MED Plants
111 Basic economic parameters
112 Capital equipment cost
1121 Capital cost of MED evaporator
1122 Capital cost of solar thermal collectors
1123 Capital cost of heat accumulator
1124 Capital cost of steam generator for conventional MED systems
1125 Capital cost of diesel generator
113 Operation and maintenance expenses
1131 Consumable chemical expenses
1132 Electrical energy consumption
1133 Spare parts cost
1134 Personnel cost
114 Estimating the cost of water produced
12 Results of the Economic Study
13 Conclusion
131 System Reliability
132 Response to varying weather condition
133 Establishment of a method for cleaning of solar collectors
134 Comparison of the test plant results with that of the basic design
Index 335
About EOLSS 341
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xii
VOLUME III
Solar Irradiation Fundamentals 1
Zekacirci Sen Istanbul Technical University Maslak 34469 Istanbul Turkey
1 Introduction
2 The Sun
3 Atmospheric effects and Electro-magnetic Radiation (EMR) spectrum
4 Astronomic effects
5 Meteorological effects
51 Cloud Index
6 Topographic effects
7 Solar parameters
71 Solar geometry quantities
711 Earth eccentricity
712 Declination angle
713 Zenith angle
72 Solar time quantities
721 Solar time
722 Equation of time
723 Apparent solar time (AST)
73 Solar irradiation quantities
731 Solar constant
732 Irradiation path
8 Solar radiation modeling
81 Solar energy laws
82 Solar irradiation calculation
83 Estimation of clear sky radiation
84 Irradiation model
9 Astronomic calculations
91 The Daily Solar Profile
92 Daily solar energy on horizontal surface
93 Solar energy on inclined surface
10 Solar-Hydrogen Energy
11 Conclusions
Direct Solar Energy 67
S C Bhattacharya and S Kumar Energy Program Asian Institute of Technology Pathumthani
Thailand
1 Introduction
11 A Brief History of Energy
12 Origin of Solar Energy
13 Solar Thermal Energy
14 Photovoltaics (PV)
15 The Future of Solar Energy
2 Solar Radiation
21 Sun and Earth
22 Solar Radiation Estimation
3 Solar Thermal Conversion
31 Solar Collectors
311 Flat Plate Collectors
312 Concentrating Collectors
313 Evacuated Type Collectors
314 Selective Surfaces
32 Solar Water Heating
321 Introduction
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xiii
322 Natural Circulation Systems
323 Forced Circulation Systems
324 Materials Used in Solar Water Heaters
325 Advantages and Disadvantages
33 Solar Space Heating
331 Active Systems
332 Passive Systems
333 Solar District Heating
34 Solar Thermal Power Generation
341 Introduction
342 Parabolic Trough Systems
343 Power Towers
344 Parabolic Dish
35 Solar Drying
351 Introduction
352 Types of Solar Drier
353 Advantages of Solar Drying
4 Solar Photovoltaic Conversion
41 Solar Cells and Modules
42 Other Components of PV Systems
43 PV Applications
5 Other Solar Technologies
51 Solar Photochemical Conversion
52 Space Solar Power
521 Introduction
522 The SSP Concept
523 Promise and Problems
524 Future Prospects
6 Solar Energy Storage
61 Solar Thermal Energy Storage
611 Sensible Heat Storage
612 Latent Heat Storage
613 Chemical Energy Storage
614 Solar Electrical Energy Storage
7 Environmental Impacts of Solar Energy
71 General Impacts
72 Solar Thermal Systems
73 PV Systems
74 Health and Environmental Aspects
75 Energy Payback and CO2 Abatement
76 Other implications
761 Batteries
762 Operation and Decommissioning
8 The Way Forward
81 General
82 Solar Thermal Systems
83 PV Systems
9 Concluding Remarks
Solar Drying - A Technology for Sustainable Agriculture and Food Production 112
RJ Fuller Principal Fellow IDTC Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of
Melbourne Australia
1 Introduction
2 Drying Fundamentals
3 Sun vs Solar Drying
4 Types of Solar Dryer
41 Direct Mode
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xiv
42 Indirect Mode
43 Mixed Mode
44 Further Classifications
441 Natural Convection
442 Forced Convection
45 Other Differences
451 Supplementary Energy
452 Air Flow Direction
453 Heat Transfer Fluid
454 Thermal Storage
5 Solar Dryers in Practice
51 Direct mode natural convection dryers
52 Direct Mode Forced Convection Dryers
53 Indirect Mode Forced Convection Dryers
6 Performance Evaluation of Solar Dryers
61 Overall System Drying Efficiency
62 Pick-up Efficiency
63 Solar Collection Efficiency
64 Performance of Solar Dryers
65 Comparative Testing
7 Designing Solar Drying Systems
71 Rules-of-Thumb
72 Sizing Equations
73 Chart Methods
74 Simulation Techniques
8 Non-technical Factors
81 Economics
82 Practical Issues
83 Technology Transfer
84 Developing Country Issues
85 Industrialized Country Issues
9 Prospects and Future Developments
91 Technical Developments
92 Costs
93 Design
94 External Factors
10 Conclusions
A Short Historical Review of Renewable Energy 136
E Delyannis NCSR Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems ldquoDemokritosrdquo Aghia Paraskevi
Greece
A El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority (WEA) Abu-Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
11 The History of Renewable Energy Achievements
12 The Set-up of this Historical Review
2 The Renewable Energies in the Antiquity
21 From Legends to the First Written Documents
3 The Power of the Sun
31 The Dawn of the History
32 The Capture of the Suns Radiation
321 Antiquity to Middle Age The Philosophers
322 Renaissance to the 20th Century The Founders
323 The 20th Century The Engineers
324 The Present Times The Technologists
4 The Development of the Solar Distillation
41 From Philosophy to Practice
42 The First Large Applications
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xv
43 The Last 50 Years
5 Solar Driven Desalination
51 General Considerations
52 The Solar Driven Distillation Plants
53 Freezing Plants
54 Electrodialysis Plants
55 Solar Powered Reverse Osmosis Plants
6 The Energy of the Mother Gaia
7 The Power of Aeolos
71 The Aeolian Gods
72 The Harvest of the Winds Energy
73 The Raise and the Fall of Windmills
74 Wind Turbine Generation
8 The Power of the Moving Water
81 Hydraulic Power
9 The Impulsive Power of Poseidon
91 The Power of the Waves
92 The Tides and their Energy
93 The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) System
Renewable Energy Resources 186
V Belessiotis and E Delyannis NCSR Demokritos Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems
Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun as an Energy Source
21 The Availability of Solar Energy
22 Application of Solar Energy to Desalination
3 The Geothermal Energy
31 Introduction
32 The Geothermal Resources System
321 Hydrothermal Reservoirs
322 The Geopressurized Reservoirs
323 The Hot Dry Rocks
33 The Available Resources
34 The Geographic Distribution of Reservoirs
35 The Geothermal Brines
36 Application of Geothermal Resources
4 The Hydraulic Energy
41 Introduction
42 The Available Hydropower Resources
43 Limit of Hydropower Output
5 Wind Energy Resources
51 The Origin of Wind
52 The Distribution of Wind Forces
53 Wind Speed Distribution
54 The Utilization of the Wind Energy
6 Biomass as an Energy Source
61 Introduction
62 The Origin of Biomass
63 The Alternate Biomass Products
64 Biomass Residues
641 The Crop Residues
642 Fuel Wood
643 Sugar Crops
644 Livestock Manure
65 Refuse and Municipal Sewage
66 Plantation Biomass
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Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xvi
7 Thermal Energy from Biomass
71 Introduction
72 The Energy Conversion Methods
73 Environmental Impacts of Biomass Energy Sources
8 The Ocean Systems Energy Resources
81 Introduction
82 The Energy of the Waves
821 The Origin of the Waves
822 Distribution of Wave Resources
83 The Tidal Power as Energy Source
831 The Generation of Tides
832 The Tidal Potential
84 The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) Source
841 The Trapping of the OTEC Energy
Desalination with Renewable Energy - A Review 227
Ali M El-Nashar 22 Ahmed Gharbo St Apt 703 Zizinia Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Commercial Desalination Processes and Their Energy Consumption
21 Description of the Commercial Desalination Processes
211 Distillation Processes
212 Membrane Processes
22 Technical and Economic Characteristics of Commercial Desalination Processes
3 Available Renewable Energy Sources
31 Solar Energy
32 Wind Energy
33 Geothermal Energy
34 Other Renewable Energy Sources
4 Devices for Transforming Renewable Energy into Useful Energy for Desalination
41 Solar Collectors
42 Solar Ponds
43 Photovoltaic Cells
44 Wind Turbines
5 Coupling of Desalination Processes and Renewable Energy
51 Direct and Indirect Coupling of Solar Energy and Desalination
511 Direct coupling (Solar still technology)
512 Indirect Coupling
52 Desalination Systems Driven by Solar Thermal Energy
521 Solar Thermal Collectors-MSF Desalination
522 Solar Thermal Collectors-MED Desalination
53 Desalination Systems Driven by Wind Energy
531 Wind-MVC Systems
532 Wind-RO Systems
54 Desalination Systems Driven by Solar Photovoltaics (PV)
55 Hybrid Desalination Systems
6 Current Status
7 Selection Criteria among Different RE Desalination Technologies
8 Performance of Selected RE Desalination Projects
81 Solar Stills
82 Wind-Energy Driven RO Desalination Technology
83 PV-Powered Seawater RO System
84 Abu Dhabi Solar MED Desalination Plant
9 Economics of RE Desalination
91 Financial Analysis
92 Cost of Water from RES Desalination Plants
10 Conclusion
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xvii
Renewable Energy and Desalination Systems 301
Asghar Husain International Center for Water and Energy Systems (ICWES) Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
11 Need for Desalination
2 What Is Sustainability
3 Review of Desalination Technologies
31 Thermal-Based Processes
32 Membrane ndash Based Technologies
33 Renewable Energies
4 Desalination Using Solar Energy
41 Direct Utilization of Solar Radiation in the Solar Still
42 Solar Collectors
43 Solar Concentrating System
44 Solar Ponds
45 Photovoltaic Cells
46 Storage of Solar Energy
5 Desalination Using Other Renewable Energies
51 Wind Energy
52 Geothermal Energy
53 Wave Energy
54 Tidal Energy
55 Ocean Temperature Difference or Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
56 Hydraulic Energy
57 Biomass as Energy Source
6 Concluding Remarks
Why Use Renewable Energy for Desalination 342
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 The Need of Desalination for Economic Development in Remote Arid Areas
3 The Need of Energy for Desalination
4 The Availability of Renewable Energy
5 The Economic and Social Benefits of Using Renewable Energy for Desalination
6 Examples of Arid Remote Regions where Renewable Energy for Desalination can have a High
Economic Potential
61 The Southern and Eastern Mediterranean Regions
62 The Mediterranean Islands
63 The Arab Gulf Region
7 Conclusions
Thermal Energy Storage 356
Hassan E S Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Solar Energy Storage
12 Thermal Energy Storage
13 Thermal Storage Efficiency
14 Thermal Insulation
2 Sensible Heat Storage
21 Introduction
22 Low Temperature Sensible Heat Storage
221 Storage in Liquids
23 Intermediate and High Temperature Sensible Heat Storage
231 Storage in Fluids
232 Storage in Solids
233 Storage in Fluid-Solid Media
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xviii
24 Concluding Remarks
3 Latent Heat (Phase Change) Storage
31 Introduction
32 Low Temperature Latent Heat Storage
321 Phase Change Materials
322 Storage Systems Problems
33 Intermediate and High Temperature Latent Heat Storage
34 Concluding Remarks
35 Heat of Vaporization
4 Combined Sensible and Latent Heat Storage
5 Closing Remarks
6 Some Recent Developments
61 Sensible Heat Storage
62 Latent Heat Storage
621 Heat Transfer with Thermal Energy Storage
622 Storage System Performance
623 Solar Collector Integrated with Storage System
Electrical Energy Storage 387
J Garche Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research Baden-Wuumlrttemberg Germany
A Jossen Energy Storage and Energy Conversion Division Ulm Germany
1 Introduction
2 Systems with Internal Storage
21 Demands on the Battery
22 Lead-Acid Battery
221 Electrochemical Reactions
222 Operation values
223 Types of Lead-Acid Batteries
2231 Differentiation by electrodes
2232 Batteries with positive plates protected against active mass shedding
2233 Differentiation by container technology
224 Main Problems while Operation of Lead-Acid Batteries
2241 Charging and Overdischarge
2242 Deep Discharge
2243 Sulfation
225 Other Battery Systems
2251 Nickel-Cadmium Battery
2252 New Battery Systems
3 Systems with External Storage
31 Gas-Accumulator
32 Redox-Flow-Systems
4 Storage Sizing
Tidal Energy 406
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Consideration
5 Prospects
Index 416
About EOLSS 421
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xix
VOLUME IV
Desalination Using Tidal Energy 1
Abdalla S Hanafi Cairo University Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Tides
21 Spring and Neap Tides
3 Tidal Power Plants
31 Barrage
32 Locks and Gates
33 Power House
34 Basins
35 Storage
36 Economical Considerations
37 Tidal Sites
4 Tidal Desalination Technologies
41 Tidal-Vapor Compression Desalination
42 Tidal-Reverse Osmosis
421 Overall Analysis of the Reverse Osmosis Modules
43 Tidal - Electrodialysis (ED)
431 Electrodialysis DC Power
44 Tidal Freezing-Melting (FM)
441 Freezing-Melting System Analysis
5 Economic Comparisons with Wind and Solar Energy
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
15
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
22 Humidifying with cooling and dehumidifying processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in Desalination HD Process
25 Overview on Some desalination HD projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process description
32 The condenser in the SWGH
321 Different condenser layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot plant
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xx
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot plant
522 Performances of the SWGH
53 Case Study 3 The SWGH project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Wave Energy 81
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Considerations
5 Prospects
Wind Energy 97
B Sorensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Worldwide Distribution of Wind Energy Resources
11 Physical Potential Wind Maps
12 Practical Potential for Wind Turbines
13 Restrictions due to Competing Land Use
14 Off-Shore Potential
15 Methods for Determining Local Potential Atlas Technique
16 Overall Assessment of Potential
2 Wind Turbine Technology
21 Current Status and Prospects for the Future
22 Basic Theory Wind Turbine Types and Efficiencies
23 Prospects for Further Development
24 Current Penetration of Wind Power Utilization
25 National Plans and Future Prospects
26 Plant Lifetime and Reliability
27 Impacts on Requirements for Transmission and Back-Up
28 Energy Storage and Demand Management
3 Economic Social and Environmental Impacts of Wind Energy Utilization
31 Current Cost and Cost Trends
32 Employment Generation
33 Energy Balance
34 Noise
35 Aspects of Decentralized Energy Supply
36 Life-Cycle Estimate of Externalities Including Construction and Decommissioning Impacts
4 Evaluation of Greenhouse Warming Mitigation Potential of Wind Power
41 Assessment of Marginal Life-Cycle Impacts Including Greenhouse Warming
42 Elements of Non-Marginal Analysis of Energy Systems with Large Wind Power Share
43 Relationship between Demand Development and the Valuations of Wind Energy
44 Concluding Remarks
Availability of Wind Energy and Its Estimation 139
Richard Morris Richard Morris Associates Glasgow United Kingdom
1 The Sun as the Wind Driver
2 The Nature of Wind
3 Wind Power Statistics
4 Estimating Wind Power
5 Siting for Wind Energy
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxi
The Use of Geothermal Energy in Desalination 155
BW Tleimat Water Reuse Technology Alamo California USA
ADK Laird (deceased) Professor Emeritus and Director Emeritus Sea Water Conversion Laboratory
University of California Berkeley California USA
1 Introduction
2 Historical Perspective
3 Heat Transfer from Geothermal Reservoirs
4 Geothermal Energy Utilization
5 Electricity Generation
6 Water Production from Geothermal Sources
7 Idealized Liquid-dominated Reservoirs
8 Water and Power Generation Effects of Some System Parameters
9 Multiple-effect and Multistage Distillation Processes
10 Energy-budget Management
11 Processes for Decentralized Desalination
12 Water-budget Management
13 Solids-budget Management
Solar Photovoltaic Energy Conversion 181
G Schumm Zentrum fuer Sonnenenergie und Wasserstoff-Forschung Baden Wuerttemberg Stuttgart
Germany
1 The General Photovoltaic System
2 Non-Concentrating PV Systems
3 Tracking and Concentrating PV Systems
Flat-Plate Collectors 191
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Solar Collector Applications
3 Definitions
31 Solar Collectors
311 Solar Thermal Collector
312 Flat-Plate Collector
32 Construction Elements of a Solar Collector
321 Absorber Plate or Selective Surface
322 The Transparent Cover
323 The Collector Insulation
324 The Heat Transfer Medium
33 The Surface Areas
331 The Surface Area of the Absorber Plate
332 The Transparent Cover Surface
333 Total Surface Area
34 Operational Characteristics of the Collector
341 Collector efficiency (η)
342 Thermal Capacity of the Collector (C)
343 Pressure Drop (Δp)
344 Stagnant Conditions
345 Incidence Angle Coefficient (kθ)
35 The Characteristic Parameters of the Collector
351 The cover reflectance (ρc)
353 Cover Absorptance (αc)
352 Cover Transmittance (τc)
354 Coefficient of cover Emissivity (εc)
355 Coefficient of Absorber Emissivity
356 Selective Surface
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Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxii
357 Selective Coat
358 Collector Efficiency Factor (Fprime) 359 Collector Flow Factor (FPrime) 3510 Collector Heat Removal Factor (FR)
3511 Collector Heat Loss Coefficient (UL)
4 Main Collector Components
41 The Solar Radiation Absorber
42 The Transparent Cover
43 Thermal Insulation
44 The Casing of the Collector
45 The Supporting of the Collector
5 The Solar Absorbers
51 Types of Solar Absorbers
511 Absorbers of Common Paint
512 Selective coat Absorbers
52 Forms of Absorbers and Tubes
521 General considerations
522 Sandwich Type Absorber
523 Roll Bond Tube Absorber
524 Soldered Type Absorbers
525 Absorbers with Ω Type Fins
6 Characteristics of Flat-Plate Collectors
61 General considerations
62 Installation Configuration of a Collector System
63 Orientation and Slope of the Collector
7 Dynamic Operational Characteristics of a Collector
71 The Incident Angle Coefficient
72 The Thermal Capacity of the Collector C
73 The Heat Removal Factor FR
8 The Thermal Characteristics of a Collector
81 Determination of the Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL
82 Determination of Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL for in Series Interconnection
83 Equivalent Thermal Loss between Tubes and Collector
84 The Influence of Wind Velocity
9 Shading of the Collectors
10 Basic Calculation Methods
101 Cover Reflectance
102 Cover Transmittance
103 The Transmittance-Absorptance Product
104 Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
105 Multi-Cover Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
11 The Heat Transfer Loss Coefficients
111 Loss Coefficient Uc
112 Loss Coefficient Ub
113 Loss Coefficient Us
114 The Collector Efficiency Factor Fprime 115 Collector flow factor FPrime Large Active Solar Systems Load 220
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and other Energy Systems National Centre for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Estimation of Thermal Load
21 Estimation of the Required Heat Qload
22 Estimation of the Required Heat for the Water Qw
23 Estimation of the Heat Loss in Distribution Pipes Qp
24 Estimation of Heat Loss in the Storage Tank Qt
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiii
Large Active Solar Systems Typical Economic Analysis 225
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Cost of a Solar Hot Water System
21 Initial Capital Cost
22 Operational Costs
221 Cost of Fuel
222 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
223 Cost of Maintenance
224 Cost for Loans
225 Costs for Insurance
226 Miscellaneous Expenses
3 Cost of Conventional Hot Water System
31 Operational Costs
311 Cost of Fuel
312 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
313 Cost of Maintenance
4 Inflation
5 Rate of Interest
6 Methods of Life Cycle Cost
61 General
62 Present and Future Costs
63 Yearly Instalment
64 Yearly Expenses
7 Methodology
8 Present Value Factor
9 Comparison Methodology
Integration of Solar Pond with Water Desalination 240
U Fisher J Weinberg and B Doron Ormat Industries Ltd Yavne Israel
1 Introduction
2 Historical Background
3 The Solar Pond
31 Structure
32 Heat Absorption and Storage
33 Main Demands when Building a Pond
331 Surface Area
332 Surface Water Make-up
333 Concentrated Brine Supply
34 How to Build a Solar Pond
341 Geometry or Shape
342 Lining
343 Construction Materials in the Pond
344 Initial Filling and Build-up of Gradient
35 How to Control
36 Heat Losses (Ground Diffusion Evaporation)
361 Top Losses
362 Bottom Heat Losses
37 Disturbances
371 Algae
372 Corrosion
373 Wind
38 Heat Extraction
39 Fuel Assisted Solar Ponds
310 Maintenance
3101 Clarity
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3102 Cleaning of Wind Breakers
3103 Blow Down
3104 Make-up
3105 Leakages
311 Practical Size of a Single Pond
312 Investment in Solar Ponds
313 OampM Costs
4 Desalination Processes Coupled to the Solar Pond
41 Economic Aspects of Coupling Desalination Plants to Solar Ponds
411 Desalination Processes
412 The Choice and Proportion of Producing Heat and Power in the Solar Pond
4121 The Solar Pond Yield
4122 Desalination Plant Performance
4123 The Impact of Daily and Seasonal Fluctuations
4124 Economic Considerations and Evaluations
42 Experience with SP-Desalination Systems
43 Conclusions
Evacuated Tube Collectors 276
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Current Designs of Evacuated Tube Collectors
3 Thermal Analysis
4 Analysis of Flat Plate Evacuated Tube Collector
5 Analysis of Concentric-Tube Collector
6 Performance of Evacuated Tube Collectors
7 Case Study (Collector Field at the Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant)
71 Description of collector field
72 Performance of collector field
73 Economics
Parabolic Trough Collectors 299
Wolfgang Meinecke Deutsches Zentrum fuumlr Luft-und Raumfahrt eV (DLR German Aerospace Center)
Solar Energy Technology Division Koumlln Germany
1 Introduction
2 Brief History of Trough Development
3 State of the Art of Trough Applications
31 Conventional Thermal Water Desalination Applications
32 Solar Thermal Water Desalination Applications
33 Solar Electric Power Generation
34 Solar Process Heat Generation
35 Process Hot Water (Project Examples)
36 Process Steam (Project Examples)
37 Process Steam for Water Desalination (Project Examples)
38 Process Hot Air
4 Trough Technologies
41 LS 3 Trough Collector System
411 LS 3 Parabolic Reflector
412 Steel Support Structure
413 Absorber Element
414 Tracking System and Field Control System
415 Heat Transfer Fluid System
416 Steam Generator
417 Balance of Plant Technologies
418 Energy Storage System
42 IST Trough Collector System
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxv
421 IST Parabolic Reflector
422 Support Structure
423 Absorber Element
424 Tracking System and Field Control System
425 Heat Transfer Fluid System
426 Heat Exchanger
427 Balance of Plant Technology
428 Energy Storage
5 Prospects and Potential
51 Solar Electric Power Generation
52 Solar Process Heat Generation
53 Solar Thermal Water Desalination
6 Cost and Economic Aspects
61 Collector Investment Costs
611 LS 3 Collector Costs
612 IST Collector Costs
62 Other Economic Parameters
621 Fossil Fuel Prices
622 Solar Energy Yield
623 Solar Share
624 Plant Power Size
625 Capacity Factor
626 OampM Costs
627 Non-Technical Parameters
63 Costs of Solar Water Desalination
7 Conclusions
Index 363
About EOLSS 369
VOLUME V
Central Receivers 1
MM Elsayed Mechanical Engineering Department Kuwait University Safat Kuwait
1 Introduction
2 Heliostats Types and Design Shapes
3 Heliostat Angles
4 Heliostat Field Heliostat Layout
5 Heliostat Field Cosine Effect
6 Heliostat Field Preliminary Sizing of the Field
7 Heliostat Field Usefulness Efficiency
8 Reflected Solar Radiation
9 The Effective Sunshape
10 Principal Images and Relation between Receiver and Image Planes
11 Models to Predict the Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Image Plane
111 Incoming Ray Formulation
112 The Mirror Plane Formulation
113 Solar Disk Formulation
114 The Pinhole View
12 Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Receiver Surface Using the Separation of
VariableSuperposition Technique
121 Concept
122 Calculation of φ 123 Validation of Model Using Measurements
13 Receivers Types and Losses
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14 Preliminary Sizing of the Receiver
15 Overall System Optimization
Configuration Theoretical Analysis and Performance of Simple Solar Stills 98
A Kumar Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources Solar Energy Center New Delhi India
1 Introduction
2 Configuration of Simple Solar Stills
21 Basic Principle
22 Classification
23 Single Basin Solar Stills
24 Inclined Solar Stills
241 Basin Type Solar Stills
242 Wick Type Solar Stills
25 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
26 Solar Earth Water Stills
27 Plastic Solar Stills
271 Life Raft Solar Still
272 Circular Solar Still
273 Extruded Plastic Solar Still
274 Concentric Tube Solar Still
28 A Typical Solar Distillation Plant
3 Theoretical Analysis of Simple Solar Stills
31 Heat and Mass Transfer in Solar Stills
311 Inside the Solar Still
312 Outside the Solar Still
32 Solar Radiation Balance
321 Transmission through Top Cover
322 Absorption in the Top Cover
33 Energy Balance Equations
34 Solution Procedure
4 Performance of Solar Stills
41 Single Basin Solar Stills
42 Inclined Solar Stills
43 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
44 Solar Earth Water Stills
45 Plastic Solar Stills
46 Case Studies
461 Australia
462 Greek Islands
463 India
47 Suggested Practices for Installing Solar Stills
Development in Simple Solar Stills 169
Hassan ES Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Modified Simple (Passive) Stills
21 Basin Still
211 Single Slope versus Double Slope Basin Stills
212 Basin Still with Cover Cooling
213 Basin Still with Treated Cover Surface
214 Basin Still with Additional Condenser
215 Basin Still with Black DyeMuddy Water
22 Wick Stills
221 Single-wick Stills
222 Multi-wick Stills
223 Wick versus Basin Stills
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvii
224 Combined Wick-Basin Stills
23 Other Stills Configurations
231 Vertical Microporous Evaporator Still
232 Cascade Solar Still
233 Still Integrated with Greenhouse
3 Externally Heated (Active) Solar Stills
31 Introduction
32 Stills Coupled to a Solar Collector
321 Direct and Indirect Heating
322 Use of Dye and Cover Cooling
323 Other Solar Heaters
33 Stills Coupled with Solar Concentrator
34 The Use of Waste Heat in Solar Stills
4 Other Types of Solar Distillation Systems
41 Water Recovery from Air
Multi-Effect Solar Stills 197
HES Fath Al-Jubail 31951 Saudi Arabia
1 Why Multi Effect
2 Double Effect Basin Stills
21 Double Basins Stills
22 Double Effect Tilted Stills
23 Purging Vapor to a Second Effect
3 Multi-Effect Multi-Wick Stills
4 Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
41 Introduction
42 Mass Diffusion
43 Comparison between Diffusion and Basin Stills
44 Description of Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
45 Analysis and Performance Considerations
5 Other Distillation Systems
51 Stacked Tray Stills
52 Multi-Effect Humidification-Dehumidification
Materials for Construction of Solar Stills 218
TA Lawand and J Ayoub Brace Research Institute Canada
1 Introduction
2 General Specifications of Solar Stills
3 Transparent Cover
4 Basin Liner
5 Solar Still Frame
6 Sealants
7 Insulation
8 Auxiliaries - Piping Pumping and Reservoirs
Reverse Osmosis by Solar Energy 225
W Bucher DLR German Aerospace Research Establishment Cologne Germany
1 Introduction
2 Basic Parameters and Energy Demand for Osmosis
21 Physical Properties of Hyperfiltration
22 Energy required for the RO Process
3 Solar Power Conversion Systems
31 Solar Conversion Principles
32 Technical Data of Solar Energy Conversion Methods
33 RO Plant Operation Utilizing Variable Energy Sources
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
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4 Reverse Osmosis System Configuration and Operation Aspects
41 Process Design of RO Desalination Systems
42 Procedural Steps and Data for Water Treatment and Energy Consumption
43 Components of RO -Desalination
431 Membranes and Modules
432 High Pressure Pumps
433 Pressure Regulating Devices
5 Solar Powered Desalination Units
51 Specific Figures or RO Systems
52 Solar Power Concepts for RO Desalination
53 Operational Experience with Solar driven RO Systems
6 Costs
61 Specific Cost Figures for the Plant Components
62 Water Delivery Cost
Availability of Solar Radiation and Its Estimation 265
VG Belessiotis Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems National Center for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun and the Radiation Emitted
21 The Physics of the Sun
22 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
3 The Extraterrestrial Radiation
31 What is the Solar Constant
32 Variations of the Extraterrestrial Radiation
33 The Black-body Emittance and Absorptance
34 Blackbody Absorbers - Application to Desalination
4 The Co-ordinate Systems The Basic Solar Angles
41 The Earth-Sun Relationships
42 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Sky
43 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Celestial Sphere
44 Earth-Sun Geometric Relationship
45 Time and its Units - Day Length
46 Terrestrial Solar Radiation
461 Estimation of Radiation Availability
462 Average Radiation Values - Clearness Index
463 Clear Sky Radiation
464 Sky Radiation
47 Atmospheric Factors Affecting Radiation
5 Computation of Insolation at the Earths Surface
51 Insolation Data
52 Measurement of Solar Radiation
53 Models for Solar Radiation
54 Where the Models Apply
55 Tilted Surfaces - Absorptance of Solar Radiation
551 Fixed Tilted Surfaces
552 Tracking Surfaces
6 Applications of Solar Radiation
7 Impact of Solar Energy to the Environment
Economics of Small Solar-Assisted Multiple-Effect Seawater Distillation Plants 296
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Configurations
3 Design and Sizing Considerations
31 Thermal Energy Requirement
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxix
32 Pumping Requirements
33 Collector Performance
34 Sizing Thermal Collector Area
35 Sizing the PV System
351 Sizing the PV Array
4 Economic Ground Rules and Water Cost Optimization
41 Capital Equipment Cost
42 Operating Costs
43 Optimum Cost of Water for each Plant Configuration
5 Results
6 Conclusion
A Solar-Assisted Sea Water Multiple Effect Distillation Plant 15 Years of Operating
Performance (1985-1999) 316
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Basic Design Concept
21 General Plant Description
22 Design Specifications
23 Evaporator Heat Transfer Coefficient
24 Tube Dimensions Heat Transfer Areas and Materials
3 Performance during Commissioning Tests
31 The MES Evaporator
32 The Solar Collector Field
33 The Heat Accumulator
34 Total Plant Performance
4 Performance History
41 The MES Evaporator
42 The Solar Collector Field
43 The Heat Accumulator
431 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
4311 The heat balance method
4312 The direct temperature measurement method
4313 Thermal stratification ratio
44 Total Plant Performance
5 Major Maintenance Activities
51 Equipment Failure and Replacement
52 Acid Cleanings and Silt Removal from Evaporator
6 Evaluation of Water Cost
61 Capital Costs
62 Operation and Maintenance Costs
7 Conclusions
Mathematical Simulation of a Solar Desalination Plant 341
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Description
3 System Operating Conditions
31 Solar Heat Collecting Subsystem
32 Evaporator Subsystem
4 Mathematical Modeling of System Components
41 Solar radiation model
42 Ambient temperature model
43 Solar collector subsystem
431 Effect of shade on solar radiation
432 Effect of dust on transmissivity of glass tubes
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxx
433 Control of heat collecting operation
434 Heat collection by solar collectors
435 Heat loss from piping
4351 Piping specifications
4352 Standard pipe lengths
4353 Heat loss from piping during operation of heat collecting pump
4354 Heat loss from piping while the heat collecting pump is shutdown
4355 Correction of piping heat loss
44 Heat accumulator subsystem
441 Temperature distribution
442 MES evaporator subsystem
5 The Simulation Program
51 Program structure
52 Input and output data
6 Results
7 Conclusions
Index 379
About EOLSS 385
VOLUME VI
Modeling and Design of Solar Energy Systems Including Solar Economics 1
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 F-Chart Method
11 Performance and Design of Liquid-Based Solar Heating Systems
111 Storage Capacity Correction
112 Collector Flow Rate Correction
113 Load Heat Exchanger Size Correction
12 Performance and Design of Air-Based Solar Heating Systems
121 Pebble Bed Storage Size Correction
122 Air Flow Rate Correction
13 Performance and Design of Solar Service Water Systems
14 Thermosiphon Solar Water Heating Systems
15 General Remarks
2 Modeling and Simulation of Solar Energy Systems
21 Simple System Models
211 Pipe Losses
22 F-Chart Program
23 Trnsys Simulation Program
24 Limitations of Simulations
3 Solar Economic Analysis
31 Life Cycle Costing
32 Life Cycle Analysis Method
33 Payback Time
331 Not Discounted Fuel Savings
332 Discounted Fuel Savings
34 Alternative Method
341 System Optimization Using Economic Analysis
35 Uncertainties in Economic Analysis
Solar Energy Power Generation and Desalination Systems 47
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 Global Energy Problems and the Role of Renewables
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxi
11 Energy demand
12 Energy environmental problems and sustainable development
13 Water demand and consumption
14 Water and energy
15 Desalination and energy
16 Renewable energy technologies
2 Solar Collectors
21 Parabolic trough collectors
22 Fresnel collectors
23 Parabolic dish reflector
24 Heliostat field collector
3 Power Generation and Industrial Process Heat Systems
31 Parabolic trough collector systems
32 Power tower systems
33 Dish systems
34 Solar ponds
341 Heat extraction and applications
35 Industrial process heat systems
36 Solar industrial steam generation systems
4 Desalination Processes
41 Direct collection systems
42 Indirect collection systems
421 The multi-stage flash process
422 The multiple-effect distillation process
423 The vapor-compression process
424 Reverse osmosis
425 Electrodialysis
Solar Updraft Power Plant Technology Basic Concepts and Structural Design 94
Francesca Lupi University of Florence Florence Italy
Claudio Borri University of Florence Florence Italy
Wilfried B Kraumltzig Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
Hans-Juumlrgen Niemann Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
1 Solar Updraft Power Technology Introduction and Working Principles
2 History of the Solar Updraft Power Technology
21 Solar Tower Prototype in Manzanares (Spain)
3 Evaluation of Plant Efficiency
31 The Collector
32 The Chimney
33 The Turbines
34 Electric Power Generated by Supps
4 The Collector
5 Actions on Solar Updraft Towers
6 Wind Loading on Solar Updraft Towers
61 Wind Flow Structure in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer at High Altitudes
611 Boundary Layer Meteorology
612 The Ekman Spiral
613 Theoretical Considerations on the Mean Wind and Turbulence in the Ekman Layer
62 Modeling of the Wind Load on Solar Towers
621 Mean Wind Load
622 Response to Wind Turbulence
623 Fluctuating Wind Load
624 Equivalent Static Wind Pressures
625 Vortex Excitation
626 Other Effects The Effect of the Efflux
63 Wind Load on the Collector Roof
7 Structural Behavior of Solar Updraft Towers
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxii
71 Structural Elements of Solar Tower Shells
72 Some Typical Response Characteristics of Solar Tower Shells Vibration and Instability
Behavior
73 Non-Linear Tower Response
8 Structural Optimization of Solar Updraft Towers
81 The Role of the Stiffening Rings in the Structural Design of Solar Towers
82 Strategies of Optimization
9 Technology of Construction
Renewable Energy Potential in The Arab Region 162
Mohammed Mostafa El-Khayat General Manager of Planning New and Renewable Energy Authority
NREA Cairo Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Research Problem and Objectives
111 Research Problem
12 Research Objectives
2 Energy Demand
3 The Current Situation of Renewable Energy
31 Hydropower
32 Wind Energy
33 Solar Energy
34 Biomass and Geothermal Energy
4 Strategies
5 Institutional and Regulatory Framework
6 Main Policies and Incentives
7 RE Policies and Incentives Profiles
71 Algeria
72 Egypt
73 Jordan
74 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
75 Lebanon
76 Libya
77 Morocco
78 Palestine
79 Sudan
710 Syria
711 Tunisia
712 United Arab Emirates
713 Yemen
8 Financing Schemes and Investment Opportunities
9 Motivations and Barriers of Renewable Energy
10 Renewable Energy Initiatives
101 Arabian Initiatives
102 DESERTEC
11 Potential of Renewable Energy in the Region
12 The proposed mechanisms to enhance and accelerate the rate of using RE applications
13 The situation of localizing RE technologies
14 RE and climate change in Arab countries
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
198
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiii
22 Humidifying with Cooling and Dehumidifying Processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in HD Desalination Process
25 Overview on Some Desalination HD Projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process Description
32 The Condenser in the SWGH
321 Different Condenser Layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the Condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of Condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot Plant
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH Project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot Plant
522 Performances of the Pilot Plant
53 The SWGH Project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot Plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Evolution of Photovoltaic Materials for Renewable Energy Development 262
Abdelilah Slaoui InESS ndash CNRS ndash University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
Jef Poortmans IMEC Leuven Belgium
Marko Topic University of Ljubljana Faculty of Elec Eng Ljubljana Slovenia
Gavin Conibeer ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence UNSW Sydney Australia
1 General Introduction
2 Photovoltaic Materials and Technologies State of the Art
21 Crystalline Silicon
22 Thin Films
221 Amorphous Silicon
222 Nanocrystalline and Microcrystalline Silicon
223 Polycrystalline Silicon
224 Copper Indium Selenide Its alloys and Related Chalcopyrites
225 Cadmium Telluride
226 Materials for Photochemical Solar Cells
227 Materials for Organic Solar Cells
3 Next Generation Solar Cells
31 Introduction
32 Multiple energy level approaches
33 Multiple Exciton Generation solar cells
34 Intermediate Band (IB) cells
35 Hot carrier cells
4 Conclusions and Perspectives
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiv
Wind and Solar Renewable Energy Potential Resources Estimation 302
Philippe Drobinski Institut Pierre Simon LaplaceLaboratoire de Meacuteteacuteorologie Dynamique CNRSEcole
Polytechnique Palaiseau France
1 Renewable Wind and Solar Energies The Context
11 An Economical and Environmental Necessity
12 Energy Definitions and Units
2 Basic Knowledge in Geophysics for Energy Resource Evaluation
21 Earth Energy Budget and Atmospheric Motion
22 Near Surface Wind
23 Impacts of Clouds and Aerosols on Surface Solar Radiation
3 Wind Energy Resource
31 Wind Energy A Brief History
32 Wind Energy Resources Evaluation
33 Wind Energy Installed Capacity in the World
4 Solar Energy Resources
41 Solar Energy An Introduction
42 Worldwide Solar Heat
5 Methods for Wind and Solar Energy Resources Forecast
Index 353
About EOLSS 361
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) iii
345 Great Britain
346 Developing Countries
35 Conclusions
4 Solar Photovoltaic and Solar Thermal Technologies
41 Solar Photovoltaics
42 Solar Thermal Systems
5 Hydropower
51 Introduction
52 Capacity and Potential
53 Small Hydro
54 Environmental and Social Impacts
55 Conclusions
6 Geothermal Energy
61 Introduction
62 Capacity and Potential
63 Environmental Impacts
64 Conclusions
7 Renewable Energy System Cost and Performance
71 Recent Progress in Renewable Energy System Costs and Performance
72 Lessons Learned in Developing Countries
73 Leveling the Playing Field
731 Public and Private Sector Investment Issues
8 Conclusions
Solar Radiation Energy (Fundamentals) 100
L Wald Centre for Energy and Processes Ecole des Mines de Paris France
1 Introduction
2 Energy Emitted by the Sun
3 Sun-Earth Geometry - Time
31 Sun-Earth Astronomy
32 Sun-Earth Distance
33 Solar Declination
34 Geocentric and Geographic Coordinates
35 Legal Time and Solar Time
4 Sun Geometry Perceived by an Observer ndash Radiation at the Top of the Atmosphere
41 Sun Geometry Perceived by an Observer
42 Sunrise Sunset and Daylength
43 Incidence on Slopes - Radiation at the Top of the Atmosphere
5 Concepts of Scattering and Absorption - Terrestrial Radiation
6 Radiative Transfer in the Atmosphere ndash Spectral Distribution of the Radiation
7 Radiative Components at Ground Level
8 Conclusion
Photovoltaics 135
A Luque and I Tobiacuteas Universidad Politeacutecnica de Madrid (UPM) Spain
1 Introduction
2 What We See Today
3 History
4 Photovoltaic Generation
41 The Photovoltaic Effect
42 Solar Cells and Modules
5 The Solar Resource
51 Solar Radiation
52 The Potential of Photovoltaics
53 Radiation Data Sources
54 Radiation on Arbitrarily-tilted Surfaces
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) iv
55 Shading Losses
6 Photovoltaic Applications
7 Technology
71 Silicon Solar Cells
72 Thin Film Solar Cells
73 Concentrators
8 The Future of PV
81 Prospective
82 A New Generation of PV
9 Conclusion
Low Temperature Solar Collectors 172
Soteris A Kalogirou Higher Technical Institute Nicosia Cyprus
1 Introduction
11 Energy Related Environmental Problems
12 Renewable Energy Systems
2 Low Temperature Solar Collectors
21 Flat Plate Collectors (FPC)
211 Glazing Materials
212 Collector Absorbing Plates
213 Flat Plate Collector Configurations
22 Compound Parabolic Collectors (CPC)
23 Evacuated Tube Collectors (ETC)
3 Thermal Analysis of Collectors
4 Performance of Solar Collectors
41 Collector Thermal Efficiency
42 Collector Incidence Angle Modifier
43 Collector Time Constant
44 Collector Quality Tests and Preliminary Collector Selection
45 Modeling of Solar Systems
451 The F-CHART Method
5 Solar Collector Applications
51 Solar Water Heating Systems
511 Thermosiphon Systems (Passive)
512 Integrated Collector Storage Systems (Passive)
513 Direct Circulation Systems (Active)
514 Indirect Water Heating Systems (Active)
515 Air Systems for Hot Water Production (Active)
52 Solar Space Heating and Cooling
521 Air Systems
522 Water Systems
523 Heat Pump Systems
53 Solar Cooling
531 Adsorption Units
532 Absorption Units
54 Industrial Process Heat
541 Solar Industrial Air and Water Systems
55 Solar Desalination Systems
56 Solar Drying
6 Conclusions
Medium Temperature Solar Concentrators (Parabolic-Troughs Collectors) 227
E Zarza Unit of Solar Concentrating Systems Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea Spain
1 Introduction
2 Parabolic-trough Collectors Working Principle and Components
3 Optical Thermal and Geometrical Losses in a Parabolic-trough Collector
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) v
4 Energy Flow and Thermal Energy Delivered by a Parabolic-trough Collector
5 Design of Solar Fields with Parabolic-trough Collectors
6 Different Ways to Couple a Parabolic-trough Solar Field with an Industrial Process
61 Unfired Steam Generator (OilWater Heat Exchanger)
62 Flash-steam Systems
63 Direct Steam Generation
7 The Direct Steam Generation Technology
8 Thermal Energy Storage Systems for Parabolic-trough Collectors
81 Single-medium Storage Systems
82 Dual-medium Storage Systems
9 Electricity Generation with Parabolic-trough Collectors
High Temperature Solar Concentrators 256
Robert Pitz-Paal Institute of Technical Thermodynamics German Aerospace Center (DLR) Germany
1 Introduction
2 Theoretical Background
21 Concentration of Radiation
22 Conversion of Radiation to Heat
23 Conversion of Heat to Electricity
3 Technical Concepts
31 Parabolic Dishes
32 Central Receiver Systems
33 Solar Furnaces
4 Conclusions
Solar Ponds 299
Aliakbar Akbarzadeh and John Andrews School of Aerospace Mechanical and Manufacturing
Engineering RMIT University Melbourne Australia
Peter Golding Department of Metallurgical amp Materials Engineering University of Texas at El Paso
500 W University Avenue El Paso USA
1 What is a Solar Pond
2 The Design and Performance of Solar Ponds
21 Design Principles
211 Designing for an Application
212 Making Use of Local Resources
213 Matching Thermal Output to End-Use Requirements
22 Site Characteristics
23 Thermal Output and Sizing
24 Site Preparation Excavation and Lining
25 Sources of Salt
26 Source of Water
27 Setting-Up and Maintaining the Salinity Profile
28 Pond Clarity
29 Heat Extraction
210 Monitoring Key Parameters
211 Calculating and Measuring Pond Performance
212 Costs and Economic Evaluation
213 Environmental Benefits and Sustainability
3 Experimental and Demonstration Solar Ponds
31 Introduction
32 Israeli Solar Ponds
33 RMIT University Solar Ponds
34 UTEP High-Performance Solar Pond
4 Applications of Solar Ponds
41 Heating
42 Aquaculture and Biotechnology
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) vi
43 Desalination
44 Electrical Power Production
45 Salinity Mitigation
46 Production of Chemicals
5 State of the Art and Future Directions
Solar Irradiation and TiO2 Render Materials Self-Cleaning 320
P Pichat Photocatalyse et Environnement CNRSEcole Centrale de Lyon (STMS) France
1 Introduction
2 Preparing Coating and Incorporating TiO2 Thickness of the TiO2-containing Layer
3 Increasing the Photocatalytic Efficacy Better Harvesting Sun Light
4 Hydrophilicity Induced by Solar Irradiation Contributes to the Self-cleaning Effect
5 Limitations to the Self-cleaning Effect
6 Measurements of the Self-cleaning Efficacy
61 Field Tests
62 Laboratory Tests
621 Tests Conditions
622 Deposited Compounds for the Tests
623 Methods for Measuring the Cleaning Efficacy
624 Measurement of the Hydrophilicity
7 Measurements of the Mechanical and Optical Properties of Self-cleaning Materials
8 Can Self-cleaning Materials Significantly Contribute to Outdoor Air Pollutants Removal
9 Do TiO2-containing Self-cleaning Materials Present a Potential Health Risk
10 Commercialization of Self-cleaning Materials and Coatings
Photosynthetic Microorganisms and Valuable Products 339
F G Acieacuten Fernaacutendez J M Fernaacutendez Sevilla and J A Saacutenchez Peacuterez Universidad de Almeriacutea Spain
1 Introduction
2 Factors Affecting Photosynthetic Microorganisms
21 Light and Photosynthesis Rate
22 Average Irradiance
23 Nutrients
24 Temperature
25 Energy Supply
3 Photobioreactors
31 Designs
311 Open Reactors
312 Closed Reactors
313 Comparative Analysis
32 Quality
33 Safety
4 Biomass and Product Recovery
5 Industrial Applications
51 Waste Treatment
511 Water Treatment
512 Flue Gases Treatment
52 Production of High-Value Products
521 Carotenoids
522 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
523 Phycobiliproteins
Elaboration and Testing Of Materials Using Concentrated Solar Energy 363
G Flamant and M Balat-Pichelin Processes Materials and Solar Energy Laboratory (PROMES-CNRS)
7 rue du Four Solaire Font Romeu France
1 Brief history of the use of solar energy to transform matter
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) vii
2 Main characteristics of solar furnaces
3 Elaboration of materials using concentrated solar energy
31 Surface treatments
32 Melting and purification of bulk materials
33 Production of chemical commodities and ceramics
34 Elaboration of carbon molecules nanomaterials and thin films
4 Testing of materials using concentrated solar energy
41 Original devices at the focus of solar furnaces
42 Test of materials for aerospace applications
421 Atmopsheric re-entry (oxidation and catalycity)
422 Solar probe mission
43 Test of materials for future system of energy production
5 Conclusion
Index 389
About EOLSS 395
VOLUME II
Solar Distillation 1
Gopal Nath Tiwari and Hriday Narayan Singh Center of Energy Studies Indian Institute of Technology
India
1 Importance of Water
11 Water Sources
12 Water Demand
13 Drinking Water Quality
2 Water Pollution and its Effect
3 Principles of Solar Distillation A State of the Art
4 Classification of Solar Distillation Systems
41 Passive Solar Still
411 Conventional Solar Still
412 New Design Solar Still
42 Active Solar Distillation
421 Nocturnal Production
422 Pre-Heated Water Application
423 High Temperature Distillation
5 Heat and Mass Transfer in Solar Distillation
51 Background
52 Internal Heat Transfer
521 Convective and Evaporative Heat Transfer Coefficients
522 Radiative Heat Transfer Coefficient
523 Total Internal Heat Transfer coefficient
53 External Heat Transfer
531 Top Heat Loss Coefficient
532 Bottom and Sides Loss Coefficient
6 Performance of Solar Still
61 Thermal Modeling of Solar Still and Effect of Meteorological and other Parameters
62 Passive Solar Still
63 Active Solar Still
64 Economic Evaluation
641 Introduction
642 Economic Analysis
643 Preparation of Drinking Water
7 Conclusions and Recommendations
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) viii
Solar Photochemistry 67
Juliaacuten Blanco Gaacutelvez and Sixto Malato Rodriacuteguez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain
1 Solar Chemistry
2 Artificial Solar Photochemical Processes
3 Biological Photosynthetic Processes
4 Photochemical Synthetic Applications
41 Photooxygenation of Furfural
42 Synthesis of substituted Pyridines
43 Solar photo-production of Caprolactam
44 Photochemical synthesis of Thiohelicenes
45 Photocyclisation of substituted Benzylidenes to annulled Quinolines
46 Other solar driven photochemical processes
5 Solar Photocatalytic Processes to Water Contaminants Treatment
51 Heterogeneous titanium dioxide solar detoxification
52 Homogeneous solar photocatalytic processes
6 Gas Phase Photocatalytic Treatment Processes
7 Pilot Scale Solar Photochemical Facilities
8 Conclusions
Photochemical Conversion of Solar Energy 96
S Malato Rodriacuteguez and J Blanco Gaacutelvez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT SPAIN
1 Introduction
2 Photochemistry Principles
21 The Light
22 The Power of Light
3 The Solar Spectrum
31 Atmospheric Attenuation of Solar Radiation
32 Solar UV Photon Flux
4 Evaluation of Solar Photo Flux inside Photoreactors
41 Collector Efficiency
42 Actinometric Experiments
5 Simplified Methods for Comparing Experiments when working with Solar Radiation
51 Accumulated Energy
52 Secondary Actinometer
53 Standardized illumination time
Solar Photocatalysis and Water Treatment Detoxification and Disinfection 117
S Malato Rodriacuteguez and J Blanco Gaacutelvez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain
1 Introduction
2 Fundamental Parameters in Solar Photocatalysis
21 Direct Photolysis
22 Radiant Flux
23 Initial Concentration of Contaminant
3 Factors Affecting Solar Photocatalysis
31 Influence of Oxygen
32 Influence of Catalyst Concentration
33 Temperature Influence
34 pH Influence
4 Solar Photocatalytic Degradation of Contaminants
41 Improving Solar Photocatalysis Efficiency
42 Combining Solar Photocatalysis and Biotreatment
5 Solar Photocatalytic Disinfection of Water
51 Effect of Solar Radiation on Microorganisms
52 Microorganism Inactivation by Titanium Dioxide Photocatalysis
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) ix
Solar Photochemistry Technology 139
J Blanco Gaacutelvez and S Malato Rodriacuteguez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain
1 Introduction
2 Solar Collectors for Photochemical Processes
21 Parabolic Trough Collectors (PTCs)
22 One-Sun Collectors
23 Compound Parabolic Concentrators (CPCs)
24 Holographic Collectors
3 Peculiarities of Solar Tracking and Non-Tracking Systems
4 Technological Issues
41 Photochemical Reactor
42 Reflective Surfaces
43 Piping
44 Radiation Absorption
5 Gas-Phase Photochemical Technology
Solar Photochemistry Applications 163
J Blanco Gaacutelvez and S Malato Rodriacuteguez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain
1 Introduction
2 Solar Photocatalytic Treatment Plants
3 Cost Estimations
4 Water Phase Photocatalytic Applications
41 Phenols
42 Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
43 Pharmaceutical Compounds
44 Wood Preservative Waste
45 Agrochemical Wastes (Pesticides)
46 Seaport Tank Terminals
47 Removal of Hazardous Metal Ions
48 Cyanide degradation
49 Groundwater Decontamination
5 Water Disinfection
6 Gas-Phase Photocatalytic Applications
7 Contaminated Landfill Cleaning
Research and Environmental Issues in The 1990s 184
S Malato Rodriacuteguez and J Blanco Gaacutelvez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT SPAIN
1 Introduction
2 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of Chlorophenols
3 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of Pesticides
4 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of NBCS
5 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of Cyanide
6 Solar Photo-Fenton
61 Photo-Fenton Treatment of Pesticides
62 Photo-Fenton Treatment of Olive Mill Wastewater
7 Photoelectrochemical Reactors Development
Mathematical Models of Solar Energy Conversion Systems 205
Viorel Badescu Candida Oancea Institute Polytechnic University of Bucharest Romania
1 Introduction
2 Properties of Radiation Fluxes
21 Photons in Discrete Quantum States
22 Photons in Continuous Spectrum
23 Properties of Photon Fluxes
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) x
24 Spectral Property Radiances for Blackbodies and Band-gap Materials
3 Concentration of Solar Radiation
31 The Lagrangian of Beam Radiation
32 Upper Bounds on Solar Radiation Concentration
33 Geometrical Concentration Ratio for Several Mirrors
331 Spherical mirrors
332 Paraboloidal Mirrors
333 Cylinder Parabolic Mirrors
34 Perturbing Factors
4 Photothermal Conversion
41 Detailed Balance Models
411 The End-user Requires a Heat Flux
412 The End-user Requires Mechanical Power
42 Models Based on Spectrally Integrated Fluxes
421 The End-user Requires Heat The Flat Plate Solar Collector
422 The End-user Requires Work Solar Power Generation
423 Upper Bounds on Solar Energy Conversion Efficiency into Work
43 Discussion and Perspectives
5 Photovoltaic Conversion
51 Models Based on the Diode Equation
52 Models Based on Detailed Balance Equations
521 Radiation Received From the Environment Neglected
522 Radiation Received From the Environment Included
523 The Solar Cell Equation
53 Discussion and Perspectives
6 Photochemical Conversion
7 Conclusion
Multiple Effect Distillation of Seawater Using Solar Energy ndash The Case of Abu Dhabi Solar
Desalination Plant 256
Ali M El-Nashar International Center for Water amp Energy Systems Abu Dhabi United Arab Emirates
1 Introduction
2 History of Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant
3 Description of Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant
31 Plant Description
311 The solar heat collector subsystem
312 The heat accumulator subsystem
313 MED evaporator subsystem
32 Design Features
4 Measurements and Data Acquisition System
41 Measuring the heat collected in block F
5 Data Analysis
51 Calculating the solar radiation on absorber plate
52 Calculating the performance of the collector bank
53 Calculating the performance of the evaporator
531 Calculating the brine concentration at each effect
532 OHTC of heater (first effect)
533 Average OHTC of other evaporator effects
534 Average OHTC of preheaters
535 OHTC of condenser
536 Evaporator economy
6 Weather Condition in Abu Dhabi
7 Operating Characteristics
71 Heat collecting subsystem
711 Heat collector efficiency
712 Daily heat collection efficiency
72 Heat accumulator system
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xi
721 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
722 Thermal stratification ratio
73 Evaporating system
731 Evaporator performance
74 Performance of the plant
8 Plant Maintenance and Modifications
81 Heat collecting system
811 Cleaning the solar collector field
812 Corrosion of the collector air vent valves
813 Vacuum loss inside glass tubes
814 Scale prevention
815 Anti-corrosion chemical for use in the heat collecting water
816 Measures against power failure
82 Evaporating system
821 Evaporator pump maintenance
822 Inspection of the evaporator
823 Change in operating sequence
825 Modification of the method of feeding sealing water to the priming vacuum pump
824 Modification of the system for injecting anti-scale chemical
9 Simulation Program and its Validation
91 Simulation program
911 Outline
912 Flow chart of the SOLDES program
913 Program Input and output data
914 Mathematical Models
92 Comparison of simulation and actually measured Values
10 Evaluation of the Test Plant
101 Optimum operating conditions
102 Simulation results
103 Evaluation of the solar plant
11 Economic Considerations and Comparison with Conventional MED Plants
111 Basic economic parameters
112 Capital equipment cost
1121 Capital cost of MED evaporator
1122 Capital cost of solar thermal collectors
1123 Capital cost of heat accumulator
1124 Capital cost of steam generator for conventional MED systems
1125 Capital cost of diesel generator
113 Operation and maintenance expenses
1131 Consumable chemical expenses
1132 Electrical energy consumption
1133 Spare parts cost
1134 Personnel cost
114 Estimating the cost of water produced
12 Results of the Economic Study
13 Conclusion
131 System Reliability
132 Response to varying weather condition
133 Establishment of a method for cleaning of solar collectors
134 Comparison of the test plant results with that of the basic design
Index 335
About EOLSS 341
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xii
VOLUME III
Solar Irradiation Fundamentals 1
Zekacirci Sen Istanbul Technical University Maslak 34469 Istanbul Turkey
1 Introduction
2 The Sun
3 Atmospheric effects and Electro-magnetic Radiation (EMR) spectrum
4 Astronomic effects
5 Meteorological effects
51 Cloud Index
6 Topographic effects
7 Solar parameters
71 Solar geometry quantities
711 Earth eccentricity
712 Declination angle
713 Zenith angle
72 Solar time quantities
721 Solar time
722 Equation of time
723 Apparent solar time (AST)
73 Solar irradiation quantities
731 Solar constant
732 Irradiation path
8 Solar radiation modeling
81 Solar energy laws
82 Solar irradiation calculation
83 Estimation of clear sky radiation
84 Irradiation model
9 Astronomic calculations
91 The Daily Solar Profile
92 Daily solar energy on horizontal surface
93 Solar energy on inclined surface
10 Solar-Hydrogen Energy
11 Conclusions
Direct Solar Energy 67
S C Bhattacharya and S Kumar Energy Program Asian Institute of Technology Pathumthani
Thailand
1 Introduction
11 A Brief History of Energy
12 Origin of Solar Energy
13 Solar Thermal Energy
14 Photovoltaics (PV)
15 The Future of Solar Energy
2 Solar Radiation
21 Sun and Earth
22 Solar Radiation Estimation
3 Solar Thermal Conversion
31 Solar Collectors
311 Flat Plate Collectors
312 Concentrating Collectors
313 Evacuated Type Collectors
314 Selective Surfaces
32 Solar Water Heating
321 Introduction
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xiii
322 Natural Circulation Systems
323 Forced Circulation Systems
324 Materials Used in Solar Water Heaters
325 Advantages and Disadvantages
33 Solar Space Heating
331 Active Systems
332 Passive Systems
333 Solar District Heating
34 Solar Thermal Power Generation
341 Introduction
342 Parabolic Trough Systems
343 Power Towers
344 Parabolic Dish
35 Solar Drying
351 Introduction
352 Types of Solar Drier
353 Advantages of Solar Drying
4 Solar Photovoltaic Conversion
41 Solar Cells and Modules
42 Other Components of PV Systems
43 PV Applications
5 Other Solar Technologies
51 Solar Photochemical Conversion
52 Space Solar Power
521 Introduction
522 The SSP Concept
523 Promise and Problems
524 Future Prospects
6 Solar Energy Storage
61 Solar Thermal Energy Storage
611 Sensible Heat Storage
612 Latent Heat Storage
613 Chemical Energy Storage
614 Solar Electrical Energy Storage
7 Environmental Impacts of Solar Energy
71 General Impacts
72 Solar Thermal Systems
73 PV Systems
74 Health and Environmental Aspects
75 Energy Payback and CO2 Abatement
76 Other implications
761 Batteries
762 Operation and Decommissioning
8 The Way Forward
81 General
82 Solar Thermal Systems
83 PV Systems
9 Concluding Remarks
Solar Drying - A Technology for Sustainable Agriculture and Food Production 112
RJ Fuller Principal Fellow IDTC Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of
Melbourne Australia
1 Introduction
2 Drying Fundamentals
3 Sun vs Solar Drying
4 Types of Solar Dryer
41 Direct Mode
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xiv
42 Indirect Mode
43 Mixed Mode
44 Further Classifications
441 Natural Convection
442 Forced Convection
45 Other Differences
451 Supplementary Energy
452 Air Flow Direction
453 Heat Transfer Fluid
454 Thermal Storage
5 Solar Dryers in Practice
51 Direct mode natural convection dryers
52 Direct Mode Forced Convection Dryers
53 Indirect Mode Forced Convection Dryers
6 Performance Evaluation of Solar Dryers
61 Overall System Drying Efficiency
62 Pick-up Efficiency
63 Solar Collection Efficiency
64 Performance of Solar Dryers
65 Comparative Testing
7 Designing Solar Drying Systems
71 Rules-of-Thumb
72 Sizing Equations
73 Chart Methods
74 Simulation Techniques
8 Non-technical Factors
81 Economics
82 Practical Issues
83 Technology Transfer
84 Developing Country Issues
85 Industrialized Country Issues
9 Prospects and Future Developments
91 Technical Developments
92 Costs
93 Design
94 External Factors
10 Conclusions
A Short Historical Review of Renewable Energy 136
E Delyannis NCSR Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems ldquoDemokritosrdquo Aghia Paraskevi
Greece
A El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority (WEA) Abu-Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
11 The History of Renewable Energy Achievements
12 The Set-up of this Historical Review
2 The Renewable Energies in the Antiquity
21 From Legends to the First Written Documents
3 The Power of the Sun
31 The Dawn of the History
32 The Capture of the Suns Radiation
321 Antiquity to Middle Age The Philosophers
322 Renaissance to the 20th Century The Founders
323 The 20th Century The Engineers
324 The Present Times The Technologists
4 The Development of the Solar Distillation
41 From Philosophy to Practice
42 The First Large Applications
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xv
43 The Last 50 Years
5 Solar Driven Desalination
51 General Considerations
52 The Solar Driven Distillation Plants
53 Freezing Plants
54 Electrodialysis Plants
55 Solar Powered Reverse Osmosis Plants
6 The Energy of the Mother Gaia
7 The Power of Aeolos
71 The Aeolian Gods
72 The Harvest of the Winds Energy
73 The Raise and the Fall of Windmills
74 Wind Turbine Generation
8 The Power of the Moving Water
81 Hydraulic Power
9 The Impulsive Power of Poseidon
91 The Power of the Waves
92 The Tides and their Energy
93 The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) System
Renewable Energy Resources 186
V Belessiotis and E Delyannis NCSR Demokritos Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems
Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun as an Energy Source
21 The Availability of Solar Energy
22 Application of Solar Energy to Desalination
3 The Geothermal Energy
31 Introduction
32 The Geothermal Resources System
321 Hydrothermal Reservoirs
322 The Geopressurized Reservoirs
323 The Hot Dry Rocks
33 The Available Resources
34 The Geographic Distribution of Reservoirs
35 The Geothermal Brines
36 Application of Geothermal Resources
4 The Hydraulic Energy
41 Introduction
42 The Available Hydropower Resources
43 Limit of Hydropower Output
5 Wind Energy Resources
51 The Origin of Wind
52 The Distribution of Wind Forces
53 Wind Speed Distribution
54 The Utilization of the Wind Energy
6 Biomass as an Energy Source
61 Introduction
62 The Origin of Biomass
63 The Alternate Biomass Products
64 Biomass Residues
641 The Crop Residues
642 Fuel Wood
643 Sugar Crops
644 Livestock Manure
65 Refuse and Municipal Sewage
66 Plantation Biomass
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xvi
7 Thermal Energy from Biomass
71 Introduction
72 The Energy Conversion Methods
73 Environmental Impacts of Biomass Energy Sources
8 The Ocean Systems Energy Resources
81 Introduction
82 The Energy of the Waves
821 The Origin of the Waves
822 Distribution of Wave Resources
83 The Tidal Power as Energy Source
831 The Generation of Tides
832 The Tidal Potential
84 The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) Source
841 The Trapping of the OTEC Energy
Desalination with Renewable Energy - A Review 227
Ali M El-Nashar 22 Ahmed Gharbo St Apt 703 Zizinia Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Commercial Desalination Processes and Their Energy Consumption
21 Description of the Commercial Desalination Processes
211 Distillation Processes
212 Membrane Processes
22 Technical and Economic Characteristics of Commercial Desalination Processes
3 Available Renewable Energy Sources
31 Solar Energy
32 Wind Energy
33 Geothermal Energy
34 Other Renewable Energy Sources
4 Devices for Transforming Renewable Energy into Useful Energy for Desalination
41 Solar Collectors
42 Solar Ponds
43 Photovoltaic Cells
44 Wind Turbines
5 Coupling of Desalination Processes and Renewable Energy
51 Direct and Indirect Coupling of Solar Energy and Desalination
511 Direct coupling (Solar still technology)
512 Indirect Coupling
52 Desalination Systems Driven by Solar Thermal Energy
521 Solar Thermal Collectors-MSF Desalination
522 Solar Thermal Collectors-MED Desalination
53 Desalination Systems Driven by Wind Energy
531 Wind-MVC Systems
532 Wind-RO Systems
54 Desalination Systems Driven by Solar Photovoltaics (PV)
55 Hybrid Desalination Systems
6 Current Status
7 Selection Criteria among Different RE Desalination Technologies
8 Performance of Selected RE Desalination Projects
81 Solar Stills
82 Wind-Energy Driven RO Desalination Technology
83 PV-Powered Seawater RO System
84 Abu Dhabi Solar MED Desalination Plant
9 Economics of RE Desalination
91 Financial Analysis
92 Cost of Water from RES Desalination Plants
10 Conclusion
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xvii
Renewable Energy and Desalination Systems 301
Asghar Husain International Center for Water and Energy Systems (ICWES) Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
11 Need for Desalination
2 What Is Sustainability
3 Review of Desalination Technologies
31 Thermal-Based Processes
32 Membrane ndash Based Technologies
33 Renewable Energies
4 Desalination Using Solar Energy
41 Direct Utilization of Solar Radiation in the Solar Still
42 Solar Collectors
43 Solar Concentrating System
44 Solar Ponds
45 Photovoltaic Cells
46 Storage of Solar Energy
5 Desalination Using Other Renewable Energies
51 Wind Energy
52 Geothermal Energy
53 Wave Energy
54 Tidal Energy
55 Ocean Temperature Difference or Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
56 Hydraulic Energy
57 Biomass as Energy Source
6 Concluding Remarks
Why Use Renewable Energy for Desalination 342
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 The Need of Desalination for Economic Development in Remote Arid Areas
3 The Need of Energy for Desalination
4 The Availability of Renewable Energy
5 The Economic and Social Benefits of Using Renewable Energy for Desalination
6 Examples of Arid Remote Regions where Renewable Energy for Desalination can have a High
Economic Potential
61 The Southern and Eastern Mediterranean Regions
62 The Mediterranean Islands
63 The Arab Gulf Region
7 Conclusions
Thermal Energy Storage 356
Hassan E S Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Solar Energy Storage
12 Thermal Energy Storage
13 Thermal Storage Efficiency
14 Thermal Insulation
2 Sensible Heat Storage
21 Introduction
22 Low Temperature Sensible Heat Storage
221 Storage in Liquids
23 Intermediate and High Temperature Sensible Heat Storage
231 Storage in Fluids
232 Storage in Solids
233 Storage in Fluid-Solid Media
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xviii
24 Concluding Remarks
3 Latent Heat (Phase Change) Storage
31 Introduction
32 Low Temperature Latent Heat Storage
321 Phase Change Materials
322 Storage Systems Problems
33 Intermediate and High Temperature Latent Heat Storage
34 Concluding Remarks
35 Heat of Vaporization
4 Combined Sensible and Latent Heat Storage
5 Closing Remarks
6 Some Recent Developments
61 Sensible Heat Storage
62 Latent Heat Storage
621 Heat Transfer with Thermal Energy Storage
622 Storage System Performance
623 Solar Collector Integrated with Storage System
Electrical Energy Storage 387
J Garche Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research Baden-Wuumlrttemberg Germany
A Jossen Energy Storage and Energy Conversion Division Ulm Germany
1 Introduction
2 Systems with Internal Storage
21 Demands on the Battery
22 Lead-Acid Battery
221 Electrochemical Reactions
222 Operation values
223 Types of Lead-Acid Batteries
2231 Differentiation by electrodes
2232 Batteries with positive plates protected against active mass shedding
2233 Differentiation by container technology
224 Main Problems while Operation of Lead-Acid Batteries
2241 Charging and Overdischarge
2242 Deep Discharge
2243 Sulfation
225 Other Battery Systems
2251 Nickel-Cadmium Battery
2252 New Battery Systems
3 Systems with External Storage
31 Gas-Accumulator
32 Redox-Flow-Systems
4 Storage Sizing
Tidal Energy 406
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Consideration
5 Prospects
Index 416
About EOLSS 421
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xix
VOLUME IV
Desalination Using Tidal Energy 1
Abdalla S Hanafi Cairo University Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Tides
21 Spring and Neap Tides
3 Tidal Power Plants
31 Barrage
32 Locks and Gates
33 Power House
34 Basins
35 Storage
36 Economical Considerations
37 Tidal Sites
4 Tidal Desalination Technologies
41 Tidal-Vapor Compression Desalination
42 Tidal-Reverse Osmosis
421 Overall Analysis of the Reverse Osmosis Modules
43 Tidal - Electrodialysis (ED)
431 Electrodialysis DC Power
44 Tidal Freezing-Melting (FM)
441 Freezing-Melting System Analysis
5 Economic Comparisons with Wind and Solar Energy
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
15
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
22 Humidifying with cooling and dehumidifying processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in Desalination HD Process
25 Overview on Some desalination HD projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process description
32 The condenser in the SWGH
321 Different condenser layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot plant
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xx
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot plant
522 Performances of the SWGH
53 Case Study 3 The SWGH project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Wave Energy 81
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Considerations
5 Prospects
Wind Energy 97
B Sorensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Worldwide Distribution of Wind Energy Resources
11 Physical Potential Wind Maps
12 Practical Potential for Wind Turbines
13 Restrictions due to Competing Land Use
14 Off-Shore Potential
15 Methods for Determining Local Potential Atlas Technique
16 Overall Assessment of Potential
2 Wind Turbine Technology
21 Current Status and Prospects for the Future
22 Basic Theory Wind Turbine Types and Efficiencies
23 Prospects for Further Development
24 Current Penetration of Wind Power Utilization
25 National Plans and Future Prospects
26 Plant Lifetime and Reliability
27 Impacts on Requirements for Transmission and Back-Up
28 Energy Storage and Demand Management
3 Economic Social and Environmental Impacts of Wind Energy Utilization
31 Current Cost and Cost Trends
32 Employment Generation
33 Energy Balance
34 Noise
35 Aspects of Decentralized Energy Supply
36 Life-Cycle Estimate of Externalities Including Construction and Decommissioning Impacts
4 Evaluation of Greenhouse Warming Mitigation Potential of Wind Power
41 Assessment of Marginal Life-Cycle Impacts Including Greenhouse Warming
42 Elements of Non-Marginal Analysis of Energy Systems with Large Wind Power Share
43 Relationship between Demand Development and the Valuations of Wind Energy
44 Concluding Remarks
Availability of Wind Energy and Its Estimation 139
Richard Morris Richard Morris Associates Glasgow United Kingdom
1 The Sun as the Wind Driver
2 The Nature of Wind
3 Wind Power Statistics
4 Estimating Wind Power
5 Siting for Wind Energy
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxi
The Use of Geothermal Energy in Desalination 155
BW Tleimat Water Reuse Technology Alamo California USA
ADK Laird (deceased) Professor Emeritus and Director Emeritus Sea Water Conversion Laboratory
University of California Berkeley California USA
1 Introduction
2 Historical Perspective
3 Heat Transfer from Geothermal Reservoirs
4 Geothermal Energy Utilization
5 Electricity Generation
6 Water Production from Geothermal Sources
7 Idealized Liquid-dominated Reservoirs
8 Water and Power Generation Effects of Some System Parameters
9 Multiple-effect and Multistage Distillation Processes
10 Energy-budget Management
11 Processes for Decentralized Desalination
12 Water-budget Management
13 Solids-budget Management
Solar Photovoltaic Energy Conversion 181
G Schumm Zentrum fuer Sonnenenergie und Wasserstoff-Forschung Baden Wuerttemberg Stuttgart
Germany
1 The General Photovoltaic System
2 Non-Concentrating PV Systems
3 Tracking and Concentrating PV Systems
Flat-Plate Collectors 191
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Solar Collector Applications
3 Definitions
31 Solar Collectors
311 Solar Thermal Collector
312 Flat-Plate Collector
32 Construction Elements of a Solar Collector
321 Absorber Plate or Selective Surface
322 The Transparent Cover
323 The Collector Insulation
324 The Heat Transfer Medium
33 The Surface Areas
331 The Surface Area of the Absorber Plate
332 The Transparent Cover Surface
333 Total Surface Area
34 Operational Characteristics of the Collector
341 Collector efficiency (η)
342 Thermal Capacity of the Collector (C)
343 Pressure Drop (Δp)
344 Stagnant Conditions
345 Incidence Angle Coefficient (kθ)
35 The Characteristic Parameters of the Collector
351 The cover reflectance (ρc)
353 Cover Absorptance (αc)
352 Cover Transmittance (τc)
354 Coefficient of cover Emissivity (εc)
355 Coefficient of Absorber Emissivity
356 Selective Surface
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxii
357 Selective Coat
358 Collector Efficiency Factor (Fprime) 359 Collector Flow Factor (FPrime) 3510 Collector Heat Removal Factor (FR)
3511 Collector Heat Loss Coefficient (UL)
4 Main Collector Components
41 The Solar Radiation Absorber
42 The Transparent Cover
43 Thermal Insulation
44 The Casing of the Collector
45 The Supporting of the Collector
5 The Solar Absorbers
51 Types of Solar Absorbers
511 Absorbers of Common Paint
512 Selective coat Absorbers
52 Forms of Absorbers and Tubes
521 General considerations
522 Sandwich Type Absorber
523 Roll Bond Tube Absorber
524 Soldered Type Absorbers
525 Absorbers with Ω Type Fins
6 Characteristics of Flat-Plate Collectors
61 General considerations
62 Installation Configuration of a Collector System
63 Orientation and Slope of the Collector
7 Dynamic Operational Characteristics of a Collector
71 The Incident Angle Coefficient
72 The Thermal Capacity of the Collector C
73 The Heat Removal Factor FR
8 The Thermal Characteristics of a Collector
81 Determination of the Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL
82 Determination of Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL for in Series Interconnection
83 Equivalent Thermal Loss between Tubes and Collector
84 The Influence of Wind Velocity
9 Shading of the Collectors
10 Basic Calculation Methods
101 Cover Reflectance
102 Cover Transmittance
103 The Transmittance-Absorptance Product
104 Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
105 Multi-Cover Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
11 The Heat Transfer Loss Coefficients
111 Loss Coefficient Uc
112 Loss Coefficient Ub
113 Loss Coefficient Us
114 The Collector Efficiency Factor Fprime 115 Collector flow factor FPrime Large Active Solar Systems Load 220
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and other Energy Systems National Centre for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Estimation of Thermal Load
21 Estimation of the Required Heat Qload
22 Estimation of the Required Heat for the Water Qw
23 Estimation of the Heat Loss in Distribution Pipes Qp
24 Estimation of Heat Loss in the Storage Tank Qt
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiii
Large Active Solar Systems Typical Economic Analysis 225
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Cost of a Solar Hot Water System
21 Initial Capital Cost
22 Operational Costs
221 Cost of Fuel
222 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
223 Cost of Maintenance
224 Cost for Loans
225 Costs for Insurance
226 Miscellaneous Expenses
3 Cost of Conventional Hot Water System
31 Operational Costs
311 Cost of Fuel
312 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
313 Cost of Maintenance
4 Inflation
5 Rate of Interest
6 Methods of Life Cycle Cost
61 General
62 Present and Future Costs
63 Yearly Instalment
64 Yearly Expenses
7 Methodology
8 Present Value Factor
9 Comparison Methodology
Integration of Solar Pond with Water Desalination 240
U Fisher J Weinberg and B Doron Ormat Industries Ltd Yavne Israel
1 Introduction
2 Historical Background
3 The Solar Pond
31 Structure
32 Heat Absorption and Storage
33 Main Demands when Building a Pond
331 Surface Area
332 Surface Water Make-up
333 Concentrated Brine Supply
34 How to Build a Solar Pond
341 Geometry or Shape
342 Lining
343 Construction Materials in the Pond
344 Initial Filling and Build-up of Gradient
35 How to Control
36 Heat Losses (Ground Diffusion Evaporation)
361 Top Losses
362 Bottom Heat Losses
37 Disturbances
371 Algae
372 Corrosion
373 Wind
38 Heat Extraction
39 Fuel Assisted Solar Ponds
310 Maintenance
3101 Clarity
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiv
3102 Cleaning of Wind Breakers
3103 Blow Down
3104 Make-up
3105 Leakages
311 Practical Size of a Single Pond
312 Investment in Solar Ponds
313 OampM Costs
4 Desalination Processes Coupled to the Solar Pond
41 Economic Aspects of Coupling Desalination Plants to Solar Ponds
411 Desalination Processes
412 The Choice and Proportion of Producing Heat and Power in the Solar Pond
4121 The Solar Pond Yield
4122 Desalination Plant Performance
4123 The Impact of Daily and Seasonal Fluctuations
4124 Economic Considerations and Evaluations
42 Experience with SP-Desalination Systems
43 Conclusions
Evacuated Tube Collectors 276
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Current Designs of Evacuated Tube Collectors
3 Thermal Analysis
4 Analysis of Flat Plate Evacuated Tube Collector
5 Analysis of Concentric-Tube Collector
6 Performance of Evacuated Tube Collectors
7 Case Study (Collector Field at the Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant)
71 Description of collector field
72 Performance of collector field
73 Economics
Parabolic Trough Collectors 299
Wolfgang Meinecke Deutsches Zentrum fuumlr Luft-und Raumfahrt eV (DLR German Aerospace Center)
Solar Energy Technology Division Koumlln Germany
1 Introduction
2 Brief History of Trough Development
3 State of the Art of Trough Applications
31 Conventional Thermal Water Desalination Applications
32 Solar Thermal Water Desalination Applications
33 Solar Electric Power Generation
34 Solar Process Heat Generation
35 Process Hot Water (Project Examples)
36 Process Steam (Project Examples)
37 Process Steam for Water Desalination (Project Examples)
38 Process Hot Air
4 Trough Technologies
41 LS 3 Trough Collector System
411 LS 3 Parabolic Reflector
412 Steel Support Structure
413 Absorber Element
414 Tracking System and Field Control System
415 Heat Transfer Fluid System
416 Steam Generator
417 Balance of Plant Technologies
418 Energy Storage System
42 IST Trough Collector System
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxv
421 IST Parabolic Reflector
422 Support Structure
423 Absorber Element
424 Tracking System and Field Control System
425 Heat Transfer Fluid System
426 Heat Exchanger
427 Balance of Plant Technology
428 Energy Storage
5 Prospects and Potential
51 Solar Electric Power Generation
52 Solar Process Heat Generation
53 Solar Thermal Water Desalination
6 Cost and Economic Aspects
61 Collector Investment Costs
611 LS 3 Collector Costs
612 IST Collector Costs
62 Other Economic Parameters
621 Fossil Fuel Prices
622 Solar Energy Yield
623 Solar Share
624 Plant Power Size
625 Capacity Factor
626 OampM Costs
627 Non-Technical Parameters
63 Costs of Solar Water Desalination
7 Conclusions
Index 363
About EOLSS 369
VOLUME V
Central Receivers 1
MM Elsayed Mechanical Engineering Department Kuwait University Safat Kuwait
1 Introduction
2 Heliostats Types and Design Shapes
3 Heliostat Angles
4 Heliostat Field Heliostat Layout
5 Heliostat Field Cosine Effect
6 Heliostat Field Preliminary Sizing of the Field
7 Heliostat Field Usefulness Efficiency
8 Reflected Solar Radiation
9 The Effective Sunshape
10 Principal Images and Relation between Receiver and Image Planes
11 Models to Predict the Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Image Plane
111 Incoming Ray Formulation
112 The Mirror Plane Formulation
113 Solar Disk Formulation
114 The Pinhole View
12 Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Receiver Surface Using the Separation of
VariableSuperposition Technique
121 Concept
122 Calculation of φ 123 Validation of Model Using Measurements
13 Receivers Types and Losses
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvi
14 Preliminary Sizing of the Receiver
15 Overall System Optimization
Configuration Theoretical Analysis and Performance of Simple Solar Stills 98
A Kumar Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources Solar Energy Center New Delhi India
1 Introduction
2 Configuration of Simple Solar Stills
21 Basic Principle
22 Classification
23 Single Basin Solar Stills
24 Inclined Solar Stills
241 Basin Type Solar Stills
242 Wick Type Solar Stills
25 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
26 Solar Earth Water Stills
27 Plastic Solar Stills
271 Life Raft Solar Still
272 Circular Solar Still
273 Extruded Plastic Solar Still
274 Concentric Tube Solar Still
28 A Typical Solar Distillation Plant
3 Theoretical Analysis of Simple Solar Stills
31 Heat and Mass Transfer in Solar Stills
311 Inside the Solar Still
312 Outside the Solar Still
32 Solar Radiation Balance
321 Transmission through Top Cover
322 Absorption in the Top Cover
33 Energy Balance Equations
34 Solution Procedure
4 Performance of Solar Stills
41 Single Basin Solar Stills
42 Inclined Solar Stills
43 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
44 Solar Earth Water Stills
45 Plastic Solar Stills
46 Case Studies
461 Australia
462 Greek Islands
463 India
47 Suggested Practices for Installing Solar Stills
Development in Simple Solar Stills 169
Hassan ES Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Modified Simple (Passive) Stills
21 Basin Still
211 Single Slope versus Double Slope Basin Stills
212 Basin Still with Cover Cooling
213 Basin Still with Treated Cover Surface
214 Basin Still with Additional Condenser
215 Basin Still with Black DyeMuddy Water
22 Wick Stills
221 Single-wick Stills
222 Multi-wick Stills
223 Wick versus Basin Stills
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvii
224 Combined Wick-Basin Stills
23 Other Stills Configurations
231 Vertical Microporous Evaporator Still
232 Cascade Solar Still
233 Still Integrated with Greenhouse
3 Externally Heated (Active) Solar Stills
31 Introduction
32 Stills Coupled to a Solar Collector
321 Direct and Indirect Heating
322 Use of Dye and Cover Cooling
323 Other Solar Heaters
33 Stills Coupled with Solar Concentrator
34 The Use of Waste Heat in Solar Stills
4 Other Types of Solar Distillation Systems
41 Water Recovery from Air
Multi-Effect Solar Stills 197
HES Fath Al-Jubail 31951 Saudi Arabia
1 Why Multi Effect
2 Double Effect Basin Stills
21 Double Basins Stills
22 Double Effect Tilted Stills
23 Purging Vapor to a Second Effect
3 Multi-Effect Multi-Wick Stills
4 Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
41 Introduction
42 Mass Diffusion
43 Comparison between Diffusion and Basin Stills
44 Description of Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
45 Analysis and Performance Considerations
5 Other Distillation Systems
51 Stacked Tray Stills
52 Multi-Effect Humidification-Dehumidification
Materials for Construction of Solar Stills 218
TA Lawand and J Ayoub Brace Research Institute Canada
1 Introduction
2 General Specifications of Solar Stills
3 Transparent Cover
4 Basin Liner
5 Solar Still Frame
6 Sealants
7 Insulation
8 Auxiliaries - Piping Pumping and Reservoirs
Reverse Osmosis by Solar Energy 225
W Bucher DLR German Aerospace Research Establishment Cologne Germany
1 Introduction
2 Basic Parameters and Energy Demand for Osmosis
21 Physical Properties of Hyperfiltration
22 Energy required for the RO Process
3 Solar Power Conversion Systems
31 Solar Conversion Principles
32 Technical Data of Solar Energy Conversion Methods
33 RO Plant Operation Utilizing Variable Energy Sources
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxviii
4 Reverse Osmosis System Configuration and Operation Aspects
41 Process Design of RO Desalination Systems
42 Procedural Steps and Data for Water Treatment and Energy Consumption
43 Components of RO -Desalination
431 Membranes and Modules
432 High Pressure Pumps
433 Pressure Regulating Devices
5 Solar Powered Desalination Units
51 Specific Figures or RO Systems
52 Solar Power Concepts for RO Desalination
53 Operational Experience with Solar driven RO Systems
6 Costs
61 Specific Cost Figures for the Plant Components
62 Water Delivery Cost
Availability of Solar Radiation and Its Estimation 265
VG Belessiotis Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems National Center for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun and the Radiation Emitted
21 The Physics of the Sun
22 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
3 The Extraterrestrial Radiation
31 What is the Solar Constant
32 Variations of the Extraterrestrial Radiation
33 The Black-body Emittance and Absorptance
34 Blackbody Absorbers - Application to Desalination
4 The Co-ordinate Systems The Basic Solar Angles
41 The Earth-Sun Relationships
42 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Sky
43 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Celestial Sphere
44 Earth-Sun Geometric Relationship
45 Time and its Units - Day Length
46 Terrestrial Solar Radiation
461 Estimation of Radiation Availability
462 Average Radiation Values - Clearness Index
463 Clear Sky Radiation
464 Sky Radiation
47 Atmospheric Factors Affecting Radiation
5 Computation of Insolation at the Earths Surface
51 Insolation Data
52 Measurement of Solar Radiation
53 Models for Solar Radiation
54 Where the Models Apply
55 Tilted Surfaces - Absorptance of Solar Radiation
551 Fixed Tilted Surfaces
552 Tracking Surfaces
6 Applications of Solar Radiation
7 Impact of Solar Energy to the Environment
Economics of Small Solar-Assisted Multiple-Effect Seawater Distillation Plants 296
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Configurations
3 Design and Sizing Considerations
31 Thermal Energy Requirement
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxix
32 Pumping Requirements
33 Collector Performance
34 Sizing Thermal Collector Area
35 Sizing the PV System
351 Sizing the PV Array
4 Economic Ground Rules and Water Cost Optimization
41 Capital Equipment Cost
42 Operating Costs
43 Optimum Cost of Water for each Plant Configuration
5 Results
6 Conclusion
A Solar-Assisted Sea Water Multiple Effect Distillation Plant 15 Years of Operating
Performance (1985-1999) 316
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Basic Design Concept
21 General Plant Description
22 Design Specifications
23 Evaporator Heat Transfer Coefficient
24 Tube Dimensions Heat Transfer Areas and Materials
3 Performance during Commissioning Tests
31 The MES Evaporator
32 The Solar Collector Field
33 The Heat Accumulator
34 Total Plant Performance
4 Performance History
41 The MES Evaporator
42 The Solar Collector Field
43 The Heat Accumulator
431 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
4311 The heat balance method
4312 The direct temperature measurement method
4313 Thermal stratification ratio
44 Total Plant Performance
5 Major Maintenance Activities
51 Equipment Failure and Replacement
52 Acid Cleanings and Silt Removal from Evaporator
6 Evaluation of Water Cost
61 Capital Costs
62 Operation and Maintenance Costs
7 Conclusions
Mathematical Simulation of a Solar Desalination Plant 341
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Description
3 System Operating Conditions
31 Solar Heat Collecting Subsystem
32 Evaporator Subsystem
4 Mathematical Modeling of System Components
41 Solar radiation model
42 Ambient temperature model
43 Solar collector subsystem
431 Effect of shade on solar radiation
432 Effect of dust on transmissivity of glass tubes
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxx
433 Control of heat collecting operation
434 Heat collection by solar collectors
435 Heat loss from piping
4351 Piping specifications
4352 Standard pipe lengths
4353 Heat loss from piping during operation of heat collecting pump
4354 Heat loss from piping while the heat collecting pump is shutdown
4355 Correction of piping heat loss
44 Heat accumulator subsystem
441 Temperature distribution
442 MES evaporator subsystem
5 The Simulation Program
51 Program structure
52 Input and output data
6 Results
7 Conclusions
Index 379
About EOLSS 385
VOLUME VI
Modeling and Design of Solar Energy Systems Including Solar Economics 1
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 F-Chart Method
11 Performance and Design of Liquid-Based Solar Heating Systems
111 Storage Capacity Correction
112 Collector Flow Rate Correction
113 Load Heat Exchanger Size Correction
12 Performance and Design of Air-Based Solar Heating Systems
121 Pebble Bed Storage Size Correction
122 Air Flow Rate Correction
13 Performance and Design of Solar Service Water Systems
14 Thermosiphon Solar Water Heating Systems
15 General Remarks
2 Modeling and Simulation of Solar Energy Systems
21 Simple System Models
211 Pipe Losses
22 F-Chart Program
23 Trnsys Simulation Program
24 Limitations of Simulations
3 Solar Economic Analysis
31 Life Cycle Costing
32 Life Cycle Analysis Method
33 Payback Time
331 Not Discounted Fuel Savings
332 Discounted Fuel Savings
34 Alternative Method
341 System Optimization Using Economic Analysis
35 Uncertainties in Economic Analysis
Solar Energy Power Generation and Desalination Systems 47
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 Global Energy Problems and the Role of Renewables
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxi
11 Energy demand
12 Energy environmental problems and sustainable development
13 Water demand and consumption
14 Water and energy
15 Desalination and energy
16 Renewable energy technologies
2 Solar Collectors
21 Parabolic trough collectors
22 Fresnel collectors
23 Parabolic dish reflector
24 Heliostat field collector
3 Power Generation and Industrial Process Heat Systems
31 Parabolic trough collector systems
32 Power tower systems
33 Dish systems
34 Solar ponds
341 Heat extraction and applications
35 Industrial process heat systems
36 Solar industrial steam generation systems
4 Desalination Processes
41 Direct collection systems
42 Indirect collection systems
421 The multi-stage flash process
422 The multiple-effect distillation process
423 The vapor-compression process
424 Reverse osmosis
425 Electrodialysis
Solar Updraft Power Plant Technology Basic Concepts and Structural Design 94
Francesca Lupi University of Florence Florence Italy
Claudio Borri University of Florence Florence Italy
Wilfried B Kraumltzig Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
Hans-Juumlrgen Niemann Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
1 Solar Updraft Power Technology Introduction and Working Principles
2 History of the Solar Updraft Power Technology
21 Solar Tower Prototype in Manzanares (Spain)
3 Evaluation of Plant Efficiency
31 The Collector
32 The Chimney
33 The Turbines
34 Electric Power Generated by Supps
4 The Collector
5 Actions on Solar Updraft Towers
6 Wind Loading on Solar Updraft Towers
61 Wind Flow Structure in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer at High Altitudes
611 Boundary Layer Meteorology
612 The Ekman Spiral
613 Theoretical Considerations on the Mean Wind and Turbulence in the Ekman Layer
62 Modeling of the Wind Load on Solar Towers
621 Mean Wind Load
622 Response to Wind Turbulence
623 Fluctuating Wind Load
624 Equivalent Static Wind Pressures
625 Vortex Excitation
626 Other Effects The Effect of the Efflux
63 Wind Load on the Collector Roof
7 Structural Behavior of Solar Updraft Towers
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxii
71 Structural Elements of Solar Tower Shells
72 Some Typical Response Characteristics of Solar Tower Shells Vibration and Instability
Behavior
73 Non-Linear Tower Response
8 Structural Optimization of Solar Updraft Towers
81 The Role of the Stiffening Rings in the Structural Design of Solar Towers
82 Strategies of Optimization
9 Technology of Construction
Renewable Energy Potential in The Arab Region 162
Mohammed Mostafa El-Khayat General Manager of Planning New and Renewable Energy Authority
NREA Cairo Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Research Problem and Objectives
111 Research Problem
12 Research Objectives
2 Energy Demand
3 The Current Situation of Renewable Energy
31 Hydropower
32 Wind Energy
33 Solar Energy
34 Biomass and Geothermal Energy
4 Strategies
5 Institutional and Regulatory Framework
6 Main Policies and Incentives
7 RE Policies and Incentives Profiles
71 Algeria
72 Egypt
73 Jordan
74 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
75 Lebanon
76 Libya
77 Morocco
78 Palestine
79 Sudan
710 Syria
711 Tunisia
712 United Arab Emirates
713 Yemen
8 Financing Schemes and Investment Opportunities
9 Motivations and Barriers of Renewable Energy
10 Renewable Energy Initiatives
101 Arabian Initiatives
102 DESERTEC
11 Potential of Renewable Energy in the Region
12 The proposed mechanisms to enhance and accelerate the rate of using RE applications
13 The situation of localizing RE technologies
14 RE and climate change in Arab countries
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
198
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiii
22 Humidifying with Cooling and Dehumidifying Processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in HD Desalination Process
25 Overview on Some Desalination HD Projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process Description
32 The Condenser in the SWGH
321 Different Condenser Layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the Condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of Condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot Plant
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH Project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot Plant
522 Performances of the Pilot Plant
53 The SWGH Project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot Plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Evolution of Photovoltaic Materials for Renewable Energy Development 262
Abdelilah Slaoui InESS ndash CNRS ndash University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
Jef Poortmans IMEC Leuven Belgium
Marko Topic University of Ljubljana Faculty of Elec Eng Ljubljana Slovenia
Gavin Conibeer ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence UNSW Sydney Australia
1 General Introduction
2 Photovoltaic Materials and Technologies State of the Art
21 Crystalline Silicon
22 Thin Films
221 Amorphous Silicon
222 Nanocrystalline and Microcrystalline Silicon
223 Polycrystalline Silicon
224 Copper Indium Selenide Its alloys and Related Chalcopyrites
225 Cadmium Telluride
226 Materials for Photochemical Solar Cells
227 Materials for Organic Solar Cells
3 Next Generation Solar Cells
31 Introduction
32 Multiple energy level approaches
33 Multiple Exciton Generation solar cells
34 Intermediate Band (IB) cells
35 Hot carrier cells
4 Conclusions and Perspectives
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiv
Wind and Solar Renewable Energy Potential Resources Estimation 302
Philippe Drobinski Institut Pierre Simon LaplaceLaboratoire de Meacuteteacuteorologie Dynamique CNRSEcole
Polytechnique Palaiseau France
1 Renewable Wind and Solar Energies The Context
11 An Economical and Environmental Necessity
12 Energy Definitions and Units
2 Basic Knowledge in Geophysics for Energy Resource Evaluation
21 Earth Energy Budget and Atmospheric Motion
22 Near Surface Wind
23 Impacts of Clouds and Aerosols on Surface Solar Radiation
3 Wind Energy Resource
31 Wind Energy A Brief History
32 Wind Energy Resources Evaluation
33 Wind Energy Installed Capacity in the World
4 Solar Energy Resources
41 Solar Energy An Introduction
42 Worldwide Solar Heat
5 Methods for Wind and Solar Energy Resources Forecast
Index 353
About EOLSS 361
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) iv
55 Shading Losses
6 Photovoltaic Applications
7 Technology
71 Silicon Solar Cells
72 Thin Film Solar Cells
73 Concentrators
8 The Future of PV
81 Prospective
82 A New Generation of PV
9 Conclusion
Low Temperature Solar Collectors 172
Soteris A Kalogirou Higher Technical Institute Nicosia Cyprus
1 Introduction
11 Energy Related Environmental Problems
12 Renewable Energy Systems
2 Low Temperature Solar Collectors
21 Flat Plate Collectors (FPC)
211 Glazing Materials
212 Collector Absorbing Plates
213 Flat Plate Collector Configurations
22 Compound Parabolic Collectors (CPC)
23 Evacuated Tube Collectors (ETC)
3 Thermal Analysis of Collectors
4 Performance of Solar Collectors
41 Collector Thermal Efficiency
42 Collector Incidence Angle Modifier
43 Collector Time Constant
44 Collector Quality Tests and Preliminary Collector Selection
45 Modeling of Solar Systems
451 The F-CHART Method
5 Solar Collector Applications
51 Solar Water Heating Systems
511 Thermosiphon Systems (Passive)
512 Integrated Collector Storage Systems (Passive)
513 Direct Circulation Systems (Active)
514 Indirect Water Heating Systems (Active)
515 Air Systems for Hot Water Production (Active)
52 Solar Space Heating and Cooling
521 Air Systems
522 Water Systems
523 Heat Pump Systems
53 Solar Cooling
531 Adsorption Units
532 Absorption Units
54 Industrial Process Heat
541 Solar Industrial Air and Water Systems
55 Solar Desalination Systems
56 Solar Drying
6 Conclusions
Medium Temperature Solar Concentrators (Parabolic-Troughs Collectors) 227
E Zarza Unit of Solar Concentrating Systems Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea Spain
1 Introduction
2 Parabolic-trough Collectors Working Principle and Components
3 Optical Thermal and Geometrical Losses in a Parabolic-trough Collector
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) v
4 Energy Flow and Thermal Energy Delivered by a Parabolic-trough Collector
5 Design of Solar Fields with Parabolic-trough Collectors
6 Different Ways to Couple a Parabolic-trough Solar Field with an Industrial Process
61 Unfired Steam Generator (OilWater Heat Exchanger)
62 Flash-steam Systems
63 Direct Steam Generation
7 The Direct Steam Generation Technology
8 Thermal Energy Storage Systems for Parabolic-trough Collectors
81 Single-medium Storage Systems
82 Dual-medium Storage Systems
9 Electricity Generation with Parabolic-trough Collectors
High Temperature Solar Concentrators 256
Robert Pitz-Paal Institute of Technical Thermodynamics German Aerospace Center (DLR) Germany
1 Introduction
2 Theoretical Background
21 Concentration of Radiation
22 Conversion of Radiation to Heat
23 Conversion of Heat to Electricity
3 Technical Concepts
31 Parabolic Dishes
32 Central Receiver Systems
33 Solar Furnaces
4 Conclusions
Solar Ponds 299
Aliakbar Akbarzadeh and John Andrews School of Aerospace Mechanical and Manufacturing
Engineering RMIT University Melbourne Australia
Peter Golding Department of Metallurgical amp Materials Engineering University of Texas at El Paso
500 W University Avenue El Paso USA
1 What is a Solar Pond
2 The Design and Performance of Solar Ponds
21 Design Principles
211 Designing for an Application
212 Making Use of Local Resources
213 Matching Thermal Output to End-Use Requirements
22 Site Characteristics
23 Thermal Output and Sizing
24 Site Preparation Excavation and Lining
25 Sources of Salt
26 Source of Water
27 Setting-Up and Maintaining the Salinity Profile
28 Pond Clarity
29 Heat Extraction
210 Monitoring Key Parameters
211 Calculating and Measuring Pond Performance
212 Costs and Economic Evaluation
213 Environmental Benefits and Sustainability
3 Experimental and Demonstration Solar Ponds
31 Introduction
32 Israeli Solar Ponds
33 RMIT University Solar Ponds
34 UTEP High-Performance Solar Pond
4 Applications of Solar Ponds
41 Heating
42 Aquaculture and Biotechnology
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) vi
43 Desalination
44 Electrical Power Production
45 Salinity Mitigation
46 Production of Chemicals
5 State of the Art and Future Directions
Solar Irradiation and TiO2 Render Materials Self-Cleaning 320
P Pichat Photocatalyse et Environnement CNRSEcole Centrale de Lyon (STMS) France
1 Introduction
2 Preparing Coating and Incorporating TiO2 Thickness of the TiO2-containing Layer
3 Increasing the Photocatalytic Efficacy Better Harvesting Sun Light
4 Hydrophilicity Induced by Solar Irradiation Contributes to the Self-cleaning Effect
5 Limitations to the Self-cleaning Effect
6 Measurements of the Self-cleaning Efficacy
61 Field Tests
62 Laboratory Tests
621 Tests Conditions
622 Deposited Compounds for the Tests
623 Methods for Measuring the Cleaning Efficacy
624 Measurement of the Hydrophilicity
7 Measurements of the Mechanical and Optical Properties of Self-cleaning Materials
8 Can Self-cleaning Materials Significantly Contribute to Outdoor Air Pollutants Removal
9 Do TiO2-containing Self-cleaning Materials Present a Potential Health Risk
10 Commercialization of Self-cleaning Materials and Coatings
Photosynthetic Microorganisms and Valuable Products 339
F G Acieacuten Fernaacutendez J M Fernaacutendez Sevilla and J A Saacutenchez Peacuterez Universidad de Almeriacutea Spain
1 Introduction
2 Factors Affecting Photosynthetic Microorganisms
21 Light and Photosynthesis Rate
22 Average Irradiance
23 Nutrients
24 Temperature
25 Energy Supply
3 Photobioreactors
31 Designs
311 Open Reactors
312 Closed Reactors
313 Comparative Analysis
32 Quality
33 Safety
4 Biomass and Product Recovery
5 Industrial Applications
51 Waste Treatment
511 Water Treatment
512 Flue Gases Treatment
52 Production of High-Value Products
521 Carotenoids
522 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
523 Phycobiliproteins
Elaboration and Testing Of Materials Using Concentrated Solar Energy 363
G Flamant and M Balat-Pichelin Processes Materials and Solar Energy Laboratory (PROMES-CNRS)
7 rue du Four Solaire Font Romeu France
1 Brief history of the use of solar energy to transform matter
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) vii
2 Main characteristics of solar furnaces
3 Elaboration of materials using concentrated solar energy
31 Surface treatments
32 Melting and purification of bulk materials
33 Production of chemical commodities and ceramics
34 Elaboration of carbon molecules nanomaterials and thin films
4 Testing of materials using concentrated solar energy
41 Original devices at the focus of solar furnaces
42 Test of materials for aerospace applications
421 Atmopsheric re-entry (oxidation and catalycity)
422 Solar probe mission
43 Test of materials for future system of energy production
5 Conclusion
Index 389
About EOLSS 395
VOLUME II
Solar Distillation 1
Gopal Nath Tiwari and Hriday Narayan Singh Center of Energy Studies Indian Institute of Technology
India
1 Importance of Water
11 Water Sources
12 Water Demand
13 Drinking Water Quality
2 Water Pollution and its Effect
3 Principles of Solar Distillation A State of the Art
4 Classification of Solar Distillation Systems
41 Passive Solar Still
411 Conventional Solar Still
412 New Design Solar Still
42 Active Solar Distillation
421 Nocturnal Production
422 Pre-Heated Water Application
423 High Temperature Distillation
5 Heat and Mass Transfer in Solar Distillation
51 Background
52 Internal Heat Transfer
521 Convective and Evaporative Heat Transfer Coefficients
522 Radiative Heat Transfer Coefficient
523 Total Internal Heat Transfer coefficient
53 External Heat Transfer
531 Top Heat Loss Coefficient
532 Bottom and Sides Loss Coefficient
6 Performance of Solar Still
61 Thermal Modeling of Solar Still and Effect of Meteorological and other Parameters
62 Passive Solar Still
63 Active Solar Still
64 Economic Evaluation
641 Introduction
642 Economic Analysis
643 Preparation of Drinking Water
7 Conclusions and Recommendations
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) viii
Solar Photochemistry 67
Juliaacuten Blanco Gaacutelvez and Sixto Malato Rodriacuteguez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain
1 Solar Chemistry
2 Artificial Solar Photochemical Processes
3 Biological Photosynthetic Processes
4 Photochemical Synthetic Applications
41 Photooxygenation of Furfural
42 Synthesis of substituted Pyridines
43 Solar photo-production of Caprolactam
44 Photochemical synthesis of Thiohelicenes
45 Photocyclisation of substituted Benzylidenes to annulled Quinolines
46 Other solar driven photochemical processes
5 Solar Photocatalytic Processes to Water Contaminants Treatment
51 Heterogeneous titanium dioxide solar detoxification
52 Homogeneous solar photocatalytic processes
6 Gas Phase Photocatalytic Treatment Processes
7 Pilot Scale Solar Photochemical Facilities
8 Conclusions
Photochemical Conversion of Solar Energy 96
S Malato Rodriacuteguez and J Blanco Gaacutelvez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT SPAIN
1 Introduction
2 Photochemistry Principles
21 The Light
22 The Power of Light
3 The Solar Spectrum
31 Atmospheric Attenuation of Solar Radiation
32 Solar UV Photon Flux
4 Evaluation of Solar Photo Flux inside Photoreactors
41 Collector Efficiency
42 Actinometric Experiments
5 Simplified Methods for Comparing Experiments when working with Solar Radiation
51 Accumulated Energy
52 Secondary Actinometer
53 Standardized illumination time
Solar Photocatalysis and Water Treatment Detoxification and Disinfection 117
S Malato Rodriacuteguez and J Blanco Gaacutelvez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain
1 Introduction
2 Fundamental Parameters in Solar Photocatalysis
21 Direct Photolysis
22 Radiant Flux
23 Initial Concentration of Contaminant
3 Factors Affecting Solar Photocatalysis
31 Influence of Oxygen
32 Influence of Catalyst Concentration
33 Temperature Influence
34 pH Influence
4 Solar Photocatalytic Degradation of Contaminants
41 Improving Solar Photocatalysis Efficiency
42 Combining Solar Photocatalysis and Biotreatment
5 Solar Photocatalytic Disinfection of Water
51 Effect of Solar Radiation on Microorganisms
52 Microorganism Inactivation by Titanium Dioxide Photocatalysis
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) ix
Solar Photochemistry Technology 139
J Blanco Gaacutelvez and S Malato Rodriacuteguez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain
1 Introduction
2 Solar Collectors for Photochemical Processes
21 Parabolic Trough Collectors (PTCs)
22 One-Sun Collectors
23 Compound Parabolic Concentrators (CPCs)
24 Holographic Collectors
3 Peculiarities of Solar Tracking and Non-Tracking Systems
4 Technological Issues
41 Photochemical Reactor
42 Reflective Surfaces
43 Piping
44 Radiation Absorption
5 Gas-Phase Photochemical Technology
Solar Photochemistry Applications 163
J Blanco Gaacutelvez and S Malato Rodriacuteguez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain
1 Introduction
2 Solar Photocatalytic Treatment Plants
3 Cost Estimations
4 Water Phase Photocatalytic Applications
41 Phenols
42 Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
43 Pharmaceutical Compounds
44 Wood Preservative Waste
45 Agrochemical Wastes (Pesticides)
46 Seaport Tank Terminals
47 Removal of Hazardous Metal Ions
48 Cyanide degradation
49 Groundwater Decontamination
5 Water Disinfection
6 Gas-Phase Photocatalytic Applications
7 Contaminated Landfill Cleaning
Research and Environmental Issues in The 1990s 184
S Malato Rodriacuteguez and J Blanco Gaacutelvez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT SPAIN
1 Introduction
2 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of Chlorophenols
3 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of Pesticides
4 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of NBCS
5 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of Cyanide
6 Solar Photo-Fenton
61 Photo-Fenton Treatment of Pesticides
62 Photo-Fenton Treatment of Olive Mill Wastewater
7 Photoelectrochemical Reactors Development
Mathematical Models of Solar Energy Conversion Systems 205
Viorel Badescu Candida Oancea Institute Polytechnic University of Bucharest Romania
1 Introduction
2 Properties of Radiation Fluxes
21 Photons in Discrete Quantum States
22 Photons in Continuous Spectrum
23 Properties of Photon Fluxes
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) x
24 Spectral Property Radiances for Blackbodies and Band-gap Materials
3 Concentration of Solar Radiation
31 The Lagrangian of Beam Radiation
32 Upper Bounds on Solar Radiation Concentration
33 Geometrical Concentration Ratio for Several Mirrors
331 Spherical mirrors
332 Paraboloidal Mirrors
333 Cylinder Parabolic Mirrors
34 Perturbing Factors
4 Photothermal Conversion
41 Detailed Balance Models
411 The End-user Requires a Heat Flux
412 The End-user Requires Mechanical Power
42 Models Based on Spectrally Integrated Fluxes
421 The End-user Requires Heat The Flat Plate Solar Collector
422 The End-user Requires Work Solar Power Generation
423 Upper Bounds on Solar Energy Conversion Efficiency into Work
43 Discussion and Perspectives
5 Photovoltaic Conversion
51 Models Based on the Diode Equation
52 Models Based on Detailed Balance Equations
521 Radiation Received From the Environment Neglected
522 Radiation Received From the Environment Included
523 The Solar Cell Equation
53 Discussion and Perspectives
6 Photochemical Conversion
7 Conclusion
Multiple Effect Distillation of Seawater Using Solar Energy ndash The Case of Abu Dhabi Solar
Desalination Plant 256
Ali M El-Nashar International Center for Water amp Energy Systems Abu Dhabi United Arab Emirates
1 Introduction
2 History of Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant
3 Description of Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant
31 Plant Description
311 The solar heat collector subsystem
312 The heat accumulator subsystem
313 MED evaporator subsystem
32 Design Features
4 Measurements and Data Acquisition System
41 Measuring the heat collected in block F
5 Data Analysis
51 Calculating the solar radiation on absorber plate
52 Calculating the performance of the collector bank
53 Calculating the performance of the evaporator
531 Calculating the brine concentration at each effect
532 OHTC of heater (first effect)
533 Average OHTC of other evaporator effects
534 Average OHTC of preheaters
535 OHTC of condenser
536 Evaporator economy
6 Weather Condition in Abu Dhabi
7 Operating Characteristics
71 Heat collecting subsystem
711 Heat collector efficiency
712 Daily heat collection efficiency
72 Heat accumulator system
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xi
721 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
722 Thermal stratification ratio
73 Evaporating system
731 Evaporator performance
74 Performance of the plant
8 Plant Maintenance and Modifications
81 Heat collecting system
811 Cleaning the solar collector field
812 Corrosion of the collector air vent valves
813 Vacuum loss inside glass tubes
814 Scale prevention
815 Anti-corrosion chemical for use in the heat collecting water
816 Measures against power failure
82 Evaporating system
821 Evaporator pump maintenance
822 Inspection of the evaporator
823 Change in operating sequence
825 Modification of the method of feeding sealing water to the priming vacuum pump
824 Modification of the system for injecting anti-scale chemical
9 Simulation Program and its Validation
91 Simulation program
911 Outline
912 Flow chart of the SOLDES program
913 Program Input and output data
914 Mathematical Models
92 Comparison of simulation and actually measured Values
10 Evaluation of the Test Plant
101 Optimum operating conditions
102 Simulation results
103 Evaluation of the solar plant
11 Economic Considerations and Comparison with Conventional MED Plants
111 Basic economic parameters
112 Capital equipment cost
1121 Capital cost of MED evaporator
1122 Capital cost of solar thermal collectors
1123 Capital cost of heat accumulator
1124 Capital cost of steam generator for conventional MED systems
1125 Capital cost of diesel generator
113 Operation and maintenance expenses
1131 Consumable chemical expenses
1132 Electrical energy consumption
1133 Spare parts cost
1134 Personnel cost
114 Estimating the cost of water produced
12 Results of the Economic Study
13 Conclusion
131 System Reliability
132 Response to varying weather condition
133 Establishment of a method for cleaning of solar collectors
134 Comparison of the test plant results with that of the basic design
Index 335
About EOLSS 341
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xii
VOLUME III
Solar Irradiation Fundamentals 1
Zekacirci Sen Istanbul Technical University Maslak 34469 Istanbul Turkey
1 Introduction
2 The Sun
3 Atmospheric effects and Electro-magnetic Radiation (EMR) spectrum
4 Astronomic effects
5 Meteorological effects
51 Cloud Index
6 Topographic effects
7 Solar parameters
71 Solar geometry quantities
711 Earth eccentricity
712 Declination angle
713 Zenith angle
72 Solar time quantities
721 Solar time
722 Equation of time
723 Apparent solar time (AST)
73 Solar irradiation quantities
731 Solar constant
732 Irradiation path
8 Solar radiation modeling
81 Solar energy laws
82 Solar irradiation calculation
83 Estimation of clear sky radiation
84 Irradiation model
9 Astronomic calculations
91 The Daily Solar Profile
92 Daily solar energy on horizontal surface
93 Solar energy on inclined surface
10 Solar-Hydrogen Energy
11 Conclusions
Direct Solar Energy 67
S C Bhattacharya and S Kumar Energy Program Asian Institute of Technology Pathumthani
Thailand
1 Introduction
11 A Brief History of Energy
12 Origin of Solar Energy
13 Solar Thermal Energy
14 Photovoltaics (PV)
15 The Future of Solar Energy
2 Solar Radiation
21 Sun and Earth
22 Solar Radiation Estimation
3 Solar Thermal Conversion
31 Solar Collectors
311 Flat Plate Collectors
312 Concentrating Collectors
313 Evacuated Type Collectors
314 Selective Surfaces
32 Solar Water Heating
321 Introduction
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xiii
322 Natural Circulation Systems
323 Forced Circulation Systems
324 Materials Used in Solar Water Heaters
325 Advantages and Disadvantages
33 Solar Space Heating
331 Active Systems
332 Passive Systems
333 Solar District Heating
34 Solar Thermal Power Generation
341 Introduction
342 Parabolic Trough Systems
343 Power Towers
344 Parabolic Dish
35 Solar Drying
351 Introduction
352 Types of Solar Drier
353 Advantages of Solar Drying
4 Solar Photovoltaic Conversion
41 Solar Cells and Modules
42 Other Components of PV Systems
43 PV Applications
5 Other Solar Technologies
51 Solar Photochemical Conversion
52 Space Solar Power
521 Introduction
522 The SSP Concept
523 Promise and Problems
524 Future Prospects
6 Solar Energy Storage
61 Solar Thermal Energy Storage
611 Sensible Heat Storage
612 Latent Heat Storage
613 Chemical Energy Storage
614 Solar Electrical Energy Storage
7 Environmental Impacts of Solar Energy
71 General Impacts
72 Solar Thermal Systems
73 PV Systems
74 Health and Environmental Aspects
75 Energy Payback and CO2 Abatement
76 Other implications
761 Batteries
762 Operation and Decommissioning
8 The Way Forward
81 General
82 Solar Thermal Systems
83 PV Systems
9 Concluding Remarks
Solar Drying - A Technology for Sustainable Agriculture and Food Production 112
RJ Fuller Principal Fellow IDTC Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of
Melbourne Australia
1 Introduction
2 Drying Fundamentals
3 Sun vs Solar Drying
4 Types of Solar Dryer
41 Direct Mode
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xiv
42 Indirect Mode
43 Mixed Mode
44 Further Classifications
441 Natural Convection
442 Forced Convection
45 Other Differences
451 Supplementary Energy
452 Air Flow Direction
453 Heat Transfer Fluid
454 Thermal Storage
5 Solar Dryers in Practice
51 Direct mode natural convection dryers
52 Direct Mode Forced Convection Dryers
53 Indirect Mode Forced Convection Dryers
6 Performance Evaluation of Solar Dryers
61 Overall System Drying Efficiency
62 Pick-up Efficiency
63 Solar Collection Efficiency
64 Performance of Solar Dryers
65 Comparative Testing
7 Designing Solar Drying Systems
71 Rules-of-Thumb
72 Sizing Equations
73 Chart Methods
74 Simulation Techniques
8 Non-technical Factors
81 Economics
82 Practical Issues
83 Technology Transfer
84 Developing Country Issues
85 Industrialized Country Issues
9 Prospects and Future Developments
91 Technical Developments
92 Costs
93 Design
94 External Factors
10 Conclusions
A Short Historical Review of Renewable Energy 136
E Delyannis NCSR Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems ldquoDemokritosrdquo Aghia Paraskevi
Greece
A El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority (WEA) Abu-Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
11 The History of Renewable Energy Achievements
12 The Set-up of this Historical Review
2 The Renewable Energies in the Antiquity
21 From Legends to the First Written Documents
3 The Power of the Sun
31 The Dawn of the History
32 The Capture of the Suns Radiation
321 Antiquity to Middle Age The Philosophers
322 Renaissance to the 20th Century The Founders
323 The 20th Century The Engineers
324 The Present Times The Technologists
4 The Development of the Solar Distillation
41 From Philosophy to Practice
42 The First Large Applications
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xv
43 The Last 50 Years
5 Solar Driven Desalination
51 General Considerations
52 The Solar Driven Distillation Plants
53 Freezing Plants
54 Electrodialysis Plants
55 Solar Powered Reverse Osmosis Plants
6 The Energy of the Mother Gaia
7 The Power of Aeolos
71 The Aeolian Gods
72 The Harvest of the Winds Energy
73 The Raise and the Fall of Windmills
74 Wind Turbine Generation
8 The Power of the Moving Water
81 Hydraulic Power
9 The Impulsive Power of Poseidon
91 The Power of the Waves
92 The Tides and their Energy
93 The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) System
Renewable Energy Resources 186
V Belessiotis and E Delyannis NCSR Demokritos Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems
Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun as an Energy Source
21 The Availability of Solar Energy
22 Application of Solar Energy to Desalination
3 The Geothermal Energy
31 Introduction
32 The Geothermal Resources System
321 Hydrothermal Reservoirs
322 The Geopressurized Reservoirs
323 The Hot Dry Rocks
33 The Available Resources
34 The Geographic Distribution of Reservoirs
35 The Geothermal Brines
36 Application of Geothermal Resources
4 The Hydraulic Energy
41 Introduction
42 The Available Hydropower Resources
43 Limit of Hydropower Output
5 Wind Energy Resources
51 The Origin of Wind
52 The Distribution of Wind Forces
53 Wind Speed Distribution
54 The Utilization of the Wind Energy
6 Biomass as an Energy Source
61 Introduction
62 The Origin of Biomass
63 The Alternate Biomass Products
64 Biomass Residues
641 The Crop Residues
642 Fuel Wood
643 Sugar Crops
644 Livestock Manure
65 Refuse and Municipal Sewage
66 Plantation Biomass
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xvi
7 Thermal Energy from Biomass
71 Introduction
72 The Energy Conversion Methods
73 Environmental Impacts of Biomass Energy Sources
8 The Ocean Systems Energy Resources
81 Introduction
82 The Energy of the Waves
821 The Origin of the Waves
822 Distribution of Wave Resources
83 The Tidal Power as Energy Source
831 The Generation of Tides
832 The Tidal Potential
84 The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) Source
841 The Trapping of the OTEC Energy
Desalination with Renewable Energy - A Review 227
Ali M El-Nashar 22 Ahmed Gharbo St Apt 703 Zizinia Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Commercial Desalination Processes and Their Energy Consumption
21 Description of the Commercial Desalination Processes
211 Distillation Processes
212 Membrane Processes
22 Technical and Economic Characteristics of Commercial Desalination Processes
3 Available Renewable Energy Sources
31 Solar Energy
32 Wind Energy
33 Geothermal Energy
34 Other Renewable Energy Sources
4 Devices for Transforming Renewable Energy into Useful Energy for Desalination
41 Solar Collectors
42 Solar Ponds
43 Photovoltaic Cells
44 Wind Turbines
5 Coupling of Desalination Processes and Renewable Energy
51 Direct and Indirect Coupling of Solar Energy and Desalination
511 Direct coupling (Solar still technology)
512 Indirect Coupling
52 Desalination Systems Driven by Solar Thermal Energy
521 Solar Thermal Collectors-MSF Desalination
522 Solar Thermal Collectors-MED Desalination
53 Desalination Systems Driven by Wind Energy
531 Wind-MVC Systems
532 Wind-RO Systems
54 Desalination Systems Driven by Solar Photovoltaics (PV)
55 Hybrid Desalination Systems
6 Current Status
7 Selection Criteria among Different RE Desalination Technologies
8 Performance of Selected RE Desalination Projects
81 Solar Stills
82 Wind-Energy Driven RO Desalination Technology
83 PV-Powered Seawater RO System
84 Abu Dhabi Solar MED Desalination Plant
9 Economics of RE Desalination
91 Financial Analysis
92 Cost of Water from RES Desalination Plants
10 Conclusion
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xvii
Renewable Energy and Desalination Systems 301
Asghar Husain International Center for Water and Energy Systems (ICWES) Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
11 Need for Desalination
2 What Is Sustainability
3 Review of Desalination Technologies
31 Thermal-Based Processes
32 Membrane ndash Based Technologies
33 Renewable Energies
4 Desalination Using Solar Energy
41 Direct Utilization of Solar Radiation in the Solar Still
42 Solar Collectors
43 Solar Concentrating System
44 Solar Ponds
45 Photovoltaic Cells
46 Storage of Solar Energy
5 Desalination Using Other Renewable Energies
51 Wind Energy
52 Geothermal Energy
53 Wave Energy
54 Tidal Energy
55 Ocean Temperature Difference or Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
56 Hydraulic Energy
57 Biomass as Energy Source
6 Concluding Remarks
Why Use Renewable Energy for Desalination 342
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 The Need of Desalination for Economic Development in Remote Arid Areas
3 The Need of Energy for Desalination
4 The Availability of Renewable Energy
5 The Economic and Social Benefits of Using Renewable Energy for Desalination
6 Examples of Arid Remote Regions where Renewable Energy for Desalination can have a High
Economic Potential
61 The Southern and Eastern Mediterranean Regions
62 The Mediterranean Islands
63 The Arab Gulf Region
7 Conclusions
Thermal Energy Storage 356
Hassan E S Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Solar Energy Storage
12 Thermal Energy Storage
13 Thermal Storage Efficiency
14 Thermal Insulation
2 Sensible Heat Storage
21 Introduction
22 Low Temperature Sensible Heat Storage
221 Storage in Liquids
23 Intermediate and High Temperature Sensible Heat Storage
231 Storage in Fluids
232 Storage in Solids
233 Storage in Fluid-Solid Media
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xviii
24 Concluding Remarks
3 Latent Heat (Phase Change) Storage
31 Introduction
32 Low Temperature Latent Heat Storage
321 Phase Change Materials
322 Storage Systems Problems
33 Intermediate and High Temperature Latent Heat Storage
34 Concluding Remarks
35 Heat of Vaporization
4 Combined Sensible and Latent Heat Storage
5 Closing Remarks
6 Some Recent Developments
61 Sensible Heat Storage
62 Latent Heat Storage
621 Heat Transfer with Thermal Energy Storage
622 Storage System Performance
623 Solar Collector Integrated with Storage System
Electrical Energy Storage 387
J Garche Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research Baden-Wuumlrttemberg Germany
A Jossen Energy Storage and Energy Conversion Division Ulm Germany
1 Introduction
2 Systems with Internal Storage
21 Demands on the Battery
22 Lead-Acid Battery
221 Electrochemical Reactions
222 Operation values
223 Types of Lead-Acid Batteries
2231 Differentiation by electrodes
2232 Batteries with positive plates protected against active mass shedding
2233 Differentiation by container technology
224 Main Problems while Operation of Lead-Acid Batteries
2241 Charging and Overdischarge
2242 Deep Discharge
2243 Sulfation
225 Other Battery Systems
2251 Nickel-Cadmium Battery
2252 New Battery Systems
3 Systems with External Storage
31 Gas-Accumulator
32 Redox-Flow-Systems
4 Storage Sizing
Tidal Energy 406
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Consideration
5 Prospects
Index 416
About EOLSS 421
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xix
VOLUME IV
Desalination Using Tidal Energy 1
Abdalla S Hanafi Cairo University Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Tides
21 Spring and Neap Tides
3 Tidal Power Plants
31 Barrage
32 Locks and Gates
33 Power House
34 Basins
35 Storage
36 Economical Considerations
37 Tidal Sites
4 Tidal Desalination Technologies
41 Tidal-Vapor Compression Desalination
42 Tidal-Reverse Osmosis
421 Overall Analysis of the Reverse Osmosis Modules
43 Tidal - Electrodialysis (ED)
431 Electrodialysis DC Power
44 Tidal Freezing-Melting (FM)
441 Freezing-Melting System Analysis
5 Economic Comparisons with Wind and Solar Energy
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
15
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
22 Humidifying with cooling and dehumidifying processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in Desalination HD Process
25 Overview on Some desalination HD projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process description
32 The condenser in the SWGH
321 Different condenser layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot plant
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xx
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot plant
522 Performances of the SWGH
53 Case Study 3 The SWGH project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Wave Energy 81
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Considerations
5 Prospects
Wind Energy 97
B Sorensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Worldwide Distribution of Wind Energy Resources
11 Physical Potential Wind Maps
12 Practical Potential for Wind Turbines
13 Restrictions due to Competing Land Use
14 Off-Shore Potential
15 Methods for Determining Local Potential Atlas Technique
16 Overall Assessment of Potential
2 Wind Turbine Technology
21 Current Status and Prospects for the Future
22 Basic Theory Wind Turbine Types and Efficiencies
23 Prospects for Further Development
24 Current Penetration of Wind Power Utilization
25 National Plans and Future Prospects
26 Plant Lifetime and Reliability
27 Impacts on Requirements for Transmission and Back-Up
28 Energy Storage and Demand Management
3 Economic Social and Environmental Impacts of Wind Energy Utilization
31 Current Cost and Cost Trends
32 Employment Generation
33 Energy Balance
34 Noise
35 Aspects of Decentralized Energy Supply
36 Life-Cycle Estimate of Externalities Including Construction and Decommissioning Impacts
4 Evaluation of Greenhouse Warming Mitigation Potential of Wind Power
41 Assessment of Marginal Life-Cycle Impacts Including Greenhouse Warming
42 Elements of Non-Marginal Analysis of Energy Systems with Large Wind Power Share
43 Relationship between Demand Development and the Valuations of Wind Energy
44 Concluding Remarks
Availability of Wind Energy and Its Estimation 139
Richard Morris Richard Morris Associates Glasgow United Kingdom
1 The Sun as the Wind Driver
2 The Nature of Wind
3 Wind Power Statistics
4 Estimating Wind Power
5 Siting for Wind Energy
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxi
The Use of Geothermal Energy in Desalination 155
BW Tleimat Water Reuse Technology Alamo California USA
ADK Laird (deceased) Professor Emeritus and Director Emeritus Sea Water Conversion Laboratory
University of California Berkeley California USA
1 Introduction
2 Historical Perspective
3 Heat Transfer from Geothermal Reservoirs
4 Geothermal Energy Utilization
5 Electricity Generation
6 Water Production from Geothermal Sources
7 Idealized Liquid-dominated Reservoirs
8 Water and Power Generation Effects of Some System Parameters
9 Multiple-effect and Multistage Distillation Processes
10 Energy-budget Management
11 Processes for Decentralized Desalination
12 Water-budget Management
13 Solids-budget Management
Solar Photovoltaic Energy Conversion 181
G Schumm Zentrum fuer Sonnenenergie und Wasserstoff-Forschung Baden Wuerttemberg Stuttgart
Germany
1 The General Photovoltaic System
2 Non-Concentrating PV Systems
3 Tracking and Concentrating PV Systems
Flat-Plate Collectors 191
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Solar Collector Applications
3 Definitions
31 Solar Collectors
311 Solar Thermal Collector
312 Flat-Plate Collector
32 Construction Elements of a Solar Collector
321 Absorber Plate or Selective Surface
322 The Transparent Cover
323 The Collector Insulation
324 The Heat Transfer Medium
33 The Surface Areas
331 The Surface Area of the Absorber Plate
332 The Transparent Cover Surface
333 Total Surface Area
34 Operational Characteristics of the Collector
341 Collector efficiency (η)
342 Thermal Capacity of the Collector (C)
343 Pressure Drop (Δp)
344 Stagnant Conditions
345 Incidence Angle Coefficient (kθ)
35 The Characteristic Parameters of the Collector
351 The cover reflectance (ρc)
353 Cover Absorptance (αc)
352 Cover Transmittance (τc)
354 Coefficient of cover Emissivity (εc)
355 Coefficient of Absorber Emissivity
356 Selective Surface
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxii
357 Selective Coat
358 Collector Efficiency Factor (Fprime) 359 Collector Flow Factor (FPrime) 3510 Collector Heat Removal Factor (FR)
3511 Collector Heat Loss Coefficient (UL)
4 Main Collector Components
41 The Solar Radiation Absorber
42 The Transparent Cover
43 Thermal Insulation
44 The Casing of the Collector
45 The Supporting of the Collector
5 The Solar Absorbers
51 Types of Solar Absorbers
511 Absorbers of Common Paint
512 Selective coat Absorbers
52 Forms of Absorbers and Tubes
521 General considerations
522 Sandwich Type Absorber
523 Roll Bond Tube Absorber
524 Soldered Type Absorbers
525 Absorbers with Ω Type Fins
6 Characteristics of Flat-Plate Collectors
61 General considerations
62 Installation Configuration of a Collector System
63 Orientation and Slope of the Collector
7 Dynamic Operational Characteristics of a Collector
71 The Incident Angle Coefficient
72 The Thermal Capacity of the Collector C
73 The Heat Removal Factor FR
8 The Thermal Characteristics of a Collector
81 Determination of the Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL
82 Determination of Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL for in Series Interconnection
83 Equivalent Thermal Loss between Tubes and Collector
84 The Influence of Wind Velocity
9 Shading of the Collectors
10 Basic Calculation Methods
101 Cover Reflectance
102 Cover Transmittance
103 The Transmittance-Absorptance Product
104 Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
105 Multi-Cover Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
11 The Heat Transfer Loss Coefficients
111 Loss Coefficient Uc
112 Loss Coefficient Ub
113 Loss Coefficient Us
114 The Collector Efficiency Factor Fprime 115 Collector flow factor FPrime Large Active Solar Systems Load 220
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and other Energy Systems National Centre for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Estimation of Thermal Load
21 Estimation of the Required Heat Qload
22 Estimation of the Required Heat for the Water Qw
23 Estimation of the Heat Loss in Distribution Pipes Qp
24 Estimation of Heat Loss in the Storage Tank Qt
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiii
Large Active Solar Systems Typical Economic Analysis 225
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Cost of a Solar Hot Water System
21 Initial Capital Cost
22 Operational Costs
221 Cost of Fuel
222 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
223 Cost of Maintenance
224 Cost for Loans
225 Costs for Insurance
226 Miscellaneous Expenses
3 Cost of Conventional Hot Water System
31 Operational Costs
311 Cost of Fuel
312 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
313 Cost of Maintenance
4 Inflation
5 Rate of Interest
6 Methods of Life Cycle Cost
61 General
62 Present and Future Costs
63 Yearly Instalment
64 Yearly Expenses
7 Methodology
8 Present Value Factor
9 Comparison Methodology
Integration of Solar Pond with Water Desalination 240
U Fisher J Weinberg and B Doron Ormat Industries Ltd Yavne Israel
1 Introduction
2 Historical Background
3 The Solar Pond
31 Structure
32 Heat Absorption and Storage
33 Main Demands when Building a Pond
331 Surface Area
332 Surface Water Make-up
333 Concentrated Brine Supply
34 How to Build a Solar Pond
341 Geometry or Shape
342 Lining
343 Construction Materials in the Pond
344 Initial Filling and Build-up of Gradient
35 How to Control
36 Heat Losses (Ground Diffusion Evaporation)
361 Top Losses
362 Bottom Heat Losses
37 Disturbances
371 Algae
372 Corrosion
373 Wind
38 Heat Extraction
39 Fuel Assisted Solar Ponds
310 Maintenance
3101 Clarity
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiv
3102 Cleaning of Wind Breakers
3103 Blow Down
3104 Make-up
3105 Leakages
311 Practical Size of a Single Pond
312 Investment in Solar Ponds
313 OampM Costs
4 Desalination Processes Coupled to the Solar Pond
41 Economic Aspects of Coupling Desalination Plants to Solar Ponds
411 Desalination Processes
412 The Choice and Proportion of Producing Heat and Power in the Solar Pond
4121 The Solar Pond Yield
4122 Desalination Plant Performance
4123 The Impact of Daily and Seasonal Fluctuations
4124 Economic Considerations and Evaluations
42 Experience with SP-Desalination Systems
43 Conclusions
Evacuated Tube Collectors 276
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Current Designs of Evacuated Tube Collectors
3 Thermal Analysis
4 Analysis of Flat Plate Evacuated Tube Collector
5 Analysis of Concentric-Tube Collector
6 Performance of Evacuated Tube Collectors
7 Case Study (Collector Field at the Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant)
71 Description of collector field
72 Performance of collector field
73 Economics
Parabolic Trough Collectors 299
Wolfgang Meinecke Deutsches Zentrum fuumlr Luft-und Raumfahrt eV (DLR German Aerospace Center)
Solar Energy Technology Division Koumlln Germany
1 Introduction
2 Brief History of Trough Development
3 State of the Art of Trough Applications
31 Conventional Thermal Water Desalination Applications
32 Solar Thermal Water Desalination Applications
33 Solar Electric Power Generation
34 Solar Process Heat Generation
35 Process Hot Water (Project Examples)
36 Process Steam (Project Examples)
37 Process Steam for Water Desalination (Project Examples)
38 Process Hot Air
4 Trough Technologies
41 LS 3 Trough Collector System
411 LS 3 Parabolic Reflector
412 Steel Support Structure
413 Absorber Element
414 Tracking System and Field Control System
415 Heat Transfer Fluid System
416 Steam Generator
417 Balance of Plant Technologies
418 Energy Storage System
42 IST Trough Collector System
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxv
421 IST Parabolic Reflector
422 Support Structure
423 Absorber Element
424 Tracking System and Field Control System
425 Heat Transfer Fluid System
426 Heat Exchanger
427 Balance of Plant Technology
428 Energy Storage
5 Prospects and Potential
51 Solar Electric Power Generation
52 Solar Process Heat Generation
53 Solar Thermal Water Desalination
6 Cost and Economic Aspects
61 Collector Investment Costs
611 LS 3 Collector Costs
612 IST Collector Costs
62 Other Economic Parameters
621 Fossil Fuel Prices
622 Solar Energy Yield
623 Solar Share
624 Plant Power Size
625 Capacity Factor
626 OampM Costs
627 Non-Technical Parameters
63 Costs of Solar Water Desalination
7 Conclusions
Index 363
About EOLSS 369
VOLUME V
Central Receivers 1
MM Elsayed Mechanical Engineering Department Kuwait University Safat Kuwait
1 Introduction
2 Heliostats Types and Design Shapes
3 Heliostat Angles
4 Heliostat Field Heliostat Layout
5 Heliostat Field Cosine Effect
6 Heliostat Field Preliminary Sizing of the Field
7 Heliostat Field Usefulness Efficiency
8 Reflected Solar Radiation
9 The Effective Sunshape
10 Principal Images and Relation between Receiver and Image Planes
11 Models to Predict the Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Image Plane
111 Incoming Ray Formulation
112 The Mirror Plane Formulation
113 Solar Disk Formulation
114 The Pinhole View
12 Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Receiver Surface Using the Separation of
VariableSuperposition Technique
121 Concept
122 Calculation of φ 123 Validation of Model Using Measurements
13 Receivers Types and Losses
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvi
14 Preliminary Sizing of the Receiver
15 Overall System Optimization
Configuration Theoretical Analysis and Performance of Simple Solar Stills 98
A Kumar Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources Solar Energy Center New Delhi India
1 Introduction
2 Configuration of Simple Solar Stills
21 Basic Principle
22 Classification
23 Single Basin Solar Stills
24 Inclined Solar Stills
241 Basin Type Solar Stills
242 Wick Type Solar Stills
25 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
26 Solar Earth Water Stills
27 Plastic Solar Stills
271 Life Raft Solar Still
272 Circular Solar Still
273 Extruded Plastic Solar Still
274 Concentric Tube Solar Still
28 A Typical Solar Distillation Plant
3 Theoretical Analysis of Simple Solar Stills
31 Heat and Mass Transfer in Solar Stills
311 Inside the Solar Still
312 Outside the Solar Still
32 Solar Radiation Balance
321 Transmission through Top Cover
322 Absorption in the Top Cover
33 Energy Balance Equations
34 Solution Procedure
4 Performance of Solar Stills
41 Single Basin Solar Stills
42 Inclined Solar Stills
43 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
44 Solar Earth Water Stills
45 Plastic Solar Stills
46 Case Studies
461 Australia
462 Greek Islands
463 India
47 Suggested Practices for Installing Solar Stills
Development in Simple Solar Stills 169
Hassan ES Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Modified Simple (Passive) Stills
21 Basin Still
211 Single Slope versus Double Slope Basin Stills
212 Basin Still with Cover Cooling
213 Basin Still with Treated Cover Surface
214 Basin Still with Additional Condenser
215 Basin Still with Black DyeMuddy Water
22 Wick Stills
221 Single-wick Stills
222 Multi-wick Stills
223 Wick versus Basin Stills
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvii
224 Combined Wick-Basin Stills
23 Other Stills Configurations
231 Vertical Microporous Evaporator Still
232 Cascade Solar Still
233 Still Integrated with Greenhouse
3 Externally Heated (Active) Solar Stills
31 Introduction
32 Stills Coupled to a Solar Collector
321 Direct and Indirect Heating
322 Use of Dye and Cover Cooling
323 Other Solar Heaters
33 Stills Coupled with Solar Concentrator
34 The Use of Waste Heat in Solar Stills
4 Other Types of Solar Distillation Systems
41 Water Recovery from Air
Multi-Effect Solar Stills 197
HES Fath Al-Jubail 31951 Saudi Arabia
1 Why Multi Effect
2 Double Effect Basin Stills
21 Double Basins Stills
22 Double Effect Tilted Stills
23 Purging Vapor to a Second Effect
3 Multi-Effect Multi-Wick Stills
4 Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
41 Introduction
42 Mass Diffusion
43 Comparison between Diffusion and Basin Stills
44 Description of Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
45 Analysis and Performance Considerations
5 Other Distillation Systems
51 Stacked Tray Stills
52 Multi-Effect Humidification-Dehumidification
Materials for Construction of Solar Stills 218
TA Lawand and J Ayoub Brace Research Institute Canada
1 Introduction
2 General Specifications of Solar Stills
3 Transparent Cover
4 Basin Liner
5 Solar Still Frame
6 Sealants
7 Insulation
8 Auxiliaries - Piping Pumping and Reservoirs
Reverse Osmosis by Solar Energy 225
W Bucher DLR German Aerospace Research Establishment Cologne Germany
1 Introduction
2 Basic Parameters and Energy Demand for Osmosis
21 Physical Properties of Hyperfiltration
22 Energy required for the RO Process
3 Solar Power Conversion Systems
31 Solar Conversion Principles
32 Technical Data of Solar Energy Conversion Methods
33 RO Plant Operation Utilizing Variable Energy Sources
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxviii
4 Reverse Osmosis System Configuration and Operation Aspects
41 Process Design of RO Desalination Systems
42 Procedural Steps and Data for Water Treatment and Energy Consumption
43 Components of RO -Desalination
431 Membranes and Modules
432 High Pressure Pumps
433 Pressure Regulating Devices
5 Solar Powered Desalination Units
51 Specific Figures or RO Systems
52 Solar Power Concepts for RO Desalination
53 Operational Experience with Solar driven RO Systems
6 Costs
61 Specific Cost Figures for the Plant Components
62 Water Delivery Cost
Availability of Solar Radiation and Its Estimation 265
VG Belessiotis Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems National Center for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun and the Radiation Emitted
21 The Physics of the Sun
22 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
3 The Extraterrestrial Radiation
31 What is the Solar Constant
32 Variations of the Extraterrestrial Radiation
33 The Black-body Emittance and Absorptance
34 Blackbody Absorbers - Application to Desalination
4 The Co-ordinate Systems The Basic Solar Angles
41 The Earth-Sun Relationships
42 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Sky
43 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Celestial Sphere
44 Earth-Sun Geometric Relationship
45 Time and its Units - Day Length
46 Terrestrial Solar Radiation
461 Estimation of Radiation Availability
462 Average Radiation Values - Clearness Index
463 Clear Sky Radiation
464 Sky Radiation
47 Atmospheric Factors Affecting Radiation
5 Computation of Insolation at the Earths Surface
51 Insolation Data
52 Measurement of Solar Radiation
53 Models for Solar Radiation
54 Where the Models Apply
55 Tilted Surfaces - Absorptance of Solar Radiation
551 Fixed Tilted Surfaces
552 Tracking Surfaces
6 Applications of Solar Radiation
7 Impact of Solar Energy to the Environment
Economics of Small Solar-Assisted Multiple-Effect Seawater Distillation Plants 296
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Configurations
3 Design and Sizing Considerations
31 Thermal Energy Requirement
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxix
32 Pumping Requirements
33 Collector Performance
34 Sizing Thermal Collector Area
35 Sizing the PV System
351 Sizing the PV Array
4 Economic Ground Rules and Water Cost Optimization
41 Capital Equipment Cost
42 Operating Costs
43 Optimum Cost of Water for each Plant Configuration
5 Results
6 Conclusion
A Solar-Assisted Sea Water Multiple Effect Distillation Plant 15 Years of Operating
Performance (1985-1999) 316
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Basic Design Concept
21 General Plant Description
22 Design Specifications
23 Evaporator Heat Transfer Coefficient
24 Tube Dimensions Heat Transfer Areas and Materials
3 Performance during Commissioning Tests
31 The MES Evaporator
32 The Solar Collector Field
33 The Heat Accumulator
34 Total Plant Performance
4 Performance History
41 The MES Evaporator
42 The Solar Collector Field
43 The Heat Accumulator
431 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
4311 The heat balance method
4312 The direct temperature measurement method
4313 Thermal stratification ratio
44 Total Plant Performance
5 Major Maintenance Activities
51 Equipment Failure and Replacement
52 Acid Cleanings and Silt Removal from Evaporator
6 Evaluation of Water Cost
61 Capital Costs
62 Operation and Maintenance Costs
7 Conclusions
Mathematical Simulation of a Solar Desalination Plant 341
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Description
3 System Operating Conditions
31 Solar Heat Collecting Subsystem
32 Evaporator Subsystem
4 Mathematical Modeling of System Components
41 Solar radiation model
42 Ambient temperature model
43 Solar collector subsystem
431 Effect of shade on solar radiation
432 Effect of dust on transmissivity of glass tubes
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxx
433 Control of heat collecting operation
434 Heat collection by solar collectors
435 Heat loss from piping
4351 Piping specifications
4352 Standard pipe lengths
4353 Heat loss from piping during operation of heat collecting pump
4354 Heat loss from piping while the heat collecting pump is shutdown
4355 Correction of piping heat loss
44 Heat accumulator subsystem
441 Temperature distribution
442 MES evaporator subsystem
5 The Simulation Program
51 Program structure
52 Input and output data
6 Results
7 Conclusions
Index 379
About EOLSS 385
VOLUME VI
Modeling and Design of Solar Energy Systems Including Solar Economics 1
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 F-Chart Method
11 Performance and Design of Liquid-Based Solar Heating Systems
111 Storage Capacity Correction
112 Collector Flow Rate Correction
113 Load Heat Exchanger Size Correction
12 Performance and Design of Air-Based Solar Heating Systems
121 Pebble Bed Storage Size Correction
122 Air Flow Rate Correction
13 Performance and Design of Solar Service Water Systems
14 Thermosiphon Solar Water Heating Systems
15 General Remarks
2 Modeling and Simulation of Solar Energy Systems
21 Simple System Models
211 Pipe Losses
22 F-Chart Program
23 Trnsys Simulation Program
24 Limitations of Simulations
3 Solar Economic Analysis
31 Life Cycle Costing
32 Life Cycle Analysis Method
33 Payback Time
331 Not Discounted Fuel Savings
332 Discounted Fuel Savings
34 Alternative Method
341 System Optimization Using Economic Analysis
35 Uncertainties in Economic Analysis
Solar Energy Power Generation and Desalination Systems 47
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 Global Energy Problems and the Role of Renewables
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxi
11 Energy demand
12 Energy environmental problems and sustainable development
13 Water demand and consumption
14 Water and energy
15 Desalination and energy
16 Renewable energy technologies
2 Solar Collectors
21 Parabolic trough collectors
22 Fresnel collectors
23 Parabolic dish reflector
24 Heliostat field collector
3 Power Generation and Industrial Process Heat Systems
31 Parabolic trough collector systems
32 Power tower systems
33 Dish systems
34 Solar ponds
341 Heat extraction and applications
35 Industrial process heat systems
36 Solar industrial steam generation systems
4 Desalination Processes
41 Direct collection systems
42 Indirect collection systems
421 The multi-stage flash process
422 The multiple-effect distillation process
423 The vapor-compression process
424 Reverse osmosis
425 Electrodialysis
Solar Updraft Power Plant Technology Basic Concepts and Structural Design 94
Francesca Lupi University of Florence Florence Italy
Claudio Borri University of Florence Florence Italy
Wilfried B Kraumltzig Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
Hans-Juumlrgen Niemann Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
1 Solar Updraft Power Technology Introduction and Working Principles
2 History of the Solar Updraft Power Technology
21 Solar Tower Prototype in Manzanares (Spain)
3 Evaluation of Plant Efficiency
31 The Collector
32 The Chimney
33 The Turbines
34 Electric Power Generated by Supps
4 The Collector
5 Actions on Solar Updraft Towers
6 Wind Loading on Solar Updraft Towers
61 Wind Flow Structure in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer at High Altitudes
611 Boundary Layer Meteorology
612 The Ekman Spiral
613 Theoretical Considerations on the Mean Wind and Turbulence in the Ekman Layer
62 Modeling of the Wind Load on Solar Towers
621 Mean Wind Load
622 Response to Wind Turbulence
623 Fluctuating Wind Load
624 Equivalent Static Wind Pressures
625 Vortex Excitation
626 Other Effects The Effect of the Efflux
63 Wind Load on the Collector Roof
7 Structural Behavior of Solar Updraft Towers
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxii
71 Structural Elements of Solar Tower Shells
72 Some Typical Response Characteristics of Solar Tower Shells Vibration and Instability
Behavior
73 Non-Linear Tower Response
8 Structural Optimization of Solar Updraft Towers
81 The Role of the Stiffening Rings in the Structural Design of Solar Towers
82 Strategies of Optimization
9 Technology of Construction
Renewable Energy Potential in The Arab Region 162
Mohammed Mostafa El-Khayat General Manager of Planning New and Renewable Energy Authority
NREA Cairo Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Research Problem and Objectives
111 Research Problem
12 Research Objectives
2 Energy Demand
3 The Current Situation of Renewable Energy
31 Hydropower
32 Wind Energy
33 Solar Energy
34 Biomass and Geothermal Energy
4 Strategies
5 Institutional and Regulatory Framework
6 Main Policies and Incentives
7 RE Policies and Incentives Profiles
71 Algeria
72 Egypt
73 Jordan
74 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
75 Lebanon
76 Libya
77 Morocco
78 Palestine
79 Sudan
710 Syria
711 Tunisia
712 United Arab Emirates
713 Yemen
8 Financing Schemes and Investment Opportunities
9 Motivations and Barriers of Renewable Energy
10 Renewable Energy Initiatives
101 Arabian Initiatives
102 DESERTEC
11 Potential of Renewable Energy in the Region
12 The proposed mechanisms to enhance and accelerate the rate of using RE applications
13 The situation of localizing RE technologies
14 RE and climate change in Arab countries
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
198
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiii
22 Humidifying with Cooling and Dehumidifying Processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in HD Desalination Process
25 Overview on Some Desalination HD Projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process Description
32 The Condenser in the SWGH
321 Different Condenser Layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the Condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of Condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot Plant
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH Project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot Plant
522 Performances of the Pilot Plant
53 The SWGH Project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot Plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Evolution of Photovoltaic Materials for Renewable Energy Development 262
Abdelilah Slaoui InESS ndash CNRS ndash University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
Jef Poortmans IMEC Leuven Belgium
Marko Topic University of Ljubljana Faculty of Elec Eng Ljubljana Slovenia
Gavin Conibeer ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence UNSW Sydney Australia
1 General Introduction
2 Photovoltaic Materials and Technologies State of the Art
21 Crystalline Silicon
22 Thin Films
221 Amorphous Silicon
222 Nanocrystalline and Microcrystalline Silicon
223 Polycrystalline Silicon
224 Copper Indium Selenide Its alloys and Related Chalcopyrites
225 Cadmium Telluride
226 Materials for Photochemical Solar Cells
227 Materials for Organic Solar Cells
3 Next Generation Solar Cells
31 Introduction
32 Multiple energy level approaches
33 Multiple Exciton Generation solar cells
34 Intermediate Band (IB) cells
35 Hot carrier cells
4 Conclusions and Perspectives
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiv
Wind and Solar Renewable Energy Potential Resources Estimation 302
Philippe Drobinski Institut Pierre Simon LaplaceLaboratoire de Meacuteteacuteorologie Dynamique CNRSEcole
Polytechnique Palaiseau France
1 Renewable Wind and Solar Energies The Context
11 An Economical and Environmental Necessity
12 Energy Definitions and Units
2 Basic Knowledge in Geophysics for Energy Resource Evaluation
21 Earth Energy Budget and Atmospheric Motion
22 Near Surface Wind
23 Impacts of Clouds and Aerosols on Surface Solar Radiation
3 Wind Energy Resource
31 Wind Energy A Brief History
32 Wind Energy Resources Evaluation
33 Wind Energy Installed Capacity in the World
4 Solar Energy Resources
41 Solar Energy An Introduction
42 Worldwide Solar Heat
5 Methods for Wind and Solar Energy Resources Forecast
Index 353
About EOLSS 361
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) v
4 Energy Flow and Thermal Energy Delivered by a Parabolic-trough Collector
5 Design of Solar Fields with Parabolic-trough Collectors
6 Different Ways to Couple a Parabolic-trough Solar Field with an Industrial Process
61 Unfired Steam Generator (OilWater Heat Exchanger)
62 Flash-steam Systems
63 Direct Steam Generation
7 The Direct Steam Generation Technology
8 Thermal Energy Storage Systems for Parabolic-trough Collectors
81 Single-medium Storage Systems
82 Dual-medium Storage Systems
9 Electricity Generation with Parabolic-trough Collectors
High Temperature Solar Concentrators 256
Robert Pitz-Paal Institute of Technical Thermodynamics German Aerospace Center (DLR) Germany
1 Introduction
2 Theoretical Background
21 Concentration of Radiation
22 Conversion of Radiation to Heat
23 Conversion of Heat to Electricity
3 Technical Concepts
31 Parabolic Dishes
32 Central Receiver Systems
33 Solar Furnaces
4 Conclusions
Solar Ponds 299
Aliakbar Akbarzadeh and John Andrews School of Aerospace Mechanical and Manufacturing
Engineering RMIT University Melbourne Australia
Peter Golding Department of Metallurgical amp Materials Engineering University of Texas at El Paso
500 W University Avenue El Paso USA
1 What is a Solar Pond
2 The Design and Performance of Solar Ponds
21 Design Principles
211 Designing for an Application
212 Making Use of Local Resources
213 Matching Thermal Output to End-Use Requirements
22 Site Characteristics
23 Thermal Output and Sizing
24 Site Preparation Excavation and Lining
25 Sources of Salt
26 Source of Water
27 Setting-Up and Maintaining the Salinity Profile
28 Pond Clarity
29 Heat Extraction
210 Monitoring Key Parameters
211 Calculating and Measuring Pond Performance
212 Costs and Economic Evaluation
213 Environmental Benefits and Sustainability
3 Experimental and Demonstration Solar Ponds
31 Introduction
32 Israeli Solar Ponds
33 RMIT University Solar Ponds
34 UTEP High-Performance Solar Pond
4 Applications of Solar Ponds
41 Heating
42 Aquaculture and Biotechnology
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) vi
43 Desalination
44 Electrical Power Production
45 Salinity Mitigation
46 Production of Chemicals
5 State of the Art and Future Directions
Solar Irradiation and TiO2 Render Materials Self-Cleaning 320
P Pichat Photocatalyse et Environnement CNRSEcole Centrale de Lyon (STMS) France
1 Introduction
2 Preparing Coating and Incorporating TiO2 Thickness of the TiO2-containing Layer
3 Increasing the Photocatalytic Efficacy Better Harvesting Sun Light
4 Hydrophilicity Induced by Solar Irradiation Contributes to the Self-cleaning Effect
5 Limitations to the Self-cleaning Effect
6 Measurements of the Self-cleaning Efficacy
61 Field Tests
62 Laboratory Tests
621 Tests Conditions
622 Deposited Compounds for the Tests
623 Methods for Measuring the Cleaning Efficacy
624 Measurement of the Hydrophilicity
7 Measurements of the Mechanical and Optical Properties of Self-cleaning Materials
8 Can Self-cleaning Materials Significantly Contribute to Outdoor Air Pollutants Removal
9 Do TiO2-containing Self-cleaning Materials Present a Potential Health Risk
10 Commercialization of Self-cleaning Materials and Coatings
Photosynthetic Microorganisms and Valuable Products 339
F G Acieacuten Fernaacutendez J M Fernaacutendez Sevilla and J A Saacutenchez Peacuterez Universidad de Almeriacutea Spain
1 Introduction
2 Factors Affecting Photosynthetic Microorganisms
21 Light and Photosynthesis Rate
22 Average Irradiance
23 Nutrients
24 Temperature
25 Energy Supply
3 Photobioreactors
31 Designs
311 Open Reactors
312 Closed Reactors
313 Comparative Analysis
32 Quality
33 Safety
4 Biomass and Product Recovery
5 Industrial Applications
51 Waste Treatment
511 Water Treatment
512 Flue Gases Treatment
52 Production of High-Value Products
521 Carotenoids
522 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
523 Phycobiliproteins
Elaboration and Testing Of Materials Using Concentrated Solar Energy 363
G Flamant and M Balat-Pichelin Processes Materials and Solar Energy Laboratory (PROMES-CNRS)
7 rue du Four Solaire Font Romeu France
1 Brief history of the use of solar energy to transform matter
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) vii
2 Main characteristics of solar furnaces
3 Elaboration of materials using concentrated solar energy
31 Surface treatments
32 Melting and purification of bulk materials
33 Production of chemical commodities and ceramics
34 Elaboration of carbon molecules nanomaterials and thin films
4 Testing of materials using concentrated solar energy
41 Original devices at the focus of solar furnaces
42 Test of materials for aerospace applications
421 Atmopsheric re-entry (oxidation and catalycity)
422 Solar probe mission
43 Test of materials for future system of energy production
5 Conclusion
Index 389
About EOLSS 395
VOLUME II
Solar Distillation 1
Gopal Nath Tiwari and Hriday Narayan Singh Center of Energy Studies Indian Institute of Technology
India
1 Importance of Water
11 Water Sources
12 Water Demand
13 Drinking Water Quality
2 Water Pollution and its Effect
3 Principles of Solar Distillation A State of the Art
4 Classification of Solar Distillation Systems
41 Passive Solar Still
411 Conventional Solar Still
412 New Design Solar Still
42 Active Solar Distillation
421 Nocturnal Production
422 Pre-Heated Water Application
423 High Temperature Distillation
5 Heat and Mass Transfer in Solar Distillation
51 Background
52 Internal Heat Transfer
521 Convective and Evaporative Heat Transfer Coefficients
522 Radiative Heat Transfer Coefficient
523 Total Internal Heat Transfer coefficient
53 External Heat Transfer
531 Top Heat Loss Coefficient
532 Bottom and Sides Loss Coefficient
6 Performance of Solar Still
61 Thermal Modeling of Solar Still and Effect of Meteorological and other Parameters
62 Passive Solar Still
63 Active Solar Still
64 Economic Evaluation
641 Introduction
642 Economic Analysis
643 Preparation of Drinking Water
7 Conclusions and Recommendations
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) viii
Solar Photochemistry 67
Juliaacuten Blanco Gaacutelvez and Sixto Malato Rodriacuteguez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain
1 Solar Chemistry
2 Artificial Solar Photochemical Processes
3 Biological Photosynthetic Processes
4 Photochemical Synthetic Applications
41 Photooxygenation of Furfural
42 Synthesis of substituted Pyridines
43 Solar photo-production of Caprolactam
44 Photochemical synthesis of Thiohelicenes
45 Photocyclisation of substituted Benzylidenes to annulled Quinolines
46 Other solar driven photochemical processes
5 Solar Photocatalytic Processes to Water Contaminants Treatment
51 Heterogeneous titanium dioxide solar detoxification
52 Homogeneous solar photocatalytic processes
6 Gas Phase Photocatalytic Treatment Processes
7 Pilot Scale Solar Photochemical Facilities
8 Conclusions
Photochemical Conversion of Solar Energy 96
S Malato Rodriacuteguez and J Blanco Gaacutelvez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT SPAIN
1 Introduction
2 Photochemistry Principles
21 The Light
22 The Power of Light
3 The Solar Spectrum
31 Atmospheric Attenuation of Solar Radiation
32 Solar UV Photon Flux
4 Evaluation of Solar Photo Flux inside Photoreactors
41 Collector Efficiency
42 Actinometric Experiments
5 Simplified Methods for Comparing Experiments when working with Solar Radiation
51 Accumulated Energy
52 Secondary Actinometer
53 Standardized illumination time
Solar Photocatalysis and Water Treatment Detoxification and Disinfection 117
S Malato Rodriacuteguez and J Blanco Gaacutelvez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain
1 Introduction
2 Fundamental Parameters in Solar Photocatalysis
21 Direct Photolysis
22 Radiant Flux
23 Initial Concentration of Contaminant
3 Factors Affecting Solar Photocatalysis
31 Influence of Oxygen
32 Influence of Catalyst Concentration
33 Temperature Influence
34 pH Influence
4 Solar Photocatalytic Degradation of Contaminants
41 Improving Solar Photocatalysis Efficiency
42 Combining Solar Photocatalysis and Biotreatment
5 Solar Photocatalytic Disinfection of Water
51 Effect of Solar Radiation on Microorganisms
52 Microorganism Inactivation by Titanium Dioxide Photocatalysis
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) ix
Solar Photochemistry Technology 139
J Blanco Gaacutelvez and S Malato Rodriacuteguez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain
1 Introduction
2 Solar Collectors for Photochemical Processes
21 Parabolic Trough Collectors (PTCs)
22 One-Sun Collectors
23 Compound Parabolic Concentrators (CPCs)
24 Holographic Collectors
3 Peculiarities of Solar Tracking and Non-Tracking Systems
4 Technological Issues
41 Photochemical Reactor
42 Reflective Surfaces
43 Piping
44 Radiation Absorption
5 Gas-Phase Photochemical Technology
Solar Photochemistry Applications 163
J Blanco Gaacutelvez and S Malato Rodriacuteguez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain
1 Introduction
2 Solar Photocatalytic Treatment Plants
3 Cost Estimations
4 Water Phase Photocatalytic Applications
41 Phenols
42 Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
43 Pharmaceutical Compounds
44 Wood Preservative Waste
45 Agrochemical Wastes (Pesticides)
46 Seaport Tank Terminals
47 Removal of Hazardous Metal Ions
48 Cyanide degradation
49 Groundwater Decontamination
5 Water Disinfection
6 Gas-Phase Photocatalytic Applications
7 Contaminated Landfill Cleaning
Research and Environmental Issues in The 1990s 184
S Malato Rodriacuteguez and J Blanco Gaacutelvez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT SPAIN
1 Introduction
2 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of Chlorophenols
3 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of Pesticides
4 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of NBCS
5 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of Cyanide
6 Solar Photo-Fenton
61 Photo-Fenton Treatment of Pesticides
62 Photo-Fenton Treatment of Olive Mill Wastewater
7 Photoelectrochemical Reactors Development
Mathematical Models of Solar Energy Conversion Systems 205
Viorel Badescu Candida Oancea Institute Polytechnic University of Bucharest Romania
1 Introduction
2 Properties of Radiation Fluxes
21 Photons in Discrete Quantum States
22 Photons in Continuous Spectrum
23 Properties of Photon Fluxes
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) x
24 Spectral Property Radiances for Blackbodies and Band-gap Materials
3 Concentration of Solar Radiation
31 The Lagrangian of Beam Radiation
32 Upper Bounds on Solar Radiation Concentration
33 Geometrical Concentration Ratio for Several Mirrors
331 Spherical mirrors
332 Paraboloidal Mirrors
333 Cylinder Parabolic Mirrors
34 Perturbing Factors
4 Photothermal Conversion
41 Detailed Balance Models
411 The End-user Requires a Heat Flux
412 The End-user Requires Mechanical Power
42 Models Based on Spectrally Integrated Fluxes
421 The End-user Requires Heat The Flat Plate Solar Collector
422 The End-user Requires Work Solar Power Generation
423 Upper Bounds on Solar Energy Conversion Efficiency into Work
43 Discussion and Perspectives
5 Photovoltaic Conversion
51 Models Based on the Diode Equation
52 Models Based on Detailed Balance Equations
521 Radiation Received From the Environment Neglected
522 Radiation Received From the Environment Included
523 The Solar Cell Equation
53 Discussion and Perspectives
6 Photochemical Conversion
7 Conclusion
Multiple Effect Distillation of Seawater Using Solar Energy ndash The Case of Abu Dhabi Solar
Desalination Plant 256
Ali M El-Nashar International Center for Water amp Energy Systems Abu Dhabi United Arab Emirates
1 Introduction
2 History of Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant
3 Description of Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant
31 Plant Description
311 The solar heat collector subsystem
312 The heat accumulator subsystem
313 MED evaporator subsystem
32 Design Features
4 Measurements and Data Acquisition System
41 Measuring the heat collected in block F
5 Data Analysis
51 Calculating the solar radiation on absorber plate
52 Calculating the performance of the collector bank
53 Calculating the performance of the evaporator
531 Calculating the brine concentration at each effect
532 OHTC of heater (first effect)
533 Average OHTC of other evaporator effects
534 Average OHTC of preheaters
535 OHTC of condenser
536 Evaporator economy
6 Weather Condition in Abu Dhabi
7 Operating Characteristics
71 Heat collecting subsystem
711 Heat collector efficiency
712 Daily heat collection efficiency
72 Heat accumulator system
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xi
721 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
722 Thermal stratification ratio
73 Evaporating system
731 Evaporator performance
74 Performance of the plant
8 Plant Maintenance and Modifications
81 Heat collecting system
811 Cleaning the solar collector field
812 Corrosion of the collector air vent valves
813 Vacuum loss inside glass tubes
814 Scale prevention
815 Anti-corrosion chemical for use in the heat collecting water
816 Measures against power failure
82 Evaporating system
821 Evaporator pump maintenance
822 Inspection of the evaporator
823 Change in operating sequence
825 Modification of the method of feeding sealing water to the priming vacuum pump
824 Modification of the system for injecting anti-scale chemical
9 Simulation Program and its Validation
91 Simulation program
911 Outline
912 Flow chart of the SOLDES program
913 Program Input and output data
914 Mathematical Models
92 Comparison of simulation and actually measured Values
10 Evaluation of the Test Plant
101 Optimum operating conditions
102 Simulation results
103 Evaluation of the solar plant
11 Economic Considerations and Comparison with Conventional MED Plants
111 Basic economic parameters
112 Capital equipment cost
1121 Capital cost of MED evaporator
1122 Capital cost of solar thermal collectors
1123 Capital cost of heat accumulator
1124 Capital cost of steam generator for conventional MED systems
1125 Capital cost of diesel generator
113 Operation and maintenance expenses
1131 Consumable chemical expenses
1132 Electrical energy consumption
1133 Spare parts cost
1134 Personnel cost
114 Estimating the cost of water produced
12 Results of the Economic Study
13 Conclusion
131 System Reliability
132 Response to varying weather condition
133 Establishment of a method for cleaning of solar collectors
134 Comparison of the test plant results with that of the basic design
Index 335
About EOLSS 341
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xii
VOLUME III
Solar Irradiation Fundamentals 1
Zekacirci Sen Istanbul Technical University Maslak 34469 Istanbul Turkey
1 Introduction
2 The Sun
3 Atmospheric effects and Electro-magnetic Radiation (EMR) spectrum
4 Astronomic effects
5 Meteorological effects
51 Cloud Index
6 Topographic effects
7 Solar parameters
71 Solar geometry quantities
711 Earth eccentricity
712 Declination angle
713 Zenith angle
72 Solar time quantities
721 Solar time
722 Equation of time
723 Apparent solar time (AST)
73 Solar irradiation quantities
731 Solar constant
732 Irradiation path
8 Solar radiation modeling
81 Solar energy laws
82 Solar irradiation calculation
83 Estimation of clear sky radiation
84 Irradiation model
9 Astronomic calculations
91 The Daily Solar Profile
92 Daily solar energy on horizontal surface
93 Solar energy on inclined surface
10 Solar-Hydrogen Energy
11 Conclusions
Direct Solar Energy 67
S C Bhattacharya and S Kumar Energy Program Asian Institute of Technology Pathumthani
Thailand
1 Introduction
11 A Brief History of Energy
12 Origin of Solar Energy
13 Solar Thermal Energy
14 Photovoltaics (PV)
15 The Future of Solar Energy
2 Solar Radiation
21 Sun and Earth
22 Solar Radiation Estimation
3 Solar Thermal Conversion
31 Solar Collectors
311 Flat Plate Collectors
312 Concentrating Collectors
313 Evacuated Type Collectors
314 Selective Surfaces
32 Solar Water Heating
321 Introduction
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xiii
322 Natural Circulation Systems
323 Forced Circulation Systems
324 Materials Used in Solar Water Heaters
325 Advantages and Disadvantages
33 Solar Space Heating
331 Active Systems
332 Passive Systems
333 Solar District Heating
34 Solar Thermal Power Generation
341 Introduction
342 Parabolic Trough Systems
343 Power Towers
344 Parabolic Dish
35 Solar Drying
351 Introduction
352 Types of Solar Drier
353 Advantages of Solar Drying
4 Solar Photovoltaic Conversion
41 Solar Cells and Modules
42 Other Components of PV Systems
43 PV Applications
5 Other Solar Technologies
51 Solar Photochemical Conversion
52 Space Solar Power
521 Introduction
522 The SSP Concept
523 Promise and Problems
524 Future Prospects
6 Solar Energy Storage
61 Solar Thermal Energy Storage
611 Sensible Heat Storage
612 Latent Heat Storage
613 Chemical Energy Storage
614 Solar Electrical Energy Storage
7 Environmental Impacts of Solar Energy
71 General Impacts
72 Solar Thermal Systems
73 PV Systems
74 Health and Environmental Aspects
75 Energy Payback and CO2 Abatement
76 Other implications
761 Batteries
762 Operation and Decommissioning
8 The Way Forward
81 General
82 Solar Thermal Systems
83 PV Systems
9 Concluding Remarks
Solar Drying - A Technology for Sustainable Agriculture and Food Production 112
RJ Fuller Principal Fellow IDTC Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of
Melbourne Australia
1 Introduction
2 Drying Fundamentals
3 Sun vs Solar Drying
4 Types of Solar Dryer
41 Direct Mode
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xiv
42 Indirect Mode
43 Mixed Mode
44 Further Classifications
441 Natural Convection
442 Forced Convection
45 Other Differences
451 Supplementary Energy
452 Air Flow Direction
453 Heat Transfer Fluid
454 Thermal Storage
5 Solar Dryers in Practice
51 Direct mode natural convection dryers
52 Direct Mode Forced Convection Dryers
53 Indirect Mode Forced Convection Dryers
6 Performance Evaluation of Solar Dryers
61 Overall System Drying Efficiency
62 Pick-up Efficiency
63 Solar Collection Efficiency
64 Performance of Solar Dryers
65 Comparative Testing
7 Designing Solar Drying Systems
71 Rules-of-Thumb
72 Sizing Equations
73 Chart Methods
74 Simulation Techniques
8 Non-technical Factors
81 Economics
82 Practical Issues
83 Technology Transfer
84 Developing Country Issues
85 Industrialized Country Issues
9 Prospects and Future Developments
91 Technical Developments
92 Costs
93 Design
94 External Factors
10 Conclusions
A Short Historical Review of Renewable Energy 136
E Delyannis NCSR Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems ldquoDemokritosrdquo Aghia Paraskevi
Greece
A El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority (WEA) Abu-Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
11 The History of Renewable Energy Achievements
12 The Set-up of this Historical Review
2 The Renewable Energies in the Antiquity
21 From Legends to the First Written Documents
3 The Power of the Sun
31 The Dawn of the History
32 The Capture of the Suns Radiation
321 Antiquity to Middle Age The Philosophers
322 Renaissance to the 20th Century The Founders
323 The 20th Century The Engineers
324 The Present Times The Technologists
4 The Development of the Solar Distillation
41 From Philosophy to Practice
42 The First Large Applications
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xv
43 The Last 50 Years
5 Solar Driven Desalination
51 General Considerations
52 The Solar Driven Distillation Plants
53 Freezing Plants
54 Electrodialysis Plants
55 Solar Powered Reverse Osmosis Plants
6 The Energy of the Mother Gaia
7 The Power of Aeolos
71 The Aeolian Gods
72 The Harvest of the Winds Energy
73 The Raise and the Fall of Windmills
74 Wind Turbine Generation
8 The Power of the Moving Water
81 Hydraulic Power
9 The Impulsive Power of Poseidon
91 The Power of the Waves
92 The Tides and their Energy
93 The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) System
Renewable Energy Resources 186
V Belessiotis and E Delyannis NCSR Demokritos Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems
Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun as an Energy Source
21 The Availability of Solar Energy
22 Application of Solar Energy to Desalination
3 The Geothermal Energy
31 Introduction
32 The Geothermal Resources System
321 Hydrothermal Reservoirs
322 The Geopressurized Reservoirs
323 The Hot Dry Rocks
33 The Available Resources
34 The Geographic Distribution of Reservoirs
35 The Geothermal Brines
36 Application of Geothermal Resources
4 The Hydraulic Energy
41 Introduction
42 The Available Hydropower Resources
43 Limit of Hydropower Output
5 Wind Energy Resources
51 The Origin of Wind
52 The Distribution of Wind Forces
53 Wind Speed Distribution
54 The Utilization of the Wind Energy
6 Biomass as an Energy Source
61 Introduction
62 The Origin of Biomass
63 The Alternate Biomass Products
64 Biomass Residues
641 The Crop Residues
642 Fuel Wood
643 Sugar Crops
644 Livestock Manure
65 Refuse and Municipal Sewage
66 Plantation Biomass
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xvi
7 Thermal Energy from Biomass
71 Introduction
72 The Energy Conversion Methods
73 Environmental Impacts of Biomass Energy Sources
8 The Ocean Systems Energy Resources
81 Introduction
82 The Energy of the Waves
821 The Origin of the Waves
822 Distribution of Wave Resources
83 The Tidal Power as Energy Source
831 The Generation of Tides
832 The Tidal Potential
84 The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) Source
841 The Trapping of the OTEC Energy
Desalination with Renewable Energy - A Review 227
Ali M El-Nashar 22 Ahmed Gharbo St Apt 703 Zizinia Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Commercial Desalination Processes and Their Energy Consumption
21 Description of the Commercial Desalination Processes
211 Distillation Processes
212 Membrane Processes
22 Technical and Economic Characteristics of Commercial Desalination Processes
3 Available Renewable Energy Sources
31 Solar Energy
32 Wind Energy
33 Geothermal Energy
34 Other Renewable Energy Sources
4 Devices for Transforming Renewable Energy into Useful Energy for Desalination
41 Solar Collectors
42 Solar Ponds
43 Photovoltaic Cells
44 Wind Turbines
5 Coupling of Desalination Processes and Renewable Energy
51 Direct and Indirect Coupling of Solar Energy and Desalination
511 Direct coupling (Solar still technology)
512 Indirect Coupling
52 Desalination Systems Driven by Solar Thermal Energy
521 Solar Thermal Collectors-MSF Desalination
522 Solar Thermal Collectors-MED Desalination
53 Desalination Systems Driven by Wind Energy
531 Wind-MVC Systems
532 Wind-RO Systems
54 Desalination Systems Driven by Solar Photovoltaics (PV)
55 Hybrid Desalination Systems
6 Current Status
7 Selection Criteria among Different RE Desalination Technologies
8 Performance of Selected RE Desalination Projects
81 Solar Stills
82 Wind-Energy Driven RO Desalination Technology
83 PV-Powered Seawater RO System
84 Abu Dhabi Solar MED Desalination Plant
9 Economics of RE Desalination
91 Financial Analysis
92 Cost of Water from RES Desalination Plants
10 Conclusion
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xvii
Renewable Energy and Desalination Systems 301
Asghar Husain International Center for Water and Energy Systems (ICWES) Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
11 Need for Desalination
2 What Is Sustainability
3 Review of Desalination Technologies
31 Thermal-Based Processes
32 Membrane ndash Based Technologies
33 Renewable Energies
4 Desalination Using Solar Energy
41 Direct Utilization of Solar Radiation in the Solar Still
42 Solar Collectors
43 Solar Concentrating System
44 Solar Ponds
45 Photovoltaic Cells
46 Storage of Solar Energy
5 Desalination Using Other Renewable Energies
51 Wind Energy
52 Geothermal Energy
53 Wave Energy
54 Tidal Energy
55 Ocean Temperature Difference or Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
56 Hydraulic Energy
57 Biomass as Energy Source
6 Concluding Remarks
Why Use Renewable Energy for Desalination 342
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 The Need of Desalination for Economic Development in Remote Arid Areas
3 The Need of Energy for Desalination
4 The Availability of Renewable Energy
5 The Economic and Social Benefits of Using Renewable Energy for Desalination
6 Examples of Arid Remote Regions where Renewable Energy for Desalination can have a High
Economic Potential
61 The Southern and Eastern Mediterranean Regions
62 The Mediterranean Islands
63 The Arab Gulf Region
7 Conclusions
Thermal Energy Storage 356
Hassan E S Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Solar Energy Storage
12 Thermal Energy Storage
13 Thermal Storage Efficiency
14 Thermal Insulation
2 Sensible Heat Storage
21 Introduction
22 Low Temperature Sensible Heat Storage
221 Storage in Liquids
23 Intermediate and High Temperature Sensible Heat Storage
231 Storage in Fluids
232 Storage in Solids
233 Storage in Fluid-Solid Media
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xviii
24 Concluding Remarks
3 Latent Heat (Phase Change) Storage
31 Introduction
32 Low Temperature Latent Heat Storage
321 Phase Change Materials
322 Storage Systems Problems
33 Intermediate and High Temperature Latent Heat Storage
34 Concluding Remarks
35 Heat of Vaporization
4 Combined Sensible and Latent Heat Storage
5 Closing Remarks
6 Some Recent Developments
61 Sensible Heat Storage
62 Latent Heat Storage
621 Heat Transfer with Thermal Energy Storage
622 Storage System Performance
623 Solar Collector Integrated with Storage System
Electrical Energy Storage 387
J Garche Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research Baden-Wuumlrttemberg Germany
A Jossen Energy Storage and Energy Conversion Division Ulm Germany
1 Introduction
2 Systems with Internal Storage
21 Demands on the Battery
22 Lead-Acid Battery
221 Electrochemical Reactions
222 Operation values
223 Types of Lead-Acid Batteries
2231 Differentiation by electrodes
2232 Batteries with positive plates protected against active mass shedding
2233 Differentiation by container technology
224 Main Problems while Operation of Lead-Acid Batteries
2241 Charging and Overdischarge
2242 Deep Discharge
2243 Sulfation
225 Other Battery Systems
2251 Nickel-Cadmium Battery
2252 New Battery Systems
3 Systems with External Storage
31 Gas-Accumulator
32 Redox-Flow-Systems
4 Storage Sizing
Tidal Energy 406
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Consideration
5 Prospects
Index 416
About EOLSS 421
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xix
VOLUME IV
Desalination Using Tidal Energy 1
Abdalla S Hanafi Cairo University Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Tides
21 Spring and Neap Tides
3 Tidal Power Plants
31 Barrage
32 Locks and Gates
33 Power House
34 Basins
35 Storage
36 Economical Considerations
37 Tidal Sites
4 Tidal Desalination Technologies
41 Tidal-Vapor Compression Desalination
42 Tidal-Reverse Osmosis
421 Overall Analysis of the Reverse Osmosis Modules
43 Tidal - Electrodialysis (ED)
431 Electrodialysis DC Power
44 Tidal Freezing-Melting (FM)
441 Freezing-Melting System Analysis
5 Economic Comparisons with Wind and Solar Energy
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
15
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
22 Humidifying with cooling and dehumidifying processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in Desalination HD Process
25 Overview on Some desalination HD projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process description
32 The condenser in the SWGH
321 Different condenser layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot plant
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xx
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot plant
522 Performances of the SWGH
53 Case Study 3 The SWGH project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Wave Energy 81
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Considerations
5 Prospects
Wind Energy 97
B Sorensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Worldwide Distribution of Wind Energy Resources
11 Physical Potential Wind Maps
12 Practical Potential for Wind Turbines
13 Restrictions due to Competing Land Use
14 Off-Shore Potential
15 Methods for Determining Local Potential Atlas Technique
16 Overall Assessment of Potential
2 Wind Turbine Technology
21 Current Status and Prospects for the Future
22 Basic Theory Wind Turbine Types and Efficiencies
23 Prospects for Further Development
24 Current Penetration of Wind Power Utilization
25 National Plans and Future Prospects
26 Plant Lifetime and Reliability
27 Impacts on Requirements for Transmission and Back-Up
28 Energy Storage and Demand Management
3 Economic Social and Environmental Impacts of Wind Energy Utilization
31 Current Cost and Cost Trends
32 Employment Generation
33 Energy Balance
34 Noise
35 Aspects of Decentralized Energy Supply
36 Life-Cycle Estimate of Externalities Including Construction and Decommissioning Impacts
4 Evaluation of Greenhouse Warming Mitigation Potential of Wind Power
41 Assessment of Marginal Life-Cycle Impacts Including Greenhouse Warming
42 Elements of Non-Marginal Analysis of Energy Systems with Large Wind Power Share
43 Relationship between Demand Development and the Valuations of Wind Energy
44 Concluding Remarks
Availability of Wind Energy and Its Estimation 139
Richard Morris Richard Morris Associates Glasgow United Kingdom
1 The Sun as the Wind Driver
2 The Nature of Wind
3 Wind Power Statistics
4 Estimating Wind Power
5 Siting for Wind Energy
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxi
The Use of Geothermal Energy in Desalination 155
BW Tleimat Water Reuse Technology Alamo California USA
ADK Laird (deceased) Professor Emeritus and Director Emeritus Sea Water Conversion Laboratory
University of California Berkeley California USA
1 Introduction
2 Historical Perspective
3 Heat Transfer from Geothermal Reservoirs
4 Geothermal Energy Utilization
5 Electricity Generation
6 Water Production from Geothermal Sources
7 Idealized Liquid-dominated Reservoirs
8 Water and Power Generation Effects of Some System Parameters
9 Multiple-effect and Multistage Distillation Processes
10 Energy-budget Management
11 Processes for Decentralized Desalination
12 Water-budget Management
13 Solids-budget Management
Solar Photovoltaic Energy Conversion 181
G Schumm Zentrum fuer Sonnenenergie und Wasserstoff-Forschung Baden Wuerttemberg Stuttgart
Germany
1 The General Photovoltaic System
2 Non-Concentrating PV Systems
3 Tracking and Concentrating PV Systems
Flat-Plate Collectors 191
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Solar Collector Applications
3 Definitions
31 Solar Collectors
311 Solar Thermal Collector
312 Flat-Plate Collector
32 Construction Elements of a Solar Collector
321 Absorber Plate or Selective Surface
322 The Transparent Cover
323 The Collector Insulation
324 The Heat Transfer Medium
33 The Surface Areas
331 The Surface Area of the Absorber Plate
332 The Transparent Cover Surface
333 Total Surface Area
34 Operational Characteristics of the Collector
341 Collector efficiency (η)
342 Thermal Capacity of the Collector (C)
343 Pressure Drop (Δp)
344 Stagnant Conditions
345 Incidence Angle Coefficient (kθ)
35 The Characteristic Parameters of the Collector
351 The cover reflectance (ρc)
353 Cover Absorptance (αc)
352 Cover Transmittance (τc)
354 Coefficient of cover Emissivity (εc)
355 Coefficient of Absorber Emissivity
356 Selective Surface
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxii
357 Selective Coat
358 Collector Efficiency Factor (Fprime) 359 Collector Flow Factor (FPrime) 3510 Collector Heat Removal Factor (FR)
3511 Collector Heat Loss Coefficient (UL)
4 Main Collector Components
41 The Solar Radiation Absorber
42 The Transparent Cover
43 Thermal Insulation
44 The Casing of the Collector
45 The Supporting of the Collector
5 The Solar Absorbers
51 Types of Solar Absorbers
511 Absorbers of Common Paint
512 Selective coat Absorbers
52 Forms of Absorbers and Tubes
521 General considerations
522 Sandwich Type Absorber
523 Roll Bond Tube Absorber
524 Soldered Type Absorbers
525 Absorbers with Ω Type Fins
6 Characteristics of Flat-Plate Collectors
61 General considerations
62 Installation Configuration of a Collector System
63 Orientation and Slope of the Collector
7 Dynamic Operational Characteristics of a Collector
71 The Incident Angle Coefficient
72 The Thermal Capacity of the Collector C
73 The Heat Removal Factor FR
8 The Thermal Characteristics of a Collector
81 Determination of the Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL
82 Determination of Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL for in Series Interconnection
83 Equivalent Thermal Loss between Tubes and Collector
84 The Influence of Wind Velocity
9 Shading of the Collectors
10 Basic Calculation Methods
101 Cover Reflectance
102 Cover Transmittance
103 The Transmittance-Absorptance Product
104 Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
105 Multi-Cover Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
11 The Heat Transfer Loss Coefficients
111 Loss Coefficient Uc
112 Loss Coefficient Ub
113 Loss Coefficient Us
114 The Collector Efficiency Factor Fprime 115 Collector flow factor FPrime Large Active Solar Systems Load 220
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and other Energy Systems National Centre for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Estimation of Thermal Load
21 Estimation of the Required Heat Qload
22 Estimation of the Required Heat for the Water Qw
23 Estimation of the Heat Loss in Distribution Pipes Qp
24 Estimation of Heat Loss in the Storage Tank Qt
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiii
Large Active Solar Systems Typical Economic Analysis 225
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Cost of a Solar Hot Water System
21 Initial Capital Cost
22 Operational Costs
221 Cost of Fuel
222 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
223 Cost of Maintenance
224 Cost for Loans
225 Costs for Insurance
226 Miscellaneous Expenses
3 Cost of Conventional Hot Water System
31 Operational Costs
311 Cost of Fuel
312 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
313 Cost of Maintenance
4 Inflation
5 Rate of Interest
6 Methods of Life Cycle Cost
61 General
62 Present and Future Costs
63 Yearly Instalment
64 Yearly Expenses
7 Methodology
8 Present Value Factor
9 Comparison Methodology
Integration of Solar Pond with Water Desalination 240
U Fisher J Weinberg and B Doron Ormat Industries Ltd Yavne Israel
1 Introduction
2 Historical Background
3 The Solar Pond
31 Structure
32 Heat Absorption and Storage
33 Main Demands when Building a Pond
331 Surface Area
332 Surface Water Make-up
333 Concentrated Brine Supply
34 How to Build a Solar Pond
341 Geometry or Shape
342 Lining
343 Construction Materials in the Pond
344 Initial Filling and Build-up of Gradient
35 How to Control
36 Heat Losses (Ground Diffusion Evaporation)
361 Top Losses
362 Bottom Heat Losses
37 Disturbances
371 Algae
372 Corrosion
373 Wind
38 Heat Extraction
39 Fuel Assisted Solar Ponds
310 Maintenance
3101 Clarity
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiv
3102 Cleaning of Wind Breakers
3103 Blow Down
3104 Make-up
3105 Leakages
311 Practical Size of a Single Pond
312 Investment in Solar Ponds
313 OampM Costs
4 Desalination Processes Coupled to the Solar Pond
41 Economic Aspects of Coupling Desalination Plants to Solar Ponds
411 Desalination Processes
412 The Choice and Proportion of Producing Heat and Power in the Solar Pond
4121 The Solar Pond Yield
4122 Desalination Plant Performance
4123 The Impact of Daily and Seasonal Fluctuations
4124 Economic Considerations and Evaluations
42 Experience with SP-Desalination Systems
43 Conclusions
Evacuated Tube Collectors 276
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Current Designs of Evacuated Tube Collectors
3 Thermal Analysis
4 Analysis of Flat Plate Evacuated Tube Collector
5 Analysis of Concentric-Tube Collector
6 Performance of Evacuated Tube Collectors
7 Case Study (Collector Field at the Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant)
71 Description of collector field
72 Performance of collector field
73 Economics
Parabolic Trough Collectors 299
Wolfgang Meinecke Deutsches Zentrum fuumlr Luft-und Raumfahrt eV (DLR German Aerospace Center)
Solar Energy Technology Division Koumlln Germany
1 Introduction
2 Brief History of Trough Development
3 State of the Art of Trough Applications
31 Conventional Thermal Water Desalination Applications
32 Solar Thermal Water Desalination Applications
33 Solar Electric Power Generation
34 Solar Process Heat Generation
35 Process Hot Water (Project Examples)
36 Process Steam (Project Examples)
37 Process Steam for Water Desalination (Project Examples)
38 Process Hot Air
4 Trough Technologies
41 LS 3 Trough Collector System
411 LS 3 Parabolic Reflector
412 Steel Support Structure
413 Absorber Element
414 Tracking System and Field Control System
415 Heat Transfer Fluid System
416 Steam Generator
417 Balance of Plant Technologies
418 Energy Storage System
42 IST Trough Collector System
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxv
421 IST Parabolic Reflector
422 Support Structure
423 Absorber Element
424 Tracking System and Field Control System
425 Heat Transfer Fluid System
426 Heat Exchanger
427 Balance of Plant Technology
428 Energy Storage
5 Prospects and Potential
51 Solar Electric Power Generation
52 Solar Process Heat Generation
53 Solar Thermal Water Desalination
6 Cost and Economic Aspects
61 Collector Investment Costs
611 LS 3 Collector Costs
612 IST Collector Costs
62 Other Economic Parameters
621 Fossil Fuel Prices
622 Solar Energy Yield
623 Solar Share
624 Plant Power Size
625 Capacity Factor
626 OampM Costs
627 Non-Technical Parameters
63 Costs of Solar Water Desalination
7 Conclusions
Index 363
About EOLSS 369
VOLUME V
Central Receivers 1
MM Elsayed Mechanical Engineering Department Kuwait University Safat Kuwait
1 Introduction
2 Heliostats Types and Design Shapes
3 Heliostat Angles
4 Heliostat Field Heliostat Layout
5 Heliostat Field Cosine Effect
6 Heliostat Field Preliminary Sizing of the Field
7 Heliostat Field Usefulness Efficiency
8 Reflected Solar Radiation
9 The Effective Sunshape
10 Principal Images and Relation between Receiver and Image Planes
11 Models to Predict the Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Image Plane
111 Incoming Ray Formulation
112 The Mirror Plane Formulation
113 Solar Disk Formulation
114 The Pinhole View
12 Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Receiver Surface Using the Separation of
VariableSuperposition Technique
121 Concept
122 Calculation of φ 123 Validation of Model Using Measurements
13 Receivers Types and Losses
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvi
14 Preliminary Sizing of the Receiver
15 Overall System Optimization
Configuration Theoretical Analysis and Performance of Simple Solar Stills 98
A Kumar Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources Solar Energy Center New Delhi India
1 Introduction
2 Configuration of Simple Solar Stills
21 Basic Principle
22 Classification
23 Single Basin Solar Stills
24 Inclined Solar Stills
241 Basin Type Solar Stills
242 Wick Type Solar Stills
25 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
26 Solar Earth Water Stills
27 Plastic Solar Stills
271 Life Raft Solar Still
272 Circular Solar Still
273 Extruded Plastic Solar Still
274 Concentric Tube Solar Still
28 A Typical Solar Distillation Plant
3 Theoretical Analysis of Simple Solar Stills
31 Heat and Mass Transfer in Solar Stills
311 Inside the Solar Still
312 Outside the Solar Still
32 Solar Radiation Balance
321 Transmission through Top Cover
322 Absorption in the Top Cover
33 Energy Balance Equations
34 Solution Procedure
4 Performance of Solar Stills
41 Single Basin Solar Stills
42 Inclined Solar Stills
43 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
44 Solar Earth Water Stills
45 Plastic Solar Stills
46 Case Studies
461 Australia
462 Greek Islands
463 India
47 Suggested Practices for Installing Solar Stills
Development in Simple Solar Stills 169
Hassan ES Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Modified Simple (Passive) Stills
21 Basin Still
211 Single Slope versus Double Slope Basin Stills
212 Basin Still with Cover Cooling
213 Basin Still with Treated Cover Surface
214 Basin Still with Additional Condenser
215 Basin Still with Black DyeMuddy Water
22 Wick Stills
221 Single-wick Stills
222 Multi-wick Stills
223 Wick versus Basin Stills
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvii
224 Combined Wick-Basin Stills
23 Other Stills Configurations
231 Vertical Microporous Evaporator Still
232 Cascade Solar Still
233 Still Integrated with Greenhouse
3 Externally Heated (Active) Solar Stills
31 Introduction
32 Stills Coupled to a Solar Collector
321 Direct and Indirect Heating
322 Use of Dye and Cover Cooling
323 Other Solar Heaters
33 Stills Coupled with Solar Concentrator
34 The Use of Waste Heat in Solar Stills
4 Other Types of Solar Distillation Systems
41 Water Recovery from Air
Multi-Effect Solar Stills 197
HES Fath Al-Jubail 31951 Saudi Arabia
1 Why Multi Effect
2 Double Effect Basin Stills
21 Double Basins Stills
22 Double Effect Tilted Stills
23 Purging Vapor to a Second Effect
3 Multi-Effect Multi-Wick Stills
4 Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
41 Introduction
42 Mass Diffusion
43 Comparison between Diffusion and Basin Stills
44 Description of Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
45 Analysis and Performance Considerations
5 Other Distillation Systems
51 Stacked Tray Stills
52 Multi-Effect Humidification-Dehumidification
Materials for Construction of Solar Stills 218
TA Lawand and J Ayoub Brace Research Institute Canada
1 Introduction
2 General Specifications of Solar Stills
3 Transparent Cover
4 Basin Liner
5 Solar Still Frame
6 Sealants
7 Insulation
8 Auxiliaries - Piping Pumping and Reservoirs
Reverse Osmosis by Solar Energy 225
W Bucher DLR German Aerospace Research Establishment Cologne Germany
1 Introduction
2 Basic Parameters and Energy Demand for Osmosis
21 Physical Properties of Hyperfiltration
22 Energy required for the RO Process
3 Solar Power Conversion Systems
31 Solar Conversion Principles
32 Technical Data of Solar Energy Conversion Methods
33 RO Plant Operation Utilizing Variable Energy Sources
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxviii
4 Reverse Osmosis System Configuration and Operation Aspects
41 Process Design of RO Desalination Systems
42 Procedural Steps and Data for Water Treatment and Energy Consumption
43 Components of RO -Desalination
431 Membranes and Modules
432 High Pressure Pumps
433 Pressure Regulating Devices
5 Solar Powered Desalination Units
51 Specific Figures or RO Systems
52 Solar Power Concepts for RO Desalination
53 Operational Experience with Solar driven RO Systems
6 Costs
61 Specific Cost Figures for the Plant Components
62 Water Delivery Cost
Availability of Solar Radiation and Its Estimation 265
VG Belessiotis Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems National Center for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun and the Radiation Emitted
21 The Physics of the Sun
22 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
3 The Extraterrestrial Radiation
31 What is the Solar Constant
32 Variations of the Extraterrestrial Radiation
33 The Black-body Emittance and Absorptance
34 Blackbody Absorbers - Application to Desalination
4 The Co-ordinate Systems The Basic Solar Angles
41 The Earth-Sun Relationships
42 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Sky
43 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Celestial Sphere
44 Earth-Sun Geometric Relationship
45 Time and its Units - Day Length
46 Terrestrial Solar Radiation
461 Estimation of Radiation Availability
462 Average Radiation Values - Clearness Index
463 Clear Sky Radiation
464 Sky Radiation
47 Atmospheric Factors Affecting Radiation
5 Computation of Insolation at the Earths Surface
51 Insolation Data
52 Measurement of Solar Radiation
53 Models for Solar Radiation
54 Where the Models Apply
55 Tilted Surfaces - Absorptance of Solar Radiation
551 Fixed Tilted Surfaces
552 Tracking Surfaces
6 Applications of Solar Radiation
7 Impact of Solar Energy to the Environment
Economics of Small Solar-Assisted Multiple-Effect Seawater Distillation Plants 296
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Configurations
3 Design and Sizing Considerations
31 Thermal Energy Requirement
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxix
32 Pumping Requirements
33 Collector Performance
34 Sizing Thermal Collector Area
35 Sizing the PV System
351 Sizing the PV Array
4 Economic Ground Rules and Water Cost Optimization
41 Capital Equipment Cost
42 Operating Costs
43 Optimum Cost of Water for each Plant Configuration
5 Results
6 Conclusion
A Solar-Assisted Sea Water Multiple Effect Distillation Plant 15 Years of Operating
Performance (1985-1999) 316
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Basic Design Concept
21 General Plant Description
22 Design Specifications
23 Evaporator Heat Transfer Coefficient
24 Tube Dimensions Heat Transfer Areas and Materials
3 Performance during Commissioning Tests
31 The MES Evaporator
32 The Solar Collector Field
33 The Heat Accumulator
34 Total Plant Performance
4 Performance History
41 The MES Evaporator
42 The Solar Collector Field
43 The Heat Accumulator
431 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
4311 The heat balance method
4312 The direct temperature measurement method
4313 Thermal stratification ratio
44 Total Plant Performance
5 Major Maintenance Activities
51 Equipment Failure and Replacement
52 Acid Cleanings and Silt Removal from Evaporator
6 Evaluation of Water Cost
61 Capital Costs
62 Operation and Maintenance Costs
7 Conclusions
Mathematical Simulation of a Solar Desalination Plant 341
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Description
3 System Operating Conditions
31 Solar Heat Collecting Subsystem
32 Evaporator Subsystem
4 Mathematical Modeling of System Components
41 Solar radiation model
42 Ambient temperature model
43 Solar collector subsystem
431 Effect of shade on solar radiation
432 Effect of dust on transmissivity of glass tubes
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxx
433 Control of heat collecting operation
434 Heat collection by solar collectors
435 Heat loss from piping
4351 Piping specifications
4352 Standard pipe lengths
4353 Heat loss from piping during operation of heat collecting pump
4354 Heat loss from piping while the heat collecting pump is shutdown
4355 Correction of piping heat loss
44 Heat accumulator subsystem
441 Temperature distribution
442 MES evaporator subsystem
5 The Simulation Program
51 Program structure
52 Input and output data
6 Results
7 Conclusions
Index 379
About EOLSS 385
VOLUME VI
Modeling and Design of Solar Energy Systems Including Solar Economics 1
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 F-Chart Method
11 Performance and Design of Liquid-Based Solar Heating Systems
111 Storage Capacity Correction
112 Collector Flow Rate Correction
113 Load Heat Exchanger Size Correction
12 Performance and Design of Air-Based Solar Heating Systems
121 Pebble Bed Storage Size Correction
122 Air Flow Rate Correction
13 Performance and Design of Solar Service Water Systems
14 Thermosiphon Solar Water Heating Systems
15 General Remarks
2 Modeling and Simulation of Solar Energy Systems
21 Simple System Models
211 Pipe Losses
22 F-Chart Program
23 Trnsys Simulation Program
24 Limitations of Simulations
3 Solar Economic Analysis
31 Life Cycle Costing
32 Life Cycle Analysis Method
33 Payback Time
331 Not Discounted Fuel Savings
332 Discounted Fuel Savings
34 Alternative Method
341 System Optimization Using Economic Analysis
35 Uncertainties in Economic Analysis
Solar Energy Power Generation and Desalination Systems 47
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 Global Energy Problems and the Role of Renewables
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxi
11 Energy demand
12 Energy environmental problems and sustainable development
13 Water demand and consumption
14 Water and energy
15 Desalination and energy
16 Renewable energy technologies
2 Solar Collectors
21 Parabolic trough collectors
22 Fresnel collectors
23 Parabolic dish reflector
24 Heliostat field collector
3 Power Generation and Industrial Process Heat Systems
31 Parabolic trough collector systems
32 Power tower systems
33 Dish systems
34 Solar ponds
341 Heat extraction and applications
35 Industrial process heat systems
36 Solar industrial steam generation systems
4 Desalination Processes
41 Direct collection systems
42 Indirect collection systems
421 The multi-stage flash process
422 The multiple-effect distillation process
423 The vapor-compression process
424 Reverse osmosis
425 Electrodialysis
Solar Updraft Power Plant Technology Basic Concepts and Structural Design 94
Francesca Lupi University of Florence Florence Italy
Claudio Borri University of Florence Florence Italy
Wilfried B Kraumltzig Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
Hans-Juumlrgen Niemann Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
1 Solar Updraft Power Technology Introduction and Working Principles
2 History of the Solar Updraft Power Technology
21 Solar Tower Prototype in Manzanares (Spain)
3 Evaluation of Plant Efficiency
31 The Collector
32 The Chimney
33 The Turbines
34 Electric Power Generated by Supps
4 The Collector
5 Actions on Solar Updraft Towers
6 Wind Loading on Solar Updraft Towers
61 Wind Flow Structure in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer at High Altitudes
611 Boundary Layer Meteorology
612 The Ekman Spiral
613 Theoretical Considerations on the Mean Wind and Turbulence in the Ekman Layer
62 Modeling of the Wind Load on Solar Towers
621 Mean Wind Load
622 Response to Wind Turbulence
623 Fluctuating Wind Load
624 Equivalent Static Wind Pressures
625 Vortex Excitation
626 Other Effects The Effect of the Efflux
63 Wind Load on the Collector Roof
7 Structural Behavior of Solar Updraft Towers
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxii
71 Structural Elements of Solar Tower Shells
72 Some Typical Response Characteristics of Solar Tower Shells Vibration and Instability
Behavior
73 Non-Linear Tower Response
8 Structural Optimization of Solar Updraft Towers
81 The Role of the Stiffening Rings in the Structural Design of Solar Towers
82 Strategies of Optimization
9 Technology of Construction
Renewable Energy Potential in The Arab Region 162
Mohammed Mostafa El-Khayat General Manager of Planning New and Renewable Energy Authority
NREA Cairo Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Research Problem and Objectives
111 Research Problem
12 Research Objectives
2 Energy Demand
3 The Current Situation of Renewable Energy
31 Hydropower
32 Wind Energy
33 Solar Energy
34 Biomass and Geothermal Energy
4 Strategies
5 Institutional and Regulatory Framework
6 Main Policies and Incentives
7 RE Policies and Incentives Profiles
71 Algeria
72 Egypt
73 Jordan
74 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
75 Lebanon
76 Libya
77 Morocco
78 Palestine
79 Sudan
710 Syria
711 Tunisia
712 United Arab Emirates
713 Yemen
8 Financing Schemes and Investment Opportunities
9 Motivations and Barriers of Renewable Energy
10 Renewable Energy Initiatives
101 Arabian Initiatives
102 DESERTEC
11 Potential of Renewable Energy in the Region
12 The proposed mechanisms to enhance and accelerate the rate of using RE applications
13 The situation of localizing RE technologies
14 RE and climate change in Arab countries
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
198
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiii
22 Humidifying with Cooling and Dehumidifying Processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in HD Desalination Process
25 Overview on Some Desalination HD Projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process Description
32 The Condenser in the SWGH
321 Different Condenser Layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the Condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of Condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot Plant
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH Project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot Plant
522 Performances of the Pilot Plant
53 The SWGH Project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot Plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Evolution of Photovoltaic Materials for Renewable Energy Development 262
Abdelilah Slaoui InESS ndash CNRS ndash University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
Jef Poortmans IMEC Leuven Belgium
Marko Topic University of Ljubljana Faculty of Elec Eng Ljubljana Slovenia
Gavin Conibeer ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence UNSW Sydney Australia
1 General Introduction
2 Photovoltaic Materials and Technologies State of the Art
21 Crystalline Silicon
22 Thin Films
221 Amorphous Silicon
222 Nanocrystalline and Microcrystalline Silicon
223 Polycrystalline Silicon
224 Copper Indium Selenide Its alloys and Related Chalcopyrites
225 Cadmium Telluride
226 Materials for Photochemical Solar Cells
227 Materials for Organic Solar Cells
3 Next Generation Solar Cells
31 Introduction
32 Multiple energy level approaches
33 Multiple Exciton Generation solar cells
34 Intermediate Band (IB) cells
35 Hot carrier cells
4 Conclusions and Perspectives
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiv
Wind and Solar Renewable Energy Potential Resources Estimation 302
Philippe Drobinski Institut Pierre Simon LaplaceLaboratoire de Meacuteteacuteorologie Dynamique CNRSEcole
Polytechnique Palaiseau France
1 Renewable Wind and Solar Energies The Context
11 An Economical and Environmental Necessity
12 Energy Definitions and Units
2 Basic Knowledge in Geophysics for Energy Resource Evaluation
21 Earth Energy Budget and Atmospheric Motion
22 Near Surface Wind
23 Impacts of Clouds and Aerosols on Surface Solar Radiation
3 Wind Energy Resource
31 Wind Energy A Brief History
32 Wind Energy Resources Evaluation
33 Wind Energy Installed Capacity in the World
4 Solar Energy Resources
41 Solar Energy An Introduction
42 Worldwide Solar Heat
5 Methods for Wind and Solar Energy Resources Forecast
Index 353
About EOLSS 361
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) vi
43 Desalination
44 Electrical Power Production
45 Salinity Mitigation
46 Production of Chemicals
5 State of the Art and Future Directions
Solar Irradiation and TiO2 Render Materials Self-Cleaning 320
P Pichat Photocatalyse et Environnement CNRSEcole Centrale de Lyon (STMS) France
1 Introduction
2 Preparing Coating and Incorporating TiO2 Thickness of the TiO2-containing Layer
3 Increasing the Photocatalytic Efficacy Better Harvesting Sun Light
4 Hydrophilicity Induced by Solar Irradiation Contributes to the Self-cleaning Effect
5 Limitations to the Self-cleaning Effect
6 Measurements of the Self-cleaning Efficacy
61 Field Tests
62 Laboratory Tests
621 Tests Conditions
622 Deposited Compounds for the Tests
623 Methods for Measuring the Cleaning Efficacy
624 Measurement of the Hydrophilicity
7 Measurements of the Mechanical and Optical Properties of Self-cleaning Materials
8 Can Self-cleaning Materials Significantly Contribute to Outdoor Air Pollutants Removal
9 Do TiO2-containing Self-cleaning Materials Present a Potential Health Risk
10 Commercialization of Self-cleaning Materials and Coatings
Photosynthetic Microorganisms and Valuable Products 339
F G Acieacuten Fernaacutendez J M Fernaacutendez Sevilla and J A Saacutenchez Peacuterez Universidad de Almeriacutea Spain
1 Introduction
2 Factors Affecting Photosynthetic Microorganisms
21 Light and Photosynthesis Rate
22 Average Irradiance
23 Nutrients
24 Temperature
25 Energy Supply
3 Photobioreactors
31 Designs
311 Open Reactors
312 Closed Reactors
313 Comparative Analysis
32 Quality
33 Safety
4 Biomass and Product Recovery
5 Industrial Applications
51 Waste Treatment
511 Water Treatment
512 Flue Gases Treatment
52 Production of High-Value Products
521 Carotenoids
522 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
523 Phycobiliproteins
Elaboration and Testing Of Materials Using Concentrated Solar Energy 363
G Flamant and M Balat-Pichelin Processes Materials and Solar Energy Laboratory (PROMES-CNRS)
7 rue du Four Solaire Font Romeu France
1 Brief history of the use of solar energy to transform matter
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) vii
2 Main characteristics of solar furnaces
3 Elaboration of materials using concentrated solar energy
31 Surface treatments
32 Melting and purification of bulk materials
33 Production of chemical commodities and ceramics
34 Elaboration of carbon molecules nanomaterials and thin films
4 Testing of materials using concentrated solar energy
41 Original devices at the focus of solar furnaces
42 Test of materials for aerospace applications
421 Atmopsheric re-entry (oxidation and catalycity)
422 Solar probe mission
43 Test of materials for future system of energy production
5 Conclusion
Index 389
About EOLSS 395
VOLUME II
Solar Distillation 1
Gopal Nath Tiwari and Hriday Narayan Singh Center of Energy Studies Indian Institute of Technology
India
1 Importance of Water
11 Water Sources
12 Water Demand
13 Drinking Water Quality
2 Water Pollution and its Effect
3 Principles of Solar Distillation A State of the Art
4 Classification of Solar Distillation Systems
41 Passive Solar Still
411 Conventional Solar Still
412 New Design Solar Still
42 Active Solar Distillation
421 Nocturnal Production
422 Pre-Heated Water Application
423 High Temperature Distillation
5 Heat and Mass Transfer in Solar Distillation
51 Background
52 Internal Heat Transfer
521 Convective and Evaporative Heat Transfer Coefficients
522 Radiative Heat Transfer Coefficient
523 Total Internal Heat Transfer coefficient
53 External Heat Transfer
531 Top Heat Loss Coefficient
532 Bottom and Sides Loss Coefficient
6 Performance of Solar Still
61 Thermal Modeling of Solar Still and Effect of Meteorological and other Parameters
62 Passive Solar Still
63 Active Solar Still
64 Economic Evaluation
641 Introduction
642 Economic Analysis
643 Preparation of Drinking Water
7 Conclusions and Recommendations
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) viii
Solar Photochemistry 67
Juliaacuten Blanco Gaacutelvez and Sixto Malato Rodriacuteguez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain
1 Solar Chemistry
2 Artificial Solar Photochemical Processes
3 Biological Photosynthetic Processes
4 Photochemical Synthetic Applications
41 Photooxygenation of Furfural
42 Synthesis of substituted Pyridines
43 Solar photo-production of Caprolactam
44 Photochemical synthesis of Thiohelicenes
45 Photocyclisation of substituted Benzylidenes to annulled Quinolines
46 Other solar driven photochemical processes
5 Solar Photocatalytic Processes to Water Contaminants Treatment
51 Heterogeneous titanium dioxide solar detoxification
52 Homogeneous solar photocatalytic processes
6 Gas Phase Photocatalytic Treatment Processes
7 Pilot Scale Solar Photochemical Facilities
8 Conclusions
Photochemical Conversion of Solar Energy 96
S Malato Rodriacuteguez and J Blanco Gaacutelvez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT SPAIN
1 Introduction
2 Photochemistry Principles
21 The Light
22 The Power of Light
3 The Solar Spectrum
31 Atmospheric Attenuation of Solar Radiation
32 Solar UV Photon Flux
4 Evaluation of Solar Photo Flux inside Photoreactors
41 Collector Efficiency
42 Actinometric Experiments
5 Simplified Methods for Comparing Experiments when working with Solar Radiation
51 Accumulated Energy
52 Secondary Actinometer
53 Standardized illumination time
Solar Photocatalysis and Water Treatment Detoxification and Disinfection 117
S Malato Rodriacuteguez and J Blanco Gaacutelvez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain
1 Introduction
2 Fundamental Parameters in Solar Photocatalysis
21 Direct Photolysis
22 Radiant Flux
23 Initial Concentration of Contaminant
3 Factors Affecting Solar Photocatalysis
31 Influence of Oxygen
32 Influence of Catalyst Concentration
33 Temperature Influence
34 pH Influence
4 Solar Photocatalytic Degradation of Contaminants
41 Improving Solar Photocatalysis Efficiency
42 Combining Solar Photocatalysis and Biotreatment
5 Solar Photocatalytic Disinfection of Water
51 Effect of Solar Radiation on Microorganisms
52 Microorganism Inactivation by Titanium Dioxide Photocatalysis
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) ix
Solar Photochemistry Technology 139
J Blanco Gaacutelvez and S Malato Rodriacuteguez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain
1 Introduction
2 Solar Collectors for Photochemical Processes
21 Parabolic Trough Collectors (PTCs)
22 One-Sun Collectors
23 Compound Parabolic Concentrators (CPCs)
24 Holographic Collectors
3 Peculiarities of Solar Tracking and Non-Tracking Systems
4 Technological Issues
41 Photochemical Reactor
42 Reflective Surfaces
43 Piping
44 Radiation Absorption
5 Gas-Phase Photochemical Technology
Solar Photochemistry Applications 163
J Blanco Gaacutelvez and S Malato Rodriacuteguez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain
1 Introduction
2 Solar Photocatalytic Treatment Plants
3 Cost Estimations
4 Water Phase Photocatalytic Applications
41 Phenols
42 Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
43 Pharmaceutical Compounds
44 Wood Preservative Waste
45 Agrochemical Wastes (Pesticides)
46 Seaport Tank Terminals
47 Removal of Hazardous Metal Ions
48 Cyanide degradation
49 Groundwater Decontamination
5 Water Disinfection
6 Gas-Phase Photocatalytic Applications
7 Contaminated Landfill Cleaning
Research and Environmental Issues in The 1990s 184
S Malato Rodriacuteguez and J Blanco Gaacutelvez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT SPAIN
1 Introduction
2 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of Chlorophenols
3 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of Pesticides
4 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of NBCS
5 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of Cyanide
6 Solar Photo-Fenton
61 Photo-Fenton Treatment of Pesticides
62 Photo-Fenton Treatment of Olive Mill Wastewater
7 Photoelectrochemical Reactors Development
Mathematical Models of Solar Energy Conversion Systems 205
Viorel Badescu Candida Oancea Institute Polytechnic University of Bucharest Romania
1 Introduction
2 Properties of Radiation Fluxes
21 Photons in Discrete Quantum States
22 Photons in Continuous Spectrum
23 Properties of Photon Fluxes
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) x
24 Spectral Property Radiances for Blackbodies and Band-gap Materials
3 Concentration of Solar Radiation
31 The Lagrangian of Beam Radiation
32 Upper Bounds on Solar Radiation Concentration
33 Geometrical Concentration Ratio for Several Mirrors
331 Spherical mirrors
332 Paraboloidal Mirrors
333 Cylinder Parabolic Mirrors
34 Perturbing Factors
4 Photothermal Conversion
41 Detailed Balance Models
411 The End-user Requires a Heat Flux
412 The End-user Requires Mechanical Power
42 Models Based on Spectrally Integrated Fluxes
421 The End-user Requires Heat The Flat Plate Solar Collector
422 The End-user Requires Work Solar Power Generation
423 Upper Bounds on Solar Energy Conversion Efficiency into Work
43 Discussion and Perspectives
5 Photovoltaic Conversion
51 Models Based on the Diode Equation
52 Models Based on Detailed Balance Equations
521 Radiation Received From the Environment Neglected
522 Radiation Received From the Environment Included
523 The Solar Cell Equation
53 Discussion and Perspectives
6 Photochemical Conversion
7 Conclusion
Multiple Effect Distillation of Seawater Using Solar Energy ndash The Case of Abu Dhabi Solar
Desalination Plant 256
Ali M El-Nashar International Center for Water amp Energy Systems Abu Dhabi United Arab Emirates
1 Introduction
2 History of Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant
3 Description of Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant
31 Plant Description
311 The solar heat collector subsystem
312 The heat accumulator subsystem
313 MED evaporator subsystem
32 Design Features
4 Measurements and Data Acquisition System
41 Measuring the heat collected in block F
5 Data Analysis
51 Calculating the solar radiation on absorber plate
52 Calculating the performance of the collector bank
53 Calculating the performance of the evaporator
531 Calculating the brine concentration at each effect
532 OHTC of heater (first effect)
533 Average OHTC of other evaporator effects
534 Average OHTC of preheaters
535 OHTC of condenser
536 Evaporator economy
6 Weather Condition in Abu Dhabi
7 Operating Characteristics
71 Heat collecting subsystem
711 Heat collector efficiency
712 Daily heat collection efficiency
72 Heat accumulator system
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xi
721 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
722 Thermal stratification ratio
73 Evaporating system
731 Evaporator performance
74 Performance of the plant
8 Plant Maintenance and Modifications
81 Heat collecting system
811 Cleaning the solar collector field
812 Corrosion of the collector air vent valves
813 Vacuum loss inside glass tubes
814 Scale prevention
815 Anti-corrosion chemical for use in the heat collecting water
816 Measures against power failure
82 Evaporating system
821 Evaporator pump maintenance
822 Inspection of the evaporator
823 Change in operating sequence
825 Modification of the method of feeding sealing water to the priming vacuum pump
824 Modification of the system for injecting anti-scale chemical
9 Simulation Program and its Validation
91 Simulation program
911 Outline
912 Flow chart of the SOLDES program
913 Program Input and output data
914 Mathematical Models
92 Comparison of simulation and actually measured Values
10 Evaluation of the Test Plant
101 Optimum operating conditions
102 Simulation results
103 Evaluation of the solar plant
11 Economic Considerations and Comparison with Conventional MED Plants
111 Basic economic parameters
112 Capital equipment cost
1121 Capital cost of MED evaporator
1122 Capital cost of solar thermal collectors
1123 Capital cost of heat accumulator
1124 Capital cost of steam generator for conventional MED systems
1125 Capital cost of diesel generator
113 Operation and maintenance expenses
1131 Consumable chemical expenses
1132 Electrical energy consumption
1133 Spare parts cost
1134 Personnel cost
114 Estimating the cost of water produced
12 Results of the Economic Study
13 Conclusion
131 System Reliability
132 Response to varying weather condition
133 Establishment of a method for cleaning of solar collectors
134 Comparison of the test plant results with that of the basic design
Index 335
About EOLSS 341
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xii
VOLUME III
Solar Irradiation Fundamentals 1
Zekacirci Sen Istanbul Technical University Maslak 34469 Istanbul Turkey
1 Introduction
2 The Sun
3 Atmospheric effects and Electro-magnetic Radiation (EMR) spectrum
4 Astronomic effects
5 Meteorological effects
51 Cloud Index
6 Topographic effects
7 Solar parameters
71 Solar geometry quantities
711 Earth eccentricity
712 Declination angle
713 Zenith angle
72 Solar time quantities
721 Solar time
722 Equation of time
723 Apparent solar time (AST)
73 Solar irradiation quantities
731 Solar constant
732 Irradiation path
8 Solar radiation modeling
81 Solar energy laws
82 Solar irradiation calculation
83 Estimation of clear sky radiation
84 Irradiation model
9 Astronomic calculations
91 The Daily Solar Profile
92 Daily solar energy on horizontal surface
93 Solar energy on inclined surface
10 Solar-Hydrogen Energy
11 Conclusions
Direct Solar Energy 67
S C Bhattacharya and S Kumar Energy Program Asian Institute of Technology Pathumthani
Thailand
1 Introduction
11 A Brief History of Energy
12 Origin of Solar Energy
13 Solar Thermal Energy
14 Photovoltaics (PV)
15 The Future of Solar Energy
2 Solar Radiation
21 Sun and Earth
22 Solar Radiation Estimation
3 Solar Thermal Conversion
31 Solar Collectors
311 Flat Plate Collectors
312 Concentrating Collectors
313 Evacuated Type Collectors
314 Selective Surfaces
32 Solar Water Heating
321 Introduction
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xiii
322 Natural Circulation Systems
323 Forced Circulation Systems
324 Materials Used in Solar Water Heaters
325 Advantages and Disadvantages
33 Solar Space Heating
331 Active Systems
332 Passive Systems
333 Solar District Heating
34 Solar Thermal Power Generation
341 Introduction
342 Parabolic Trough Systems
343 Power Towers
344 Parabolic Dish
35 Solar Drying
351 Introduction
352 Types of Solar Drier
353 Advantages of Solar Drying
4 Solar Photovoltaic Conversion
41 Solar Cells and Modules
42 Other Components of PV Systems
43 PV Applications
5 Other Solar Technologies
51 Solar Photochemical Conversion
52 Space Solar Power
521 Introduction
522 The SSP Concept
523 Promise and Problems
524 Future Prospects
6 Solar Energy Storage
61 Solar Thermal Energy Storage
611 Sensible Heat Storage
612 Latent Heat Storage
613 Chemical Energy Storage
614 Solar Electrical Energy Storage
7 Environmental Impacts of Solar Energy
71 General Impacts
72 Solar Thermal Systems
73 PV Systems
74 Health and Environmental Aspects
75 Energy Payback and CO2 Abatement
76 Other implications
761 Batteries
762 Operation and Decommissioning
8 The Way Forward
81 General
82 Solar Thermal Systems
83 PV Systems
9 Concluding Remarks
Solar Drying - A Technology for Sustainable Agriculture and Food Production 112
RJ Fuller Principal Fellow IDTC Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of
Melbourne Australia
1 Introduction
2 Drying Fundamentals
3 Sun vs Solar Drying
4 Types of Solar Dryer
41 Direct Mode
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xiv
42 Indirect Mode
43 Mixed Mode
44 Further Classifications
441 Natural Convection
442 Forced Convection
45 Other Differences
451 Supplementary Energy
452 Air Flow Direction
453 Heat Transfer Fluid
454 Thermal Storage
5 Solar Dryers in Practice
51 Direct mode natural convection dryers
52 Direct Mode Forced Convection Dryers
53 Indirect Mode Forced Convection Dryers
6 Performance Evaluation of Solar Dryers
61 Overall System Drying Efficiency
62 Pick-up Efficiency
63 Solar Collection Efficiency
64 Performance of Solar Dryers
65 Comparative Testing
7 Designing Solar Drying Systems
71 Rules-of-Thumb
72 Sizing Equations
73 Chart Methods
74 Simulation Techniques
8 Non-technical Factors
81 Economics
82 Practical Issues
83 Technology Transfer
84 Developing Country Issues
85 Industrialized Country Issues
9 Prospects and Future Developments
91 Technical Developments
92 Costs
93 Design
94 External Factors
10 Conclusions
A Short Historical Review of Renewable Energy 136
E Delyannis NCSR Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems ldquoDemokritosrdquo Aghia Paraskevi
Greece
A El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority (WEA) Abu-Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
11 The History of Renewable Energy Achievements
12 The Set-up of this Historical Review
2 The Renewable Energies in the Antiquity
21 From Legends to the First Written Documents
3 The Power of the Sun
31 The Dawn of the History
32 The Capture of the Suns Radiation
321 Antiquity to Middle Age The Philosophers
322 Renaissance to the 20th Century The Founders
323 The 20th Century The Engineers
324 The Present Times The Technologists
4 The Development of the Solar Distillation
41 From Philosophy to Practice
42 The First Large Applications
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xv
43 The Last 50 Years
5 Solar Driven Desalination
51 General Considerations
52 The Solar Driven Distillation Plants
53 Freezing Plants
54 Electrodialysis Plants
55 Solar Powered Reverse Osmosis Plants
6 The Energy of the Mother Gaia
7 The Power of Aeolos
71 The Aeolian Gods
72 The Harvest of the Winds Energy
73 The Raise and the Fall of Windmills
74 Wind Turbine Generation
8 The Power of the Moving Water
81 Hydraulic Power
9 The Impulsive Power of Poseidon
91 The Power of the Waves
92 The Tides and their Energy
93 The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) System
Renewable Energy Resources 186
V Belessiotis and E Delyannis NCSR Demokritos Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems
Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun as an Energy Source
21 The Availability of Solar Energy
22 Application of Solar Energy to Desalination
3 The Geothermal Energy
31 Introduction
32 The Geothermal Resources System
321 Hydrothermal Reservoirs
322 The Geopressurized Reservoirs
323 The Hot Dry Rocks
33 The Available Resources
34 The Geographic Distribution of Reservoirs
35 The Geothermal Brines
36 Application of Geothermal Resources
4 The Hydraulic Energy
41 Introduction
42 The Available Hydropower Resources
43 Limit of Hydropower Output
5 Wind Energy Resources
51 The Origin of Wind
52 The Distribution of Wind Forces
53 Wind Speed Distribution
54 The Utilization of the Wind Energy
6 Biomass as an Energy Source
61 Introduction
62 The Origin of Biomass
63 The Alternate Biomass Products
64 Biomass Residues
641 The Crop Residues
642 Fuel Wood
643 Sugar Crops
644 Livestock Manure
65 Refuse and Municipal Sewage
66 Plantation Biomass
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xvi
7 Thermal Energy from Biomass
71 Introduction
72 The Energy Conversion Methods
73 Environmental Impacts of Biomass Energy Sources
8 The Ocean Systems Energy Resources
81 Introduction
82 The Energy of the Waves
821 The Origin of the Waves
822 Distribution of Wave Resources
83 The Tidal Power as Energy Source
831 The Generation of Tides
832 The Tidal Potential
84 The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) Source
841 The Trapping of the OTEC Energy
Desalination with Renewable Energy - A Review 227
Ali M El-Nashar 22 Ahmed Gharbo St Apt 703 Zizinia Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Commercial Desalination Processes and Their Energy Consumption
21 Description of the Commercial Desalination Processes
211 Distillation Processes
212 Membrane Processes
22 Technical and Economic Characteristics of Commercial Desalination Processes
3 Available Renewable Energy Sources
31 Solar Energy
32 Wind Energy
33 Geothermal Energy
34 Other Renewable Energy Sources
4 Devices for Transforming Renewable Energy into Useful Energy for Desalination
41 Solar Collectors
42 Solar Ponds
43 Photovoltaic Cells
44 Wind Turbines
5 Coupling of Desalination Processes and Renewable Energy
51 Direct and Indirect Coupling of Solar Energy and Desalination
511 Direct coupling (Solar still technology)
512 Indirect Coupling
52 Desalination Systems Driven by Solar Thermal Energy
521 Solar Thermal Collectors-MSF Desalination
522 Solar Thermal Collectors-MED Desalination
53 Desalination Systems Driven by Wind Energy
531 Wind-MVC Systems
532 Wind-RO Systems
54 Desalination Systems Driven by Solar Photovoltaics (PV)
55 Hybrid Desalination Systems
6 Current Status
7 Selection Criteria among Different RE Desalination Technologies
8 Performance of Selected RE Desalination Projects
81 Solar Stills
82 Wind-Energy Driven RO Desalination Technology
83 PV-Powered Seawater RO System
84 Abu Dhabi Solar MED Desalination Plant
9 Economics of RE Desalination
91 Financial Analysis
92 Cost of Water from RES Desalination Plants
10 Conclusion
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xvii
Renewable Energy and Desalination Systems 301
Asghar Husain International Center for Water and Energy Systems (ICWES) Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
11 Need for Desalination
2 What Is Sustainability
3 Review of Desalination Technologies
31 Thermal-Based Processes
32 Membrane ndash Based Technologies
33 Renewable Energies
4 Desalination Using Solar Energy
41 Direct Utilization of Solar Radiation in the Solar Still
42 Solar Collectors
43 Solar Concentrating System
44 Solar Ponds
45 Photovoltaic Cells
46 Storage of Solar Energy
5 Desalination Using Other Renewable Energies
51 Wind Energy
52 Geothermal Energy
53 Wave Energy
54 Tidal Energy
55 Ocean Temperature Difference or Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
56 Hydraulic Energy
57 Biomass as Energy Source
6 Concluding Remarks
Why Use Renewable Energy for Desalination 342
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 The Need of Desalination for Economic Development in Remote Arid Areas
3 The Need of Energy for Desalination
4 The Availability of Renewable Energy
5 The Economic and Social Benefits of Using Renewable Energy for Desalination
6 Examples of Arid Remote Regions where Renewable Energy for Desalination can have a High
Economic Potential
61 The Southern and Eastern Mediterranean Regions
62 The Mediterranean Islands
63 The Arab Gulf Region
7 Conclusions
Thermal Energy Storage 356
Hassan E S Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Solar Energy Storage
12 Thermal Energy Storage
13 Thermal Storage Efficiency
14 Thermal Insulation
2 Sensible Heat Storage
21 Introduction
22 Low Temperature Sensible Heat Storage
221 Storage in Liquids
23 Intermediate and High Temperature Sensible Heat Storage
231 Storage in Fluids
232 Storage in Solids
233 Storage in Fluid-Solid Media
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xviii
24 Concluding Remarks
3 Latent Heat (Phase Change) Storage
31 Introduction
32 Low Temperature Latent Heat Storage
321 Phase Change Materials
322 Storage Systems Problems
33 Intermediate and High Temperature Latent Heat Storage
34 Concluding Remarks
35 Heat of Vaporization
4 Combined Sensible and Latent Heat Storage
5 Closing Remarks
6 Some Recent Developments
61 Sensible Heat Storage
62 Latent Heat Storage
621 Heat Transfer with Thermal Energy Storage
622 Storage System Performance
623 Solar Collector Integrated with Storage System
Electrical Energy Storage 387
J Garche Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research Baden-Wuumlrttemberg Germany
A Jossen Energy Storage and Energy Conversion Division Ulm Germany
1 Introduction
2 Systems with Internal Storage
21 Demands on the Battery
22 Lead-Acid Battery
221 Electrochemical Reactions
222 Operation values
223 Types of Lead-Acid Batteries
2231 Differentiation by electrodes
2232 Batteries with positive plates protected against active mass shedding
2233 Differentiation by container technology
224 Main Problems while Operation of Lead-Acid Batteries
2241 Charging and Overdischarge
2242 Deep Discharge
2243 Sulfation
225 Other Battery Systems
2251 Nickel-Cadmium Battery
2252 New Battery Systems
3 Systems with External Storage
31 Gas-Accumulator
32 Redox-Flow-Systems
4 Storage Sizing
Tidal Energy 406
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Consideration
5 Prospects
Index 416
About EOLSS 421
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xix
VOLUME IV
Desalination Using Tidal Energy 1
Abdalla S Hanafi Cairo University Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Tides
21 Spring and Neap Tides
3 Tidal Power Plants
31 Barrage
32 Locks and Gates
33 Power House
34 Basins
35 Storage
36 Economical Considerations
37 Tidal Sites
4 Tidal Desalination Technologies
41 Tidal-Vapor Compression Desalination
42 Tidal-Reverse Osmosis
421 Overall Analysis of the Reverse Osmosis Modules
43 Tidal - Electrodialysis (ED)
431 Electrodialysis DC Power
44 Tidal Freezing-Melting (FM)
441 Freezing-Melting System Analysis
5 Economic Comparisons with Wind and Solar Energy
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
15
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
22 Humidifying with cooling and dehumidifying processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in Desalination HD Process
25 Overview on Some desalination HD projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process description
32 The condenser in the SWGH
321 Different condenser layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot plant
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512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot plant
522 Performances of the SWGH
53 Case Study 3 The SWGH project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Wave Energy 81
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Considerations
5 Prospects
Wind Energy 97
B Sorensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Worldwide Distribution of Wind Energy Resources
11 Physical Potential Wind Maps
12 Practical Potential for Wind Turbines
13 Restrictions due to Competing Land Use
14 Off-Shore Potential
15 Methods for Determining Local Potential Atlas Technique
16 Overall Assessment of Potential
2 Wind Turbine Technology
21 Current Status and Prospects for the Future
22 Basic Theory Wind Turbine Types and Efficiencies
23 Prospects for Further Development
24 Current Penetration of Wind Power Utilization
25 National Plans and Future Prospects
26 Plant Lifetime and Reliability
27 Impacts on Requirements for Transmission and Back-Up
28 Energy Storage and Demand Management
3 Economic Social and Environmental Impacts of Wind Energy Utilization
31 Current Cost and Cost Trends
32 Employment Generation
33 Energy Balance
34 Noise
35 Aspects of Decentralized Energy Supply
36 Life-Cycle Estimate of Externalities Including Construction and Decommissioning Impacts
4 Evaluation of Greenhouse Warming Mitigation Potential of Wind Power
41 Assessment of Marginal Life-Cycle Impacts Including Greenhouse Warming
42 Elements of Non-Marginal Analysis of Energy Systems with Large Wind Power Share
43 Relationship between Demand Development and the Valuations of Wind Energy
44 Concluding Remarks
Availability of Wind Energy and Its Estimation 139
Richard Morris Richard Morris Associates Glasgow United Kingdom
1 The Sun as the Wind Driver
2 The Nature of Wind
3 Wind Power Statistics
4 Estimating Wind Power
5 Siting for Wind Energy
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxi
The Use of Geothermal Energy in Desalination 155
BW Tleimat Water Reuse Technology Alamo California USA
ADK Laird (deceased) Professor Emeritus and Director Emeritus Sea Water Conversion Laboratory
University of California Berkeley California USA
1 Introduction
2 Historical Perspective
3 Heat Transfer from Geothermal Reservoirs
4 Geothermal Energy Utilization
5 Electricity Generation
6 Water Production from Geothermal Sources
7 Idealized Liquid-dominated Reservoirs
8 Water and Power Generation Effects of Some System Parameters
9 Multiple-effect and Multistage Distillation Processes
10 Energy-budget Management
11 Processes for Decentralized Desalination
12 Water-budget Management
13 Solids-budget Management
Solar Photovoltaic Energy Conversion 181
G Schumm Zentrum fuer Sonnenenergie und Wasserstoff-Forschung Baden Wuerttemberg Stuttgart
Germany
1 The General Photovoltaic System
2 Non-Concentrating PV Systems
3 Tracking and Concentrating PV Systems
Flat-Plate Collectors 191
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Solar Collector Applications
3 Definitions
31 Solar Collectors
311 Solar Thermal Collector
312 Flat-Plate Collector
32 Construction Elements of a Solar Collector
321 Absorber Plate or Selective Surface
322 The Transparent Cover
323 The Collector Insulation
324 The Heat Transfer Medium
33 The Surface Areas
331 The Surface Area of the Absorber Plate
332 The Transparent Cover Surface
333 Total Surface Area
34 Operational Characteristics of the Collector
341 Collector efficiency (η)
342 Thermal Capacity of the Collector (C)
343 Pressure Drop (Δp)
344 Stagnant Conditions
345 Incidence Angle Coefficient (kθ)
35 The Characteristic Parameters of the Collector
351 The cover reflectance (ρc)
353 Cover Absorptance (αc)
352 Cover Transmittance (τc)
354 Coefficient of cover Emissivity (εc)
355 Coefficient of Absorber Emissivity
356 Selective Surface
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357 Selective Coat
358 Collector Efficiency Factor (Fprime) 359 Collector Flow Factor (FPrime) 3510 Collector Heat Removal Factor (FR)
3511 Collector Heat Loss Coefficient (UL)
4 Main Collector Components
41 The Solar Radiation Absorber
42 The Transparent Cover
43 Thermal Insulation
44 The Casing of the Collector
45 The Supporting of the Collector
5 The Solar Absorbers
51 Types of Solar Absorbers
511 Absorbers of Common Paint
512 Selective coat Absorbers
52 Forms of Absorbers and Tubes
521 General considerations
522 Sandwich Type Absorber
523 Roll Bond Tube Absorber
524 Soldered Type Absorbers
525 Absorbers with Ω Type Fins
6 Characteristics of Flat-Plate Collectors
61 General considerations
62 Installation Configuration of a Collector System
63 Orientation and Slope of the Collector
7 Dynamic Operational Characteristics of a Collector
71 The Incident Angle Coefficient
72 The Thermal Capacity of the Collector C
73 The Heat Removal Factor FR
8 The Thermal Characteristics of a Collector
81 Determination of the Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL
82 Determination of Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL for in Series Interconnection
83 Equivalent Thermal Loss between Tubes and Collector
84 The Influence of Wind Velocity
9 Shading of the Collectors
10 Basic Calculation Methods
101 Cover Reflectance
102 Cover Transmittance
103 The Transmittance-Absorptance Product
104 Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
105 Multi-Cover Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
11 The Heat Transfer Loss Coefficients
111 Loss Coefficient Uc
112 Loss Coefficient Ub
113 Loss Coefficient Us
114 The Collector Efficiency Factor Fprime 115 Collector flow factor FPrime Large Active Solar Systems Load 220
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and other Energy Systems National Centre for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Estimation of Thermal Load
21 Estimation of the Required Heat Qload
22 Estimation of the Required Heat for the Water Qw
23 Estimation of the Heat Loss in Distribution Pipes Qp
24 Estimation of Heat Loss in the Storage Tank Qt
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Large Active Solar Systems Typical Economic Analysis 225
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Cost of a Solar Hot Water System
21 Initial Capital Cost
22 Operational Costs
221 Cost of Fuel
222 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
223 Cost of Maintenance
224 Cost for Loans
225 Costs for Insurance
226 Miscellaneous Expenses
3 Cost of Conventional Hot Water System
31 Operational Costs
311 Cost of Fuel
312 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
313 Cost of Maintenance
4 Inflation
5 Rate of Interest
6 Methods of Life Cycle Cost
61 General
62 Present and Future Costs
63 Yearly Instalment
64 Yearly Expenses
7 Methodology
8 Present Value Factor
9 Comparison Methodology
Integration of Solar Pond with Water Desalination 240
U Fisher J Weinberg and B Doron Ormat Industries Ltd Yavne Israel
1 Introduction
2 Historical Background
3 The Solar Pond
31 Structure
32 Heat Absorption and Storage
33 Main Demands when Building a Pond
331 Surface Area
332 Surface Water Make-up
333 Concentrated Brine Supply
34 How to Build a Solar Pond
341 Geometry or Shape
342 Lining
343 Construction Materials in the Pond
344 Initial Filling and Build-up of Gradient
35 How to Control
36 Heat Losses (Ground Diffusion Evaporation)
361 Top Losses
362 Bottom Heat Losses
37 Disturbances
371 Algae
372 Corrosion
373 Wind
38 Heat Extraction
39 Fuel Assisted Solar Ponds
310 Maintenance
3101 Clarity
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3102 Cleaning of Wind Breakers
3103 Blow Down
3104 Make-up
3105 Leakages
311 Practical Size of a Single Pond
312 Investment in Solar Ponds
313 OampM Costs
4 Desalination Processes Coupled to the Solar Pond
41 Economic Aspects of Coupling Desalination Plants to Solar Ponds
411 Desalination Processes
412 The Choice and Proportion of Producing Heat and Power in the Solar Pond
4121 The Solar Pond Yield
4122 Desalination Plant Performance
4123 The Impact of Daily and Seasonal Fluctuations
4124 Economic Considerations and Evaluations
42 Experience with SP-Desalination Systems
43 Conclusions
Evacuated Tube Collectors 276
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Current Designs of Evacuated Tube Collectors
3 Thermal Analysis
4 Analysis of Flat Plate Evacuated Tube Collector
5 Analysis of Concentric-Tube Collector
6 Performance of Evacuated Tube Collectors
7 Case Study (Collector Field at the Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant)
71 Description of collector field
72 Performance of collector field
73 Economics
Parabolic Trough Collectors 299
Wolfgang Meinecke Deutsches Zentrum fuumlr Luft-und Raumfahrt eV (DLR German Aerospace Center)
Solar Energy Technology Division Koumlln Germany
1 Introduction
2 Brief History of Trough Development
3 State of the Art of Trough Applications
31 Conventional Thermal Water Desalination Applications
32 Solar Thermal Water Desalination Applications
33 Solar Electric Power Generation
34 Solar Process Heat Generation
35 Process Hot Water (Project Examples)
36 Process Steam (Project Examples)
37 Process Steam for Water Desalination (Project Examples)
38 Process Hot Air
4 Trough Technologies
41 LS 3 Trough Collector System
411 LS 3 Parabolic Reflector
412 Steel Support Structure
413 Absorber Element
414 Tracking System and Field Control System
415 Heat Transfer Fluid System
416 Steam Generator
417 Balance of Plant Technologies
418 Energy Storage System
42 IST Trough Collector System
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxv
421 IST Parabolic Reflector
422 Support Structure
423 Absorber Element
424 Tracking System and Field Control System
425 Heat Transfer Fluid System
426 Heat Exchanger
427 Balance of Plant Technology
428 Energy Storage
5 Prospects and Potential
51 Solar Electric Power Generation
52 Solar Process Heat Generation
53 Solar Thermal Water Desalination
6 Cost and Economic Aspects
61 Collector Investment Costs
611 LS 3 Collector Costs
612 IST Collector Costs
62 Other Economic Parameters
621 Fossil Fuel Prices
622 Solar Energy Yield
623 Solar Share
624 Plant Power Size
625 Capacity Factor
626 OampM Costs
627 Non-Technical Parameters
63 Costs of Solar Water Desalination
7 Conclusions
Index 363
About EOLSS 369
VOLUME V
Central Receivers 1
MM Elsayed Mechanical Engineering Department Kuwait University Safat Kuwait
1 Introduction
2 Heliostats Types and Design Shapes
3 Heliostat Angles
4 Heliostat Field Heliostat Layout
5 Heliostat Field Cosine Effect
6 Heliostat Field Preliminary Sizing of the Field
7 Heliostat Field Usefulness Efficiency
8 Reflected Solar Radiation
9 The Effective Sunshape
10 Principal Images and Relation between Receiver and Image Planes
11 Models to Predict the Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Image Plane
111 Incoming Ray Formulation
112 The Mirror Plane Formulation
113 Solar Disk Formulation
114 The Pinhole View
12 Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Receiver Surface Using the Separation of
VariableSuperposition Technique
121 Concept
122 Calculation of φ 123 Validation of Model Using Measurements
13 Receivers Types and Losses
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14 Preliminary Sizing of the Receiver
15 Overall System Optimization
Configuration Theoretical Analysis and Performance of Simple Solar Stills 98
A Kumar Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources Solar Energy Center New Delhi India
1 Introduction
2 Configuration of Simple Solar Stills
21 Basic Principle
22 Classification
23 Single Basin Solar Stills
24 Inclined Solar Stills
241 Basin Type Solar Stills
242 Wick Type Solar Stills
25 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
26 Solar Earth Water Stills
27 Plastic Solar Stills
271 Life Raft Solar Still
272 Circular Solar Still
273 Extruded Plastic Solar Still
274 Concentric Tube Solar Still
28 A Typical Solar Distillation Plant
3 Theoretical Analysis of Simple Solar Stills
31 Heat and Mass Transfer in Solar Stills
311 Inside the Solar Still
312 Outside the Solar Still
32 Solar Radiation Balance
321 Transmission through Top Cover
322 Absorption in the Top Cover
33 Energy Balance Equations
34 Solution Procedure
4 Performance of Solar Stills
41 Single Basin Solar Stills
42 Inclined Solar Stills
43 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
44 Solar Earth Water Stills
45 Plastic Solar Stills
46 Case Studies
461 Australia
462 Greek Islands
463 India
47 Suggested Practices for Installing Solar Stills
Development in Simple Solar Stills 169
Hassan ES Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Modified Simple (Passive) Stills
21 Basin Still
211 Single Slope versus Double Slope Basin Stills
212 Basin Still with Cover Cooling
213 Basin Still with Treated Cover Surface
214 Basin Still with Additional Condenser
215 Basin Still with Black DyeMuddy Water
22 Wick Stills
221 Single-wick Stills
222 Multi-wick Stills
223 Wick versus Basin Stills
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224 Combined Wick-Basin Stills
23 Other Stills Configurations
231 Vertical Microporous Evaporator Still
232 Cascade Solar Still
233 Still Integrated with Greenhouse
3 Externally Heated (Active) Solar Stills
31 Introduction
32 Stills Coupled to a Solar Collector
321 Direct and Indirect Heating
322 Use of Dye and Cover Cooling
323 Other Solar Heaters
33 Stills Coupled with Solar Concentrator
34 The Use of Waste Heat in Solar Stills
4 Other Types of Solar Distillation Systems
41 Water Recovery from Air
Multi-Effect Solar Stills 197
HES Fath Al-Jubail 31951 Saudi Arabia
1 Why Multi Effect
2 Double Effect Basin Stills
21 Double Basins Stills
22 Double Effect Tilted Stills
23 Purging Vapor to a Second Effect
3 Multi-Effect Multi-Wick Stills
4 Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
41 Introduction
42 Mass Diffusion
43 Comparison between Diffusion and Basin Stills
44 Description of Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
45 Analysis and Performance Considerations
5 Other Distillation Systems
51 Stacked Tray Stills
52 Multi-Effect Humidification-Dehumidification
Materials for Construction of Solar Stills 218
TA Lawand and J Ayoub Brace Research Institute Canada
1 Introduction
2 General Specifications of Solar Stills
3 Transparent Cover
4 Basin Liner
5 Solar Still Frame
6 Sealants
7 Insulation
8 Auxiliaries - Piping Pumping and Reservoirs
Reverse Osmosis by Solar Energy 225
W Bucher DLR German Aerospace Research Establishment Cologne Germany
1 Introduction
2 Basic Parameters and Energy Demand for Osmosis
21 Physical Properties of Hyperfiltration
22 Energy required for the RO Process
3 Solar Power Conversion Systems
31 Solar Conversion Principles
32 Technical Data of Solar Energy Conversion Methods
33 RO Plant Operation Utilizing Variable Energy Sources
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxviii
4 Reverse Osmosis System Configuration and Operation Aspects
41 Process Design of RO Desalination Systems
42 Procedural Steps and Data for Water Treatment and Energy Consumption
43 Components of RO -Desalination
431 Membranes and Modules
432 High Pressure Pumps
433 Pressure Regulating Devices
5 Solar Powered Desalination Units
51 Specific Figures or RO Systems
52 Solar Power Concepts for RO Desalination
53 Operational Experience with Solar driven RO Systems
6 Costs
61 Specific Cost Figures for the Plant Components
62 Water Delivery Cost
Availability of Solar Radiation and Its Estimation 265
VG Belessiotis Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems National Center for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun and the Radiation Emitted
21 The Physics of the Sun
22 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
3 The Extraterrestrial Radiation
31 What is the Solar Constant
32 Variations of the Extraterrestrial Radiation
33 The Black-body Emittance and Absorptance
34 Blackbody Absorbers - Application to Desalination
4 The Co-ordinate Systems The Basic Solar Angles
41 The Earth-Sun Relationships
42 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Sky
43 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Celestial Sphere
44 Earth-Sun Geometric Relationship
45 Time and its Units - Day Length
46 Terrestrial Solar Radiation
461 Estimation of Radiation Availability
462 Average Radiation Values - Clearness Index
463 Clear Sky Radiation
464 Sky Radiation
47 Atmospheric Factors Affecting Radiation
5 Computation of Insolation at the Earths Surface
51 Insolation Data
52 Measurement of Solar Radiation
53 Models for Solar Radiation
54 Where the Models Apply
55 Tilted Surfaces - Absorptance of Solar Radiation
551 Fixed Tilted Surfaces
552 Tracking Surfaces
6 Applications of Solar Radiation
7 Impact of Solar Energy to the Environment
Economics of Small Solar-Assisted Multiple-Effect Seawater Distillation Plants 296
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Configurations
3 Design and Sizing Considerations
31 Thermal Energy Requirement
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxix
32 Pumping Requirements
33 Collector Performance
34 Sizing Thermal Collector Area
35 Sizing the PV System
351 Sizing the PV Array
4 Economic Ground Rules and Water Cost Optimization
41 Capital Equipment Cost
42 Operating Costs
43 Optimum Cost of Water for each Plant Configuration
5 Results
6 Conclusion
A Solar-Assisted Sea Water Multiple Effect Distillation Plant 15 Years of Operating
Performance (1985-1999) 316
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Basic Design Concept
21 General Plant Description
22 Design Specifications
23 Evaporator Heat Transfer Coefficient
24 Tube Dimensions Heat Transfer Areas and Materials
3 Performance during Commissioning Tests
31 The MES Evaporator
32 The Solar Collector Field
33 The Heat Accumulator
34 Total Plant Performance
4 Performance History
41 The MES Evaporator
42 The Solar Collector Field
43 The Heat Accumulator
431 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
4311 The heat balance method
4312 The direct temperature measurement method
4313 Thermal stratification ratio
44 Total Plant Performance
5 Major Maintenance Activities
51 Equipment Failure and Replacement
52 Acid Cleanings and Silt Removal from Evaporator
6 Evaluation of Water Cost
61 Capital Costs
62 Operation and Maintenance Costs
7 Conclusions
Mathematical Simulation of a Solar Desalination Plant 341
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Description
3 System Operating Conditions
31 Solar Heat Collecting Subsystem
32 Evaporator Subsystem
4 Mathematical Modeling of System Components
41 Solar radiation model
42 Ambient temperature model
43 Solar collector subsystem
431 Effect of shade on solar radiation
432 Effect of dust on transmissivity of glass tubes
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxx
433 Control of heat collecting operation
434 Heat collection by solar collectors
435 Heat loss from piping
4351 Piping specifications
4352 Standard pipe lengths
4353 Heat loss from piping during operation of heat collecting pump
4354 Heat loss from piping while the heat collecting pump is shutdown
4355 Correction of piping heat loss
44 Heat accumulator subsystem
441 Temperature distribution
442 MES evaporator subsystem
5 The Simulation Program
51 Program structure
52 Input and output data
6 Results
7 Conclusions
Index 379
About EOLSS 385
VOLUME VI
Modeling and Design of Solar Energy Systems Including Solar Economics 1
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 F-Chart Method
11 Performance and Design of Liquid-Based Solar Heating Systems
111 Storage Capacity Correction
112 Collector Flow Rate Correction
113 Load Heat Exchanger Size Correction
12 Performance and Design of Air-Based Solar Heating Systems
121 Pebble Bed Storage Size Correction
122 Air Flow Rate Correction
13 Performance and Design of Solar Service Water Systems
14 Thermosiphon Solar Water Heating Systems
15 General Remarks
2 Modeling and Simulation of Solar Energy Systems
21 Simple System Models
211 Pipe Losses
22 F-Chart Program
23 Trnsys Simulation Program
24 Limitations of Simulations
3 Solar Economic Analysis
31 Life Cycle Costing
32 Life Cycle Analysis Method
33 Payback Time
331 Not Discounted Fuel Savings
332 Discounted Fuel Savings
34 Alternative Method
341 System Optimization Using Economic Analysis
35 Uncertainties in Economic Analysis
Solar Energy Power Generation and Desalination Systems 47
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 Global Energy Problems and the Role of Renewables
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxi
11 Energy demand
12 Energy environmental problems and sustainable development
13 Water demand and consumption
14 Water and energy
15 Desalination and energy
16 Renewable energy technologies
2 Solar Collectors
21 Parabolic trough collectors
22 Fresnel collectors
23 Parabolic dish reflector
24 Heliostat field collector
3 Power Generation and Industrial Process Heat Systems
31 Parabolic trough collector systems
32 Power tower systems
33 Dish systems
34 Solar ponds
341 Heat extraction and applications
35 Industrial process heat systems
36 Solar industrial steam generation systems
4 Desalination Processes
41 Direct collection systems
42 Indirect collection systems
421 The multi-stage flash process
422 The multiple-effect distillation process
423 The vapor-compression process
424 Reverse osmosis
425 Electrodialysis
Solar Updraft Power Plant Technology Basic Concepts and Structural Design 94
Francesca Lupi University of Florence Florence Italy
Claudio Borri University of Florence Florence Italy
Wilfried B Kraumltzig Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
Hans-Juumlrgen Niemann Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
1 Solar Updraft Power Technology Introduction and Working Principles
2 History of the Solar Updraft Power Technology
21 Solar Tower Prototype in Manzanares (Spain)
3 Evaluation of Plant Efficiency
31 The Collector
32 The Chimney
33 The Turbines
34 Electric Power Generated by Supps
4 The Collector
5 Actions on Solar Updraft Towers
6 Wind Loading on Solar Updraft Towers
61 Wind Flow Structure in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer at High Altitudes
611 Boundary Layer Meteorology
612 The Ekman Spiral
613 Theoretical Considerations on the Mean Wind and Turbulence in the Ekman Layer
62 Modeling of the Wind Load on Solar Towers
621 Mean Wind Load
622 Response to Wind Turbulence
623 Fluctuating Wind Load
624 Equivalent Static Wind Pressures
625 Vortex Excitation
626 Other Effects The Effect of the Efflux
63 Wind Load on the Collector Roof
7 Structural Behavior of Solar Updraft Towers
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxii
71 Structural Elements of Solar Tower Shells
72 Some Typical Response Characteristics of Solar Tower Shells Vibration and Instability
Behavior
73 Non-Linear Tower Response
8 Structural Optimization of Solar Updraft Towers
81 The Role of the Stiffening Rings in the Structural Design of Solar Towers
82 Strategies of Optimization
9 Technology of Construction
Renewable Energy Potential in The Arab Region 162
Mohammed Mostafa El-Khayat General Manager of Planning New and Renewable Energy Authority
NREA Cairo Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Research Problem and Objectives
111 Research Problem
12 Research Objectives
2 Energy Demand
3 The Current Situation of Renewable Energy
31 Hydropower
32 Wind Energy
33 Solar Energy
34 Biomass and Geothermal Energy
4 Strategies
5 Institutional and Regulatory Framework
6 Main Policies and Incentives
7 RE Policies and Incentives Profiles
71 Algeria
72 Egypt
73 Jordan
74 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
75 Lebanon
76 Libya
77 Morocco
78 Palestine
79 Sudan
710 Syria
711 Tunisia
712 United Arab Emirates
713 Yemen
8 Financing Schemes and Investment Opportunities
9 Motivations and Barriers of Renewable Energy
10 Renewable Energy Initiatives
101 Arabian Initiatives
102 DESERTEC
11 Potential of Renewable Energy in the Region
12 The proposed mechanisms to enhance and accelerate the rate of using RE applications
13 The situation of localizing RE technologies
14 RE and climate change in Arab countries
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
198
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiii
22 Humidifying with Cooling and Dehumidifying Processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in HD Desalination Process
25 Overview on Some Desalination HD Projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process Description
32 The Condenser in the SWGH
321 Different Condenser Layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the Condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of Condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot Plant
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH Project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot Plant
522 Performances of the Pilot Plant
53 The SWGH Project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot Plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Evolution of Photovoltaic Materials for Renewable Energy Development 262
Abdelilah Slaoui InESS ndash CNRS ndash University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
Jef Poortmans IMEC Leuven Belgium
Marko Topic University of Ljubljana Faculty of Elec Eng Ljubljana Slovenia
Gavin Conibeer ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence UNSW Sydney Australia
1 General Introduction
2 Photovoltaic Materials and Technologies State of the Art
21 Crystalline Silicon
22 Thin Films
221 Amorphous Silicon
222 Nanocrystalline and Microcrystalline Silicon
223 Polycrystalline Silicon
224 Copper Indium Selenide Its alloys and Related Chalcopyrites
225 Cadmium Telluride
226 Materials for Photochemical Solar Cells
227 Materials for Organic Solar Cells
3 Next Generation Solar Cells
31 Introduction
32 Multiple energy level approaches
33 Multiple Exciton Generation solar cells
34 Intermediate Band (IB) cells
35 Hot carrier cells
4 Conclusions and Perspectives
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiv
Wind and Solar Renewable Energy Potential Resources Estimation 302
Philippe Drobinski Institut Pierre Simon LaplaceLaboratoire de Meacuteteacuteorologie Dynamique CNRSEcole
Polytechnique Palaiseau France
1 Renewable Wind and Solar Energies The Context
11 An Economical and Environmental Necessity
12 Energy Definitions and Units
2 Basic Knowledge in Geophysics for Energy Resource Evaluation
21 Earth Energy Budget and Atmospheric Motion
22 Near Surface Wind
23 Impacts of Clouds and Aerosols on Surface Solar Radiation
3 Wind Energy Resource
31 Wind Energy A Brief History
32 Wind Energy Resources Evaluation
33 Wind Energy Installed Capacity in the World
4 Solar Energy Resources
41 Solar Energy An Introduction
42 Worldwide Solar Heat
5 Methods for Wind and Solar Energy Resources Forecast
Index 353
About EOLSS 361
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) vii
2 Main characteristics of solar furnaces
3 Elaboration of materials using concentrated solar energy
31 Surface treatments
32 Melting and purification of bulk materials
33 Production of chemical commodities and ceramics
34 Elaboration of carbon molecules nanomaterials and thin films
4 Testing of materials using concentrated solar energy
41 Original devices at the focus of solar furnaces
42 Test of materials for aerospace applications
421 Atmopsheric re-entry (oxidation and catalycity)
422 Solar probe mission
43 Test of materials for future system of energy production
5 Conclusion
Index 389
About EOLSS 395
VOLUME II
Solar Distillation 1
Gopal Nath Tiwari and Hriday Narayan Singh Center of Energy Studies Indian Institute of Technology
India
1 Importance of Water
11 Water Sources
12 Water Demand
13 Drinking Water Quality
2 Water Pollution and its Effect
3 Principles of Solar Distillation A State of the Art
4 Classification of Solar Distillation Systems
41 Passive Solar Still
411 Conventional Solar Still
412 New Design Solar Still
42 Active Solar Distillation
421 Nocturnal Production
422 Pre-Heated Water Application
423 High Temperature Distillation
5 Heat and Mass Transfer in Solar Distillation
51 Background
52 Internal Heat Transfer
521 Convective and Evaporative Heat Transfer Coefficients
522 Radiative Heat Transfer Coefficient
523 Total Internal Heat Transfer coefficient
53 External Heat Transfer
531 Top Heat Loss Coefficient
532 Bottom and Sides Loss Coefficient
6 Performance of Solar Still
61 Thermal Modeling of Solar Still and Effect of Meteorological and other Parameters
62 Passive Solar Still
63 Active Solar Still
64 Economic Evaluation
641 Introduction
642 Economic Analysis
643 Preparation of Drinking Water
7 Conclusions and Recommendations
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) viii
Solar Photochemistry 67
Juliaacuten Blanco Gaacutelvez and Sixto Malato Rodriacuteguez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain
1 Solar Chemistry
2 Artificial Solar Photochemical Processes
3 Biological Photosynthetic Processes
4 Photochemical Synthetic Applications
41 Photooxygenation of Furfural
42 Synthesis of substituted Pyridines
43 Solar photo-production of Caprolactam
44 Photochemical synthesis of Thiohelicenes
45 Photocyclisation of substituted Benzylidenes to annulled Quinolines
46 Other solar driven photochemical processes
5 Solar Photocatalytic Processes to Water Contaminants Treatment
51 Heterogeneous titanium dioxide solar detoxification
52 Homogeneous solar photocatalytic processes
6 Gas Phase Photocatalytic Treatment Processes
7 Pilot Scale Solar Photochemical Facilities
8 Conclusions
Photochemical Conversion of Solar Energy 96
S Malato Rodriacuteguez and J Blanco Gaacutelvez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT SPAIN
1 Introduction
2 Photochemistry Principles
21 The Light
22 The Power of Light
3 The Solar Spectrum
31 Atmospheric Attenuation of Solar Radiation
32 Solar UV Photon Flux
4 Evaluation of Solar Photo Flux inside Photoreactors
41 Collector Efficiency
42 Actinometric Experiments
5 Simplified Methods for Comparing Experiments when working with Solar Radiation
51 Accumulated Energy
52 Secondary Actinometer
53 Standardized illumination time
Solar Photocatalysis and Water Treatment Detoxification and Disinfection 117
S Malato Rodriacuteguez and J Blanco Gaacutelvez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain
1 Introduction
2 Fundamental Parameters in Solar Photocatalysis
21 Direct Photolysis
22 Radiant Flux
23 Initial Concentration of Contaminant
3 Factors Affecting Solar Photocatalysis
31 Influence of Oxygen
32 Influence of Catalyst Concentration
33 Temperature Influence
34 pH Influence
4 Solar Photocatalytic Degradation of Contaminants
41 Improving Solar Photocatalysis Efficiency
42 Combining Solar Photocatalysis and Biotreatment
5 Solar Photocatalytic Disinfection of Water
51 Effect of Solar Radiation on Microorganisms
52 Microorganism Inactivation by Titanium Dioxide Photocatalysis
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) ix
Solar Photochemistry Technology 139
J Blanco Gaacutelvez and S Malato Rodriacuteguez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain
1 Introduction
2 Solar Collectors for Photochemical Processes
21 Parabolic Trough Collectors (PTCs)
22 One-Sun Collectors
23 Compound Parabolic Concentrators (CPCs)
24 Holographic Collectors
3 Peculiarities of Solar Tracking and Non-Tracking Systems
4 Technological Issues
41 Photochemical Reactor
42 Reflective Surfaces
43 Piping
44 Radiation Absorption
5 Gas-Phase Photochemical Technology
Solar Photochemistry Applications 163
J Blanco Gaacutelvez and S Malato Rodriacuteguez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain
1 Introduction
2 Solar Photocatalytic Treatment Plants
3 Cost Estimations
4 Water Phase Photocatalytic Applications
41 Phenols
42 Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
43 Pharmaceutical Compounds
44 Wood Preservative Waste
45 Agrochemical Wastes (Pesticides)
46 Seaport Tank Terminals
47 Removal of Hazardous Metal Ions
48 Cyanide degradation
49 Groundwater Decontamination
5 Water Disinfection
6 Gas-Phase Photocatalytic Applications
7 Contaminated Landfill Cleaning
Research and Environmental Issues in The 1990s 184
S Malato Rodriacuteguez and J Blanco Gaacutelvez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT SPAIN
1 Introduction
2 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of Chlorophenols
3 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of Pesticides
4 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of NBCS
5 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of Cyanide
6 Solar Photo-Fenton
61 Photo-Fenton Treatment of Pesticides
62 Photo-Fenton Treatment of Olive Mill Wastewater
7 Photoelectrochemical Reactors Development
Mathematical Models of Solar Energy Conversion Systems 205
Viorel Badescu Candida Oancea Institute Polytechnic University of Bucharest Romania
1 Introduction
2 Properties of Radiation Fluxes
21 Photons in Discrete Quantum States
22 Photons in Continuous Spectrum
23 Properties of Photon Fluxes
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) x
24 Spectral Property Radiances for Blackbodies and Band-gap Materials
3 Concentration of Solar Radiation
31 The Lagrangian of Beam Radiation
32 Upper Bounds on Solar Radiation Concentration
33 Geometrical Concentration Ratio for Several Mirrors
331 Spherical mirrors
332 Paraboloidal Mirrors
333 Cylinder Parabolic Mirrors
34 Perturbing Factors
4 Photothermal Conversion
41 Detailed Balance Models
411 The End-user Requires a Heat Flux
412 The End-user Requires Mechanical Power
42 Models Based on Spectrally Integrated Fluxes
421 The End-user Requires Heat The Flat Plate Solar Collector
422 The End-user Requires Work Solar Power Generation
423 Upper Bounds on Solar Energy Conversion Efficiency into Work
43 Discussion and Perspectives
5 Photovoltaic Conversion
51 Models Based on the Diode Equation
52 Models Based on Detailed Balance Equations
521 Radiation Received From the Environment Neglected
522 Radiation Received From the Environment Included
523 The Solar Cell Equation
53 Discussion and Perspectives
6 Photochemical Conversion
7 Conclusion
Multiple Effect Distillation of Seawater Using Solar Energy ndash The Case of Abu Dhabi Solar
Desalination Plant 256
Ali M El-Nashar International Center for Water amp Energy Systems Abu Dhabi United Arab Emirates
1 Introduction
2 History of Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant
3 Description of Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant
31 Plant Description
311 The solar heat collector subsystem
312 The heat accumulator subsystem
313 MED evaporator subsystem
32 Design Features
4 Measurements and Data Acquisition System
41 Measuring the heat collected in block F
5 Data Analysis
51 Calculating the solar radiation on absorber plate
52 Calculating the performance of the collector bank
53 Calculating the performance of the evaporator
531 Calculating the brine concentration at each effect
532 OHTC of heater (first effect)
533 Average OHTC of other evaporator effects
534 Average OHTC of preheaters
535 OHTC of condenser
536 Evaporator economy
6 Weather Condition in Abu Dhabi
7 Operating Characteristics
71 Heat collecting subsystem
711 Heat collector efficiency
712 Daily heat collection efficiency
72 Heat accumulator system
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xi
721 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
722 Thermal stratification ratio
73 Evaporating system
731 Evaporator performance
74 Performance of the plant
8 Plant Maintenance and Modifications
81 Heat collecting system
811 Cleaning the solar collector field
812 Corrosion of the collector air vent valves
813 Vacuum loss inside glass tubes
814 Scale prevention
815 Anti-corrosion chemical for use in the heat collecting water
816 Measures against power failure
82 Evaporating system
821 Evaporator pump maintenance
822 Inspection of the evaporator
823 Change in operating sequence
825 Modification of the method of feeding sealing water to the priming vacuum pump
824 Modification of the system for injecting anti-scale chemical
9 Simulation Program and its Validation
91 Simulation program
911 Outline
912 Flow chart of the SOLDES program
913 Program Input and output data
914 Mathematical Models
92 Comparison of simulation and actually measured Values
10 Evaluation of the Test Plant
101 Optimum operating conditions
102 Simulation results
103 Evaluation of the solar plant
11 Economic Considerations and Comparison with Conventional MED Plants
111 Basic economic parameters
112 Capital equipment cost
1121 Capital cost of MED evaporator
1122 Capital cost of solar thermal collectors
1123 Capital cost of heat accumulator
1124 Capital cost of steam generator for conventional MED systems
1125 Capital cost of diesel generator
113 Operation and maintenance expenses
1131 Consumable chemical expenses
1132 Electrical energy consumption
1133 Spare parts cost
1134 Personnel cost
114 Estimating the cost of water produced
12 Results of the Economic Study
13 Conclusion
131 System Reliability
132 Response to varying weather condition
133 Establishment of a method for cleaning of solar collectors
134 Comparison of the test plant results with that of the basic design
Index 335
About EOLSS 341
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xii
VOLUME III
Solar Irradiation Fundamentals 1
Zekacirci Sen Istanbul Technical University Maslak 34469 Istanbul Turkey
1 Introduction
2 The Sun
3 Atmospheric effects and Electro-magnetic Radiation (EMR) spectrum
4 Astronomic effects
5 Meteorological effects
51 Cloud Index
6 Topographic effects
7 Solar parameters
71 Solar geometry quantities
711 Earth eccentricity
712 Declination angle
713 Zenith angle
72 Solar time quantities
721 Solar time
722 Equation of time
723 Apparent solar time (AST)
73 Solar irradiation quantities
731 Solar constant
732 Irradiation path
8 Solar radiation modeling
81 Solar energy laws
82 Solar irradiation calculation
83 Estimation of clear sky radiation
84 Irradiation model
9 Astronomic calculations
91 The Daily Solar Profile
92 Daily solar energy on horizontal surface
93 Solar energy on inclined surface
10 Solar-Hydrogen Energy
11 Conclusions
Direct Solar Energy 67
S C Bhattacharya and S Kumar Energy Program Asian Institute of Technology Pathumthani
Thailand
1 Introduction
11 A Brief History of Energy
12 Origin of Solar Energy
13 Solar Thermal Energy
14 Photovoltaics (PV)
15 The Future of Solar Energy
2 Solar Radiation
21 Sun and Earth
22 Solar Radiation Estimation
3 Solar Thermal Conversion
31 Solar Collectors
311 Flat Plate Collectors
312 Concentrating Collectors
313 Evacuated Type Collectors
314 Selective Surfaces
32 Solar Water Heating
321 Introduction
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xiii
322 Natural Circulation Systems
323 Forced Circulation Systems
324 Materials Used in Solar Water Heaters
325 Advantages and Disadvantages
33 Solar Space Heating
331 Active Systems
332 Passive Systems
333 Solar District Heating
34 Solar Thermal Power Generation
341 Introduction
342 Parabolic Trough Systems
343 Power Towers
344 Parabolic Dish
35 Solar Drying
351 Introduction
352 Types of Solar Drier
353 Advantages of Solar Drying
4 Solar Photovoltaic Conversion
41 Solar Cells and Modules
42 Other Components of PV Systems
43 PV Applications
5 Other Solar Technologies
51 Solar Photochemical Conversion
52 Space Solar Power
521 Introduction
522 The SSP Concept
523 Promise and Problems
524 Future Prospects
6 Solar Energy Storage
61 Solar Thermal Energy Storage
611 Sensible Heat Storage
612 Latent Heat Storage
613 Chemical Energy Storage
614 Solar Electrical Energy Storage
7 Environmental Impacts of Solar Energy
71 General Impacts
72 Solar Thermal Systems
73 PV Systems
74 Health and Environmental Aspects
75 Energy Payback and CO2 Abatement
76 Other implications
761 Batteries
762 Operation and Decommissioning
8 The Way Forward
81 General
82 Solar Thermal Systems
83 PV Systems
9 Concluding Remarks
Solar Drying - A Technology for Sustainable Agriculture and Food Production 112
RJ Fuller Principal Fellow IDTC Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of
Melbourne Australia
1 Introduction
2 Drying Fundamentals
3 Sun vs Solar Drying
4 Types of Solar Dryer
41 Direct Mode
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xiv
42 Indirect Mode
43 Mixed Mode
44 Further Classifications
441 Natural Convection
442 Forced Convection
45 Other Differences
451 Supplementary Energy
452 Air Flow Direction
453 Heat Transfer Fluid
454 Thermal Storage
5 Solar Dryers in Practice
51 Direct mode natural convection dryers
52 Direct Mode Forced Convection Dryers
53 Indirect Mode Forced Convection Dryers
6 Performance Evaluation of Solar Dryers
61 Overall System Drying Efficiency
62 Pick-up Efficiency
63 Solar Collection Efficiency
64 Performance of Solar Dryers
65 Comparative Testing
7 Designing Solar Drying Systems
71 Rules-of-Thumb
72 Sizing Equations
73 Chart Methods
74 Simulation Techniques
8 Non-technical Factors
81 Economics
82 Practical Issues
83 Technology Transfer
84 Developing Country Issues
85 Industrialized Country Issues
9 Prospects and Future Developments
91 Technical Developments
92 Costs
93 Design
94 External Factors
10 Conclusions
A Short Historical Review of Renewable Energy 136
E Delyannis NCSR Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems ldquoDemokritosrdquo Aghia Paraskevi
Greece
A El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority (WEA) Abu-Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
11 The History of Renewable Energy Achievements
12 The Set-up of this Historical Review
2 The Renewable Energies in the Antiquity
21 From Legends to the First Written Documents
3 The Power of the Sun
31 The Dawn of the History
32 The Capture of the Suns Radiation
321 Antiquity to Middle Age The Philosophers
322 Renaissance to the 20th Century The Founders
323 The 20th Century The Engineers
324 The Present Times The Technologists
4 The Development of the Solar Distillation
41 From Philosophy to Practice
42 The First Large Applications
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xv
43 The Last 50 Years
5 Solar Driven Desalination
51 General Considerations
52 The Solar Driven Distillation Plants
53 Freezing Plants
54 Electrodialysis Plants
55 Solar Powered Reverse Osmosis Plants
6 The Energy of the Mother Gaia
7 The Power of Aeolos
71 The Aeolian Gods
72 The Harvest of the Winds Energy
73 The Raise and the Fall of Windmills
74 Wind Turbine Generation
8 The Power of the Moving Water
81 Hydraulic Power
9 The Impulsive Power of Poseidon
91 The Power of the Waves
92 The Tides and their Energy
93 The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) System
Renewable Energy Resources 186
V Belessiotis and E Delyannis NCSR Demokritos Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems
Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun as an Energy Source
21 The Availability of Solar Energy
22 Application of Solar Energy to Desalination
3 The Geothermal Energy
31 Introduction
32 The Geothermal Resources System
321 Hydrothermal Reservoirs
322 The Geopressurized Reservoirs
323 The Hot Dry Rocks
33 The Available Resources
34 The Geographic Distribution of Reservoirs
35 The Geothermal Brines
36 Application of Geothermal Resources
4 The Hydraulic Energy
41 Introduction
42 The Available Hydropower Resources
43 Limit of Hydropower Output
5 Wind Energy Resources
51 The Origin of Wind
52 The Distribution of Wind Forces
53 Wind Speed Distribution
54 The Utilization of the Wind Energy
6 Biomass as an Energy Source
61 Introduction
62 The Origin of Biomass
63 The Alternate Biomass Products
64 Biomass Residues
641 The Crop Residues
642 Fuel Wood
643 Sugar Crops
644 Livestock Manure
65 Refuse and Municipal Sewage
66 Plantation Biomass
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xvi
7 Thermal Energy from Biomass
71 Introduction
72 The Energy Conversion Methods
73 Environmental Impacts of Biomass Energy Sources
8 The Ocean Systems Energy Resources
81 Introduction
82 The Energy of the Waves
821 The Origin of the Waves
822 Distribution of Wave Resources
83 The Tidal Power as Energy Source
831 The Generation of Tides
832 The Tidal Potential
84 The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) Source
841 The Trapping of the OTEC Energy
Desalination with Renewable Energy - A Review 227
Ali M El-Nashar 22 Ahmed Gharbo St Apt 703 Zizinia Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Commercial Desalination Processes and Their Energy Consumption
21 Description of the Commercial Desalination Processes
211 Distillation Processes
212 Membrane Processes
22 Technical and Economic Characteristics of Commercial Desalination Processes
3 Available Renewable Energy Sources
31 Solar Energy
32 Wind Energy
33 Geothermal Energy
34 Other Renewable Energy Sources
4 Devices for Transforming Renewable Energy into Useful Energy for Desalination
41 Solar Collectors
42 Solar Ponds
43 Photovoltaic Cells
44 Wind Turbines
5 Coupling of Desalination Processes and Renewable Energy
51 Direct and Indirect Coupling of Solar Energy and Desalination
511 Direct coupling (Solar still technology)
512 Indirect Coupling
52 Desalination Systems Driven by Solar Thermal Energy
521 Solar Thermal Collectors-MSF Desalination
522 Solar Thermal Collectors-MED Desalination
53 Desalination Systems Driven by Wind Energy
531 Wind-MVC Systems
532 Wind-RO Systems
54 Desalination Systems Driven by Solar Photovoltaics (PV)
55 Hybrid Desalination Systems
6 Current Status
7 Selection Criteria among Different RE Desalination Technologies
8 Performance of Selected RE Desalination Projects
81 Solar Stills
82 Wind-Energy Driven RO Desalination Technology
83 PV-Powered Seawater RO System
84 Abu Dhabi Solar MED Desalination Plant
9 Economics of RE Desalination
91 Financial Analysis
92 Cost of Water from RES Desalination Plants
10 Conclusion
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xvii
Renewable Energy and Desalination Systems 301
Asghar Husain International Center for Water and Energy Systems (ICWES) Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
11 Need for Desalination
2 What Is Sustainability
3 Review of Desalination Technologies
31 Thermal-Based Processes
32 Membrane ndash Based Technologies
33 Renewable Energies
4 Desalination Using Solar Energy
41 Direct Utilization of Solar Radiation in the Solar Still
42 Solar Collectors
43 Solar Concentrating System
44 Solar Ponds
45 Photovoltaic Cells
46 Storage of Solar Energy
5 Desalination Using Other Renewable Energies
51 Wind Energy
52 Geothermal Energy
53 Wave Energy
54 Tidal Energy
55 Ocean Temperature Difference or Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
56 Hydraulic Energy
57 Biomass as Energy Source
6 Concluding Remarks
Why Use Renewable Energy for Desalination 342
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 The Need of Desalination for Economic Development in Remote Arid Areas
3 The Need of Energy for Desalination
4 The Availability of Renewable Energy
5 The Economic and Social Benefits of Using Renewable Energy for Desalination
6 Examples of Arid Remote Regions where Renewable Energy for Desalination can have a High
Economic Potential
61 The Southern and Eastern Mediterranean Regions
62 The Mediterranean Islands
63 The Arab Gulf Region
7 Conclusions
Thermal Energy Storage 356
Hassan E S Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Solar Energy Storage
12 Thermal Energy Storage
13 Thermal Storage Efficiency
14 Thermal Insulation
2 Sensible Heat Storage
21 Introduction
22 Low Temperature Sensible Heat Storage
221 Storage in Liquids
23 Intermediate and High Temperature Sensible Heat Storage
231 Storage in Fluids
232 Storage in Solids
233 Storage in Fluid-Solid Media
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xviii
24 Concluding Remarks
3 Latent Heat (Phase Change) Storage
31 Introduction
32 Low Temperature Latent Heat Storage
321 Phase Change Materials
322 Storage Systems Problems
33 Intermediate and High Temperature Latent Heat Storage
34 Concluding Remarks
35 Heat of Vaporization
4 Combined Sensible and Latent Heat Storage
5 Closing Remarks
6 Some Recent Developments
61 Sensible Heat Storage
62 Latent Heat Storage
621 Heat Transfer with Thermal Energy Storage
622 Storage System Performance
623 Solar Collector Integrated with Storage System
Electrical Energy Storage 387
J Garche Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research Baden-Wuumlrttemberg Germany
A Jossen Energy Storage and Energy Conversion Division Ulm Germany
1 Introduction
2 Systems with Internal Storage
21 Demands on the Battery
22 Lead-Acid Battery
221 Electrochemical Reactions
222 Operation values
223 Types of Lead-Acid Batteries
2231 Differentiation by electrodes
2232 Batteries with positive plates protected against active mass shedding
2233 Differentiation by container technology
224 Main Problems while Operation of Lead-Acid Batteries
2241 Charging and Overdischarge
2242 Deep Discharge
2243 Sulfation
225 Other Battery Systems
2251 Nickel-Cadmium Battery
2252 New Battery Systems
3 Systems with External Storage
31 Gas-Accumulator
32 Redox-Flow-Systems
4 Storage Sizing
Tidal Energy 406
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Consideration
5 Prospects
Index 416
About EOLSS 421
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xix
VOLUME IV
Desalination Using Tidal Energy 1
Abdalla S Hanafi Cairo University Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Tides
21 Spring and Neap Tides
3 Tidal Power Plants
31 Barrage
32 Locks and Gates
33 Power House
34 Basins
35 Storage
36 Economical Considerations
37 Tidal Sites
4 Tidal Desalination Technologies
41 Tidal-Vapor Compression Desalination
42 Tidal-Reverse Osmosis
421 Overall Analysis of the Reverse Osmosis Modules
43 Tidal - Electrodialysis (ED)
431 Electrodialysis DC Power
44 Tidal Freezing-Melting (FM)
441 Freezing-Melting System Analysis
5 Economic Comparisons with Wind and Solar Energy
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
15
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
22 Humidifying with cooling and dehumidifying processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in Desalination HD Process
25 Overview on Some desalination HD projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process description
32 The condenser in the SWGH
321 Different condenser layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot plant
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xx
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot plant
522 Performances of the SWGH
53 Case Study 3 The SWGH project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Wave Energy 81
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Considerations
5 Prospects
Wind Energy 97
B Sorensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Worldwide Distribution of Wind Energy Resources
11 Physical Potential Wind Maps
12 Practical Potential for Wind Turbines
13 Restrictions due to Competing Land Use
14 Off-Shore Potential
15 Methods for Determining Local Potential Atlas Technique
16 Overall Assessment of Potential
2 Wind Turbine Technology
21 Current Status and Prospects for the Future
22 Basic Theory Wind Turbine Types and Efficiencies
23 Prospects for Further Development
24 Current Penetration of Wind Power Utilization
25 National Plans and Future Prospects
26 Plant Lifetime and Reliability
27 Impacts on Requirements for Transmission and Back-Up
28 Energy Storage and Demand Management
3 Economic Social and Environmental Impacts of Wind Energy Utilization
31 Current Cost and Cost Trends
32 Employment Generation
33 Energy Balance
34 Noise
35 Aspects of Decentralized Energy Supply
36 Life-Cycle Estimate of Externalities Including Construction and Decommissioning Impacts
4 Evaluation of Greenhouse Warming Mitigation Potential of Wind Power
41 Assessment of Marginal Life-Cycle Impacts Including Greenhouse Warming
42 Elements of Non-Marginal Analysis of Energy Systems with Large Wind Power Share
43 Relationship between Demand Development and the Valuations of Wind Energy
44 Concluding Remarks
Availability of Wind Energy and Its Estimation 139
Richard Morris Richard Morris Associates Glasgow United Kingdom
1 The Sun as the Wind Driver
2 The Nature of Wind
3 Wind Power Statistics
4 Estimating Wind Power
5 Siting for Wind Energy
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxi
The Use of Geothermal Energy in Desalination 155
BW Tleimat Water Reuse Technology Alamo California USA
ADK Laird (deceased) Professor Emeritus and Director Emeritus Sea Water Conversion Laboratory
University of California Berkeley California USA
1 Introduction
2 Historical Perspective
3 Heat Transfer from Geothermal Reservoirs
4 Geothermal Energy Utilization
5 Electricity Generation
6 Water Production from Geothermal Sources
7 Idealized Liquid-dominated Reservoirs
8 Water and Power Generation Effects of Some System Parameters
9 Multiple-effect and Multistage Distillation Processes
10 Energy-budget Management
11 Processes for Decentralized Desalination
12 Water-budget Management
13 Solids-budget Management
Solar Photovoltaic Energy Conversion 181
G Schumm Zentrum fuer Sonnenenergie und Wasserstoff-Forschung Baden Wuerttemberg Stuttgart
Germany
1 The General Photovoltaic System
2 Non-Concentrating PV Systems
3 Tracking and Concentrating PV Systems
Flat-Plate Collectors 191
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Solar Collector Applications
3 Definitions
31 Solar Collectors
311 Solar Thermal Collector
312 Flat-Plate Collector
32 Construction Elements of a Solar Collector
321 Absorber Plate or Selective Surface
322 The Transparent Cover
323 The Collector Insulation
324 The Heat Transfer Medium
33 The Surface Areas
331 The Surface Area of the Absorber Plate
332 The Transparent Cover Surface
333 Total Surface Area
34 Operational Characteristics of the Collector
341 Collector efficiency (η)
342 Thermal Capacity of the Collector (C)
343 Pressure Drop (Δp)
344 Stagnant Conditions
345 Incidence Angle Coefficient (kθ)
35 The Characteristic Parameters of the Collector
351 The cover reflectance (ρc)
353 Cover Absorptance (αc)
352 Cover Transmittance (τc)
354 Coefficient of cover Emissivity (εc)
355 Coefficient of Absorber Emissivity
356 Selective Surface
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Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxii
357 Selective Coat
358 Collector Efficiency Factor (Fprime) 359 Collector Flow Factor (FPrime) 3510 Collector Heat Removal Factor (FR)
3511 Collector Heat Loss Coefficient (UL)
4 Main Collector Components
41 The Solar Radiation Absorber
42 The Transparent Cover
43 Thermal Insulation
44 The Casing of the Collector
45 The Supporting of the Collector
5 The Solar Absorbers
51 Types of Solar Absorbers
511 Absorbers of Common Paint
512 Selective coat Absorbers
52 Forms of Absorbers and Tubes
521 General considerations
522 Sandwich Type Absorber
523 Roll Bond Tube Absorber
524 Soldered Type Absorbers
525 Absorbers with Ω Type Fins
6 Characteristics of Flat-Plate Collectors
61 General considerations
62 Installation Configuration of a Collector System
63 Orientation and Slope of the Collector
7 Dynamic Operational Characteristics of a Collector
71 The Incident Angle Coefficient
72 The Thermal Capacity of the Collector C
73 The Heat Removal Factor FR
8 The Thermal Characteristics of a Collector
81 Determination of the Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL
82 Determination of Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL for in Series Interconnection
83 Equivalent Thermal Loss between Tubes and Collector
84 The Influence of Wind Velocity
9 Shading of the Collectors
10 Basic Calculation Methods
101 Cover Reflectance
102 Cover Transmittance
103 The Transmittance-Absorptance Product
104 Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
105 Multi-Cover Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
11 The Heat Transfer Loss Coefficients
111 Loss Coefficient Uc
112 Loss Coefficient Ub
113 Loss Coefficient Us
114 The Collector Efficiency Factor Fprime 115 Collector flow factor FPrime Large Active Solar Systems Load 220
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and other Energy Systems National Centre for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Estimation of Thermal Load
21 Estimation of the Required Heat Qload
22 Estimation of the Required Heat for the Water Qw
23 Estimation of the Heat Loss in Distribution Pipes Qp
24 Estimation of Heat Loss in the Storage Tank Qt
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiii
Large Active Solar Systems Typical Economic Analysis 225
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Cost of a Solar Hot Water System
21 Initial Capital Cost
22 Operational Costs
221 Cost of Fuel
222 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
223 Cost of Maintenance
224 Cost for Loans
225 Costs for Insurance
226 Miscellaneous Expenses
3 Cost of Conventional Hot Water System
31 Operational Costs
311 Cost of Fuel
312 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
313 Cost of Maintenance
4 Inflation
5 Rate of Interest
6 Methods of Life Cycle Cost
61 General
62 Present and Future Costs
63 Yearly Instalment
64 Yearly Expenses
7 Methodology
8 Present Value Factor
9 Comparison Methodology
Integration of Solar Pond with Water Desalination 240
U Fisher J Weinberg and B Doron Ormat Industries Ltd Yavne Israel
1 Introduction
2 Historical Background
3 The Solar Pond
31 Structure
32 Heat Absorption and Storage
33 Main Demands when Building a Pond
331 Surface Area
332 Surface Water Make-up
333 Concentrated Brine Supply
34 How to Build a Solar Pond
341 Geometry or Shape
342 Lining
343 Construction Materials in the Pond
344 Initial Filling and Build-up of Gradient
35 How to Control
36 Heat Losses (Ground Diffusion Evaporation)
361 Top Losses
362 Bottom Heat Losses
37 Disturbances
371 Algae
372 Corrosion
373 Wind
38 Heat Extraction
39 Fuel Assisted Solar Ponds
310 Maintenance
3101 Clarity
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Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiv
3102 Cleaning of Wind Breakers
3103 Blow Down
3104 Make-up
3105 Leakages
311 Practical Size of a Single Pond
312 Investment in Solar Ponds
313 OampM Costs
4 Desalination Processes Coupled to the Solar Pond
41 Economic Aspects of Coupling Desalination Plants to Solar Ponds
411 Desalination Processes
412 The Choice and Proportion of Producing Heat and Power in the Solar Pond
4121 The Solar Pond Yield
4122 Desalination Plant Performance
4123 The Impact of Daily and Seasonal Fluctuations
4124 Economic Considerations and Evaluations
42 Experience with SP-Desalination Systems
43 Conclusions
Evacuated Tube Collectors 276
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Current Designs of Evacuated Tube Collectors
3 Thermal Analysis
4 Analysis of Flat Plate Evacuated Tube Collector
5 Analysis of Concentric-Tube Collector
6 Performance of Evacuated Tube Collectors
7 Case Study (Collector Field at the Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant)
71 Description of collector field
72 Performance of collector field
73 Economics
Parabolic Trough Collectors 299
Wolfgang Meinecke Deutsches Zentrum fuumlr Luft-und Raumfahrt eV (DLR German Aerospace Center)
Solar Energy Technology Division Koumlln Germany
1 Introduction
2 Brief History of Trough Development
3 State of the Art of Trough Applications
31 Conventional Thermal Water Desalination Applications
32 Solar Thermal Water Desalination Applications
33 Solar Electric Power Generation
34 Solar Process Heat Generation
35 Process Hot Water (Project Examples)
36 Process Steam (Project Examples)
37 Process Steam for Water Desalination (Project Examples)
38 Process Hot Air
4 Trough Technologies
41 LS 3 Trough Collector System
411 LS 3 Parabolic Reflector
412 Steel Support Structure
413 Absorber Element
414 Tracking System and Field Control System
415 Heat Transfer Fluid System
416 Steam Generator
417 Balance of Plant Technologies
418 Energy Storage System
42 IST Trough Collector System
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxv
421 IST Parabolic Reflector
422 Support Structure
423 Absorber Element
424 Tracking System and Field Control System
425 Heat Transfer Fluid System
426 Heat Exchanger
427 Balance of Plant Technology
428 Energy Storage
5 Prospects and Potential
51 Solar Electric Power Generation
52 Solar Process Heat Generation
53 Solar Thermal Water Desalination
6 Cost and Economic Aspects
61 Collector Investment Costs
611 LS 3 Collector Costs
612 IST Collector Costs
62 Other Economic Parameters
621 Fossil Fuel Prices
622 Solar Energy Yield
623 Solar Share
624 Plant Power Size
625 Capacity Factor
626 OampM Costs
627 Non-Technical Parameters
63 Costs of Solar Water Desalination
7 Conclusions
Index 363
About EOLSS 369
VOLUME V
Central Receivers 1
MM Elsayed Mechanical Engineering Department Kuwait University Safat Kuwait
1 Introduction
2 Heliostats Types and Design Shapes
3 Heliostat Angles
4 Heliostat Field Heliostat Layout
5 Heliostat Field Cosine Effect
6 Heliostat Field Preliminary Sizing of the Field
7 Heliostat Field Usefulness Efficiency
8 Reflected Solar Radiation
9 The Effective Sunshape
10 Principal Images and Relation between Receiver and Image Planes
11 Models to Predict the Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Image Plane
111 Incoming Ray Formulation
112 The Mirror Plane Formulation
113 Solar Disk Formulation
114 The Pinhole View
12 Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Receiver Surface Using the Separation of
VariableSuperposition Technique
121 Concept
122 Calculation of φ 123 Validation of Model Using Measurements
13 Receivers Types and Losses
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14 Preliminary Sizing of the Receiver
15 Overall System Optimization
Configuration Theoretical Analysis and Performance of Simple Solar Stills 98
A Kumar Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources Solar Energy Center New Delhi India
1 Introduction
2 Configuration of Simple Solar Stills
21 Basic Principle
22 Classification
23 Single Basin Solar Stills
24 Inclined Solar Stills
241 Basin Type Solar Stills
242 Wick Type Solar Stills
25 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
26 Solar Earth Water Stills
27 Plastic Solar Stills
271 Life Raft Solar Still
272 Circular Solar Still
273 Extruded Plastic Solar Still
274 Concentric Tube Solar Still
28 A Typical Solar Distillation Plant
3 Theoretical Analysis of Simple Solar Stills
31 Heat and Mass Transfer in Solar Stills
311 Inside the Solar Still
312 Outside the Solar Still
32 Solar Radiation Balance
321 Transmission through Top Cover
322 Absorption in the Top Cover
33 Energy Balance Equations
34 Solution Procedure
4 Performance of Solar Stills
41 Single Basin Solar Stills
42 Inclined Solar Stills
43 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
44 Solar Earth Water Stills
45 Plastic Solar Stills
46 Case Studies
461 Australia
462 Greek Islands
463 India
47 Suggested Practices for Installing Solar Stills
Development in Simple Solar Stills 169
Hassan ES Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Modified Simple (Passive) Stills
21 Basin Still
211 Single Slope versus Double Slope Basin Stills
212 Basin Still with Cover Cooling
213 Basin Still with Treated Cover Surface
214 Basin Still with Additional Condenser
215 Basin Still with Black DyeMuddy Water
22 Wick Stills
221 Single-wick Stills
222 Multi-wick Stills
223 Wick versus Basin Stills
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvii
224 Combined Wick-Basin Stills
23 Other Stills Configurations
231 Vertical Microporous Evaporator Still
232 Cascade Solar Still
233 Still Integrated with Greenhouse
3 Externally Heated (Active) Solar Stills
31 Introduction
32 Stills Coupled to a Solar Collector
321 Direct and Indirect Heating
322 Use of Dye and Cover Cooling
323 Other Solar Heaters
33 Stills Coupled with Solar Concentrator
34 The Use of Waste Heat in Solar Stills
4 Other Types of Solar Distillation Systems
41 Water Recovery from Air
Multi-Effect Solar Stills 197
HES Fath Al-Jubail 31951 Saudi Arabia
1 Why Multi Effect
2 Double Effect Basin Stills
21 Double Basins Stills
22 Double Effect Tilted Stills
23 Purging Vapor to a Second Effect
3 Multi-Effect Multi-Wick Stills
4 Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
41 Introduction
42 Mass Diffusion
43 Comparison between Diffusion and Basin Stills
44 Description of Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
45 Analysis and Performance Considerations
5 Other Distillation Systems
51 Stacked Tray Stills
52 Multi-Effect Humidification-Dehumidification
Materials for Construction of Solar Stills 218
TA Lawand and J Ayoub Brace Research Institute Canada
1 Introduction
2 General Specifications of Solar Stills
3 Transparent Cover
4 Basin Liner
5 Solar Still Frame
6 Sealants
7 Insulation
8 Auxiliaries - Piping Pumping and Reservoirs
Reverse Osmosis by Solar Energy 225
W Bucher DLR German Aerospace Research Establishment Cologne Germany
1 Introduction
2 Basic Parameters and Energy Demand for Osmosis
21 Physical Properties of Hyperfiltration
22 Energy required for the RO Process
3 Solar Power Conversion Systems
31 Solar Conversion Principles
32 Technical Data of Solar Energy Conversion Methods
33 RO Plant Operation Utilizing Variable Energy Sources
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxviii
4 Reverse Osmosis System Configuration and Operation Aspects
41 Process Design of RO Desalination Systems
42 Procedural Steps and Data for Water Treatment and Energy Consumption
43 Components of RO -Desalination
431 Membranes and Modules
432 High Pressure Pumps
433 Pressure Regulating Devices
5 Solar Powered Desalination Units
51 Specific Figures or RO Systems
52 Solar Power Concepts for RO Desalination
53 Operational Experience with Solar driven RO Systems
6 Costs
61 Specific Cost Figures for the Plant Components
62 Water Delivery Cost
Availability of Solar Radiation and Its Estimation 265
VG Belessiotis Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems National Center for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun and the Radiation Emitted
21 The Physics of the Sun
22 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
3 The Extraterrestrial Radiation
31 What is the Solar Constant
32 Variations of the Extraterrestrial Radiation
33 The Black-body Emittance and Absorptance
34 Blackbody Absorbers - Application to Desalination
4 The Co-ordinate Systems The Basic Solar Angles
41 The Earth-Sun Relationships
42 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Sky
43 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Celestial Sphere
44 Earth-Sun Geometric Relationship
45 Time and its Units - Day Length
46 Terrestrial Solar Radiation
461 Estimation of Radiation Availability
462 Average Radiation Values - Clearness Index
463 Clear Sky Radiation
464 Sky Radiation
47 Atmospheric Factors Affecting Radiation
5 Computation of Insolation at the Earths Surface
51 Insolation Data
52 Measurement of Solar Radiation
53 Models for Solar Radiation
54 Where the Models Apply
55 Tilted Surfaces - Absorptance of Solar Radiation
551 Fixed Tilted Surfaces
552 Tracking Surfaces
6 Applications of Solar Radiation
7 Impact of Solar Energy to the Environment
Economics of Small Solar-Assisted Multiple-Effect Seawater Distillation Plants 296
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Configurations
3 Design and Sizing Considerations
31 Thermal Energy Requirement
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxix
32 Pumping Requirements
33 Collector Performance
34 Sizing Thermal Collector Area
35 Sizing the PV System
351 Sizing the PV Array
4 Economic Ground Rules and Water Cost Optimization
41 Capital Equipment Cost
42 Operating Costs
43 Optimum Cost of Water for each Plant Configuration
5 Results
6 Conclusion
A Solar-Assisted Sea Water Multiple Effect Distillation Plant 15 Years of Operating
Performance (1985-1999) 316
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Basic Design Concept
21 General Plant Description
22 Design Specifications
23 Evaporator Heat Transfer Coefficient
24 Tube Dimensions Heat Transfer Areas and Materials
3 Performance during Commissioning Tests
31 The MES Evaporator
32 The Solar Collector Field
33 The Heat Accumulator
34 Total Plant Performance
4 Performance History
41 The MES Evaporator
42 The Solar Collector Field
43 The Heat Accumulator
431 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
4311 The heat balance method
4312 The direct temperature measurement method
4313 Thermal stratification ratio
44 Total Plant Performance
5 Major Maintenance Activities
51 Equipment Failure and Replacement
52 Acid Cleanings and Silt Removal from Evaporator
6 Evaluation of Water Cost
61 Capital Costs
62 Operation and Maintenance Costs
7 Conclusions
Mathematical Simulation of a Solar Desalination Plant 341
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Description
3 System Operating Conditions
31 Solar Heat Collecting Subsystem
32 Evaporator Subsystem
4 Mathematical Modeling of System Components
41 Solar radiation model
42 Ambient temperature model
43 Solar collector subsystem
431 Effect of shade on solar radiation
432 Effect of dust on transmissivity of glass tubes
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxx
433 Control of heat collecting operation
434 Heat collection by solar collectors
435 Heat loss from piping
4351 Piping specifications
4352 Standard pipe lengths
4353 Heat loss from piping during operation of heat collecting pump
4354 Heat loss from piping while the heat collecting pump is shutdown
4355 Correction of piping heat loss
44 Heat accumulator subsystem
441 Temperature distribution
442 MES evaporator subsystem
5 The Simulation Program
51 Program structure
52 Input and output data
6 Results
7 Conclusions
Index 379
About EOLSS 385
VOLUME VI
Modeling and Design of Solar Energy Systems Including Solar Economics 1
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 F-Chart Method
11 Performance and Design of Liquid-Based Solar Heating Systems
111 Storage Capacity Correction
112 Collector Flow Rate Correction
113 Load Heat Exchanger Size Correction
12 Performance and Design of Air-Based Solar Heating Systems
121 Pebble Bed Storage Size Correction
122 Air Flow Rate Correction
13 Performance and Design of Solar Service Water Systems
14 Thermosiphon Solar Water Heating Systems
15 General Remarks
2 Modeling and Simulation of Solar Energy Systems
21 Simple System Models
211 Pipe Losses
22 F-Chart Program
23 Trnsys Simulation Program
24 Limitations of Simulations
3 Solar Economic Analysis
31 Life Cycle Costing
32 Life Cycle Analysis Method
33 Payback Time
331 Not Discounted Fuel Savings
332 Discounted Fuel Savings
34 Alternative Method
341 System Optimization Using Economic Analysis
35 Uncertainties in Economic Analysis
Solar Energy Power Generation and Desalination Systems 47
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 Global Energy Problems and the Role of Renewables
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxi
11 Energy demand
12 Energy environmental problems and sustainable development
13 Water demand and consumption
14 Water and energy
15 Desalination and energy
16 Renewable energy technologies
2 Solar Collectors
21 Parabolic trough collectors
22 Fresnel collectors
23 Parabolic dish reflector
24 Heliostat field collector
3 Power Generation and Industrial Process Heat Systems
31 Parabolic trough collector systems
32 Power tower systems
33 Dish systems
34 Solar ponds
341 Heat extraction and applications
35 Industrial process heat systems
36 Solar industrial steam generation systems
4 Desalination Processes
41 Direct collection systems
42 Indirect collection systems
421 The multi-stage flash process
422 The multiple-effect distillation process
423 The vapor-compression process
424 Reverse osmosis
425 Electrodialysis
Solar Updraft Power Plant Technology Basic Concepts and Structural Design 94
Francesca Lupi University of Florence Florence Italy
Claudio Borri University of Florence Florence Italy
Wilfried B Kraumltzig Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
Hans-Juumlrgen Niemann Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
1 Solar Updraft Power Technology Introduction and Working Principles
2 History of the Solar Updraft Power Technology
21 Solar Tower Prototype in Manzanares (Spain)
3 Evaluation of Plant Efficiency
31 The Collector
32 The Chimney
33 The Turbines
34 Electric Power Generated by Supps
4 The Collector
5 Actions on Solar Updraft Towers
6 Wind Loading on Solar Updraft Towers
61 Wind Flow Structure in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer at High Altitudes
611 Boundary Layer Meteorology
612 The Ekman Spiral
613 Theoretical Considerations on the Mean Wind and Turbulence in the Ekman Layer
62 Modeling of the Wind Load on Solar Towers
621 Mean Wind Load
622 Response to Wind Turbulence
623 Fluctuating Wind Load
624 Equivalent Static Wind Pressures
625 Vortex Excitation
626 Other Effects The Effect of the Efflux
63 Wind Load on the Collector Roof
7 Structural Behavior of Solar Updraft Towers
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxii
71 Structural Elements of Solar Tower Shells
72 Some Typical Response Characteristics of Solar Tower Shells Vibration and Instability
Behavior
73 Non-Linear Tower Response
8 Structural Optimization of Solar Updraft Towers
81 The Role of the Stiffening Rings in the Structural Design of Solar Towers
82 Strategies of Optimization
9 Technology of Construction
Renewable Energy Potential in The Arab Region 162
Mohammed Mostafa El-Khayat General Manager of Planning New and Renewable Energy Authority
NREA Cairo Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Research Problem and Objectives
111 Research Problem
12 Research Objectives
2 Energy Demand
3 The Current Situation of Renewable Energy
31 Hydropower
32 Wind Energy
33 Solar Energy
34 Biomass and Geothermal Energy
4 Strategies
5 Institutional and Regulatory Framework
6 Main Policies and Incentives
7 RE Policies and Incentives Profiles
71 Algeria
72 Egypt
73 Jordan
74 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
75 Lebanon
76 Libya
77 Morocco
78 Palestine
79 Sudan
710 Syria
711 Tunisia
712 United Arab Emirates
713 Yemen
8 Financing Schemes and Investment Opportunities
9 Motivations and Barriers of Renewable Energy
10 Renewable Energy Initiatives
101 Arabian Initiatives
102 DESERTEC
11 Potential of Renewable Energy in the Region
12 The proposed mechanisms to enhance and accelerate the rate of using RE applications
13 The situation of localizing RE technologies
14 RE and climate change in Arab countries
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
198
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiii
22 Humidifying with Cooling and Dehumidifying Processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in HD Desalination Process
25 Overview on Some Desalination HD Projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process Description
32 The Condenser in the SWGH
321 Different Condenser Layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the Condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of Condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot Plant
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH Project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot Plant
522 Performances of the Pilot Plant
53 The SWGH Project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot Plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Evolution of Photovoltaic Materials for Renewable Energy Development 262
Abdelilah Slaoui InESS ndash CNRS ndash University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
Jef Poortmans IMEC Leuven Belgium
Marko Topic University of Ljubljana Faculty of Elec Eng Ljubljana Slovenia
Gavin Conibeer ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence UNSW Sydney Australia
1 General Introduction
2 Photovoltaic Materials and Technologies State of the Art
21 Crystalline Silicon
22 Thin Films
221 Amorphous Silicon
222 Nanocrystalline and Microcrystalline Silicon
223 Polycrystalline Silicon
224 Copper Indium Selenide Its alloys and Related Chalcopyrites
225 Cadmium Telluride
226 Materials for Photochemical Solar Cells
227 Materials for Organic Solar Cells
3 Next Generation Solar Cells
31 Introduction
32 Multiple energy level approaches
33 Multiple Exciton Generation solar cells
34 Intermediate Band (IB) cells
35 Hot carrier cells
4 Conclusions and Perspectives
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiv
Wind and Solar Renewable Energy Potential Resources Estimation 302
Philippe Drobinski Institut Pierre Simon LaplaceLaboratoire de Meacuteteacuteorologie Dynamique CNRSEcole
Polytechnique Palaiseau France
1 Renewable Wind and Solar Energies The Context
11 An Economical and Environmental Necessity
12 Energy Definitions and Units
2 Basic Knowledge in Geophysics for Energy Resource Evaluation
21 Earth Energy Budget and Atmospheric Motion
22 Near Surface Wind
23 Impacts of Clouds and Aerosols on Surface Solar Radiation
3 Wind Energy Resource
31 Wind Energy A Brief History
32 Wind Energy Resources Evaluation
33 Wind Energy Installed Capacity in the World
4 Solar Energy Resources
41 Solar Energy An Introduction
42 Worldwide Solar Heat
5 Methods for Wind and Solar Energy Resources Forecast
Index 353
About EOLSS 361
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) viii
Solar Photochemistry 67
Juliaacuten Blanco Gaacutelvez and Sixto Malato Rodriacuteguez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain
1 Solar Chemistry
2 Artificial Solar Photochemical Processes
3 Biological Photosynthetic Processes
4 Photochemical Synthetic Applications
41 Photooxygenation of Furfural
42 Synthesis of substituted Pyridines
43 Solar photo-production of Caprolactam
44 Photochemical synthesis of Thiohelicenes
45 Photocyclisation of substituted Benzylidenes to annulled Quinolines
46 Other solar driven photochemical processes
5 Solar Photocatalytic Processes to Water Contaminants Treatment
51 Heterogeneous titanium dioxide solar detoxification
52 Homogeneous solar photocatalytic processes
6 Gas Phase Photocatalytic Treatment Processes
7 Pilot Scale Solar Photochemical Facilities
8 Conclusions
Photochemical Conversion of Solar Energy 96
S Malato Rodriacuteguez and J Blanco Gaacutelvez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT SPAIN
1 Introduction
2 Photochemistry Principles
21 The Light
22 The Power of Light
3 The Solar Spectrum
31 Atmospheric Attenuation of Solar Radiation
32 Solar UV Photon Flux
4 Evaluation of Solar Photo Flux inside Photoreactors
41 Collector Efficiency
42 Actinometric Experiments
5 Simplified Methods for Comparing Experiments when working with Solar Radiation
51 Accumulated Energy
52 Secondary Actinometer
53 Standardized illumination time
Solar Photocatalysis and Water Treatment Detoxification and Disinfection 117
S Malato Rodriacuteguez and J Blanco Gaacutelvez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain
1 Introduction
2 Fundamental Parameters in Solar Photocatalysis
21 Direct Photolysis
22 Radiant Flux
23 Initial Concentration of Contaminant
3 Factors Affecting Solar Photocatalysis
31 Influence of Oxygen
32 Influence of Catalyst Concentration
33 Temperature Influence
34 pH Influence
4 Solar Photocatalytic Degradation of Contaminants
41 Improving Solar Photocatalysis Efficiency
42 Combining Solar Photocatalysis and Biotreatment
5 Solar Photocatalytic Disinfection of Water
51 Effect of Solar Radiation on Microorganisms
52 Microorganism Inactivation by Titanium Dioxide Photocatalysis
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) ix
Solar Photochemistry Technology 139
J Blanco Gaacutelvez and S Malato Rodriacuteguez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain
1 Introduction
2 Solar Collectors for Photochemical Processes
21 Parabolic Trough Collectors (PTCs)
22 One-Sun Collectors
23 Compound Parabolic Concentrators (CPCs)
24 Holographic Collectors
3 Peculiarities of Solar Tracking and Non-Tracking Systems
4 Technological Issues
41 Photochemical Reactor
42 Reflective Surfaces
43 Piping
44 Radiation Absorption
5 Gas-Phase Photochemical Technology
Solar Photochemistry Applications 163
J Blanco Gaacutelvez and S Malato Rodriacuteguez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain
1 Introduction
2 Solar Photocatalytic Treatment Plants
3 Cost Estimations
4 Water Phase Photocatalytic Applications
41 Phenols
42 Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
43 Pharmaceutical Compounds
44 Wood Preservative Waste
45 Agrochemical Wastes (Pesticides)
46 Seaport Tank Terminals
47 Removal of Hazardous Metal Ions
48 Cyanide degradation
49 Groundwater Decontamination
5 Water Disinfection
6 Gas-Phase Photocatalytic Applications
7 Contaminated Landfill Cleaning
Research and Environmental Issues in The 1990s 184
S Malato Rodriacuteguez and J Blanco Gaacutelvez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT SPAIN
1 Introduction
2 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of Chlorophenols
3 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of Pesticides
4 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of NBCS
5 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of Cyanide
6 Solar Photo-Fenton
61 Photo-Fenton Treatment of Pesticides
62 Photo-Fenton Treatment of Olive Mill Wastewater
7 Photoelectrochemical Reactors Development
Mathematical Models of Solar Energy Conversion Systems 205
Viorel Badescu Candida Oancea Institute Polytechnic University of Bucharest Romania
1 Introduction
2 Properties of Radiation Fluxes
21 Photons in Discrete Quantum States
22 Photons in Continuous Spectrum
23 Properties of Photon Fluxes
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) x
24 Spectral Property Radiances for Blackbodies and Band-gap Materials
3 Concentration of Solar Radiation
31 The Lagrangian of Beam Radiation
32 Upper Bounds on Solar Radiation Concentration
33 Geometrical Concentration Ratio for Several Mirrors
331 Spherical mirrors
332 Paraboloidal Mirrors
333 Cylinder Parabolic Mirrors
34 Perturbing Factors
4 Photothermal Conversion
41 Detailed Balance Models
411 The End-user Requires a Heat Flux
412 The End-user Requires Mechanical Power
42 Models Based on Spectrally Integrated Fluxes
421 The End-user Requires Heat The Flat Plate Solar Collector
422 The End-user Requires Work Solar Power Generation
423 Upper Bounds on Solar Energy Conversion Efficiency into Work
43 Discussion and Perspectives
5 Photovoltaic Conversion
51 Models Based on the Diode Equation
52 Models Based on Detailed Balance Equations
521 Radiation Received From the Environment Neglected
522 Radiation Received From the Environment Included
523 The Solar Cell Equation
53 Discussion and Perspectives
6 Photochemical Conversion
7 Conclusion
Multiple Effect Distillation of Seawater Using Solar Energy ndash The Case of Abu Dhabi Solar
Desalination Plant 256
Ali M El-Nashar International Center for Water amp Energy Systems Abu Dhabi United Arab Emirates
1 Introduction
2 History of Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant
3 Description of Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant
31 Plant Description
311 The solar heat collector subsystem
312 The heat accumulator subsystem
313 MED evaporator subsystem
32 Design Features
4 Measurements and Data Acquisition System
41 Measuring the heat collected in block F
5 Data Analysis
51 Calculating the solar radiation on absorber plate
52 Calculating the performance of the collector bank
53 Calculating the performance of the evaporator
531 Calculating the brine concentration at each effect
532 OHTC of heater (first effect)
533 Average OHTC of other evaporator effects
534 Average OHTC of preheaters
535 OHTC of condenser
536 Evaporator economy
6 Weather Condition in Abu Dhabi
7 Operating Characteristics
71 Heat collecting subsystem
711 Heat collector efficiency
712 Daily heat collection efficiency
72 Heat accumulator system
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xi
721 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
722 Thermal stratification ratio
73 Evaporating system
731 Evaporator performance
74 Performance of the plant
8 Plant Maintenance and Modifications
81 Heat collecting system
811 Cleaning the solar collector field
812 Corrosion of the collector air vent valves
813 Vacuum loss inside glass tubes
814 Scale prevention
815 Anti-corrosion chemical for use in the heat collecting water
816 Measures against power failure
82 Evaporating system
821 Evaporator pump maintenance
822 Inspection of the evaporator
823 Change in operating sequence
825 Modification of the method of feeding sealing water to the priming vacuum pump
824 Modification of the system for injecting anti-scale chemical
9 Simulation Program and its Validation
91 Simulation program
911 Outline
912 Flow chart of the SOLDES program
913 Program Input and output data
914 Mathematical Models
92 Comparison of simulation and actually measured Values
10 Evaluation of the Test Plant
101 Optimum operating conditions
102 Simulation results
103 Evaluation of the solar plant
11 Economic Considerations and Comparison with Conventional MED Plants
111 Basic economic parameters
112 Capital equipment cost
1121 Capital cost of MED evaporator
1122 Capital cost of solar thermal collectors
1123 Capital cost of heat accumulator
1124 Capital cost of steam generator for conventional MED systems
1125 Capital cost of diesel generator
113 Operation and maintenance expenses
1131 Consumable chemical expenses
1132 Electrical energy consumption
1133 Spare parts cost
1134 Personnel cost
114 Estimating the cost of water produced
12 Results of the Economic Study
13 Conclusion
131 System Reliability
132 Response to varying weather condition
133 Establishment of a method for cleaning of solar collectors
134 Comparison of the test plant results with that of the basic design
Index 335
About EOLSS 341
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xii
VOLUME III
Solar Irradiation Fundamentals 1
Zekacirci Sen Istanbul Technical University Maslak 34469 Istanbul Turkey
1 Introduction
2 The Sun
3 Atmospheric effects and Electro-magnetic Radiation (EMR) spectrum
4 Astronomic effects
5 Meteorological effects
51 Cloud Index
6 Topographic effects
7 Solar parameters
71 Solar geometry quantities
711 Earth eccentricity
712 Declination angle
713 Zenith angle
72 Solar time quantities
721 Solar time
722 Equation of time
723 Apparent solar time (AST)
73 Solar irradiation quantities
731 Solar constant
732 Irradiation path
8 Solar radiation modeling
81 Solar energy laws
82 Solar irradiation calculation
83 Estimation of clear sky radiation
84 Irradiation model
9 Astronomic calculations
91 The Daily Solar Profile
92 Daily solar energy on horizontal surface
93 Solar energy on inclined surface
10 Solar-Hydrogen Energy
11 Conclusions
Direct Solar Energy 67
S C Bhattacharya and S Kumar Energy Program Asian Institute of Technology Pathumthani
Thailand
1 Introduction
11 A Brief History of Energy
12 Origin of Solar Energy
13 Solar Thermal Energy
14 Photovoltaics (PV)
15 The Future of Solar Energy
2 Solar Radiation
21 Sun and Earth
22 Solar Radiation Estimation
3 Solar Thermal Conversion
31 Solar Collectors
311 Flat Plate Collectors
312 Concentrating Collectors
313 Evacuated Type Collectors
314 Selective Surfaces
32 Solar Water Heating
321 Introduction
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xiii
322 Natural Circulation Systems
323 Forced Circulation Systems
324 Materials Used in Solar Water Heaters
325 Advantages and Disadvantages
33 Solar Space Heating
331 Active Systems
332 Passive Systems
333 Solar District Heating
34 Solar Thermal Power Generation
341 Introduction
342 Parabolic Trough Systems
343 Power Towers
344 Parabolic Dish
35 Solar Drying
351 Introduction
352 Types of Solar Drier
353 Advantages of Solar Drying
4 Solar Photovoltaic Conversion
41 Solar Cells and Modules
42 Other Components of PV Systems
43 PV Applications
5 Other Solar Technologies
51 Solar Photochemical Conversion
52 Space Solar Power
521 Introduction
522 The SSP Concept
523 Promise and Problems
524 Future Prospects
6 Solar Energy Storage
61 Solar Thermal Energy Storage
611 Sensible Heat Storage
612 Latent Heat Storage
613 Chemical Energy Storage
614 Solar Electrical Energy Storage
7 Environmental Impacts of Solar Energy
71 General Impacts
72 Solar Thermal Systems
73 PV Systems
74 Health and Environmental Aspects
75 Energy Payback and CO2 Abatement
76 Other implications
761 Batteries
762 Operation and Decommissioning
8 The Way Forward
81 General
82 Solar Thermal Systems
83 PV Systems
9 Concluding Remarks
Solar Drying - A Technology for Sustainable Agriculture and Food Production 112
RJ Fuller Principal Fellow IDTC Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of
Melbourne Australia
1 Introduction
2 Drying Fundamentals
3 Sun vs Solar Drying
4 Types of Solar Dryer
41 Direct Mode
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xiv
42 Indirect Mode
43 Mixed Mode
44 Further Classifications
441 Natural Convection
442 Forced Convection
45 Other Differences
451 Supplementary Energy
452 Air Flow Direction
453 Heat Transfer Fluid
454 Thermal Storage
5 Solar Dryers in Practice
51 Direct mode natural convection dryers
52 Direct Mode Forced Convection Dryers
53 Indirect Mode Forced Convection Dryers
6 Performance Evaluation of Solar Dryers
61 Overall System Drying Efficiency
62 Pick-up Efficiency
63 Solar Collection Efficiency
64 Performance of Solar Dryers
65 Comparative Testing
7 Designing Solar Drying Systems
71 Rules-of-Thumb
72 Sizing Equations
73 Chart Methods
74 Simulation Techniques
8 Non-technical Factors
81 Economics
82 Practical Issues
83 Technology Transfer
84 Developing Country Issues
85 Industrialized Country Issues
9 Prospects and Future Developments
91 Technical Developments
92 Costs
93 Design
94 External Factors
10 Conclusions
A Short Historical Review of Renewable Energy 136
E Delyannis NCSR Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems ldquoDemokritosrdquo Aghia Paraskevi
Greece
A El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority (WEA) Abu-Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
11 The History of Renewable Energy Achievements
12 The Set-up of this Historical Review
2 The Renewable Energies in the Antiquity
21 From Legends to the First Written Documents
3 The Power of the Sun
31 The Dawn of the History
32 The Capture of the Suns Radiation
321 Antiquity to Middle Age The Philosophers
322 Renaissance to the 20th Century The Founders
323 The 20th Century The Engineers
324 The Present Times The Technologists
4 The Development of the Solar Distillation
41 From Philosophy to Practice
42 The First Large Applications
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xv
43 The Last 50 Years
5 Solar Driven Desalination
51 General Considerations
52 The Solar Driven Distillation Plants
53 Freezing Plants
54 Electrodialysis Plants
55 Solar Powered Reverse Osmosis Plants
6 The Energy of the Mother Gaia
7 The Power of Aeolos
71 The Aeolian Gods
72 The Harvest of the Winds Energy
73 The Raise and the Fall of Windmills
74 Wind Turbine Generation
8 The Power of the Moving Water
81 Hydraulic Power
9 The Impulsive Power of Poseidon
91 The Power of the Waves
92 The Tides and their Energy
93 The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) System
Renewable Energy Resources 186
V Belessiotis and E Delyannis NCSR Demokritos Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems
Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun as an Energy Source
21 The Availability of Solar Energy
22 Application of Solar Energy to Desalination
3 The Geothermal Energy
31 Introduction
32 The Geothermal Resources System
321 Hydrothermal Reservoirs
322 The Geopressurized Reservoirs
323 The Hot Dry Rocks
33 The Available Resources
34 The Geographic Distribution of Reservoirs
35 The Geothermal Brines
36 Application of Geothermal Resources
4 The Hydraulic Energy
41 Introduction
42 The Available Hydropower Resources
43 Limit of Hydropower Output
5 Wind Energy Resources
51 The Origin of Wind
52 The Distribution of Wind Forces
53 Wind Speed Distribution
54 The Utilization of the Wind Energy
6 Biomass as an Energy Source
61 Introduction
62 The Origin of Biomass
63 The Alternate Biomass Products
64 Biomass Residues
641 The Crop Residues
642 Fuel Wood
643 Sugar Crops
644 Livestock Manure
65 Refuse and Municipal Sewage
66 Plantation Biomass
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xvi
7 Thermal Energy from Biomass
71 Introduction
72 The Energy Conversion Methods
73 Environmental Impacts of Biomass Energy Sources
8 The Ocean Systems Energy Resources
81 Introduction
82 The Energy of the Waves
821 The Origin of the Waves
822 Distribution of Wave Resources
83 The Tidal Power as Energy Source
831 The Generation of Tides
832 The Tidal Potential
84 The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) Source
841 The Trapping of the OTEC Energy
Desalination with Renewable Energy - A Review 227
Ali M El-Nashar 22 Ahmed Gharbo St Apt 703 Zizinia Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Commercial Desalination Processes and Their Energy Consumption
21 Description of the Commercial Desalination Processes
211 Distillation Processes
212 Membrane Processes
22 Technical and Economic Characteristics of Commercial Desalination Processes
3 Available Renewable Energy Sources
31 Solar Energy
32 Wind Energy
33 Geothermal Energy
34 Other Renewable Energy Sources
4 Devices for Transforming Renewable Energy into Useful Energy for Desalination
41 Solar Collectors
42 Solar Ponds
43 Photovoltaic Cells
44 Wind Turbines
5 Coupling of Desalination Processes and Renewable Energy
51 Direct and Indirect Coupling of Solar Energy and Desalination
511 Direct coupling (Solar still technology)
512 Indirect Coupling
52 Desalination Systems Driven by Solar Thermal Energy
521 Solar Thermal Collectors-MSF Desalination
522 Solar Thermal Collectors-MED Desalination
53 Desalination Systems Driven by Wind Energy
531 Wind-MVC Systems
532 Wind-RO Systems
54 Desalination Systems Driven by Solar Photovoltaics (PV)
55 Hybrid Desalination Systems
6 Current Status
7 Selection Criteria among Different RE Desalination Technologies
8 Performance of Selected RE Desalination Projects
81 Solar Stills
82 Wind-Energy Driven RO Desalination Technology
83 PV-Powered Seawater RO System
84 Abu Dhabi Solar MED Desalination Plant
9 Economics of RE Desalination
91 Financial Analysis
92 Cost of Water from RES Desalination Plants
10 Conclusion
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xvii
Renewable Energy and Desalination Systems 301
Asghar Husain International Center for Water and Energy Systems (ICWES) Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
11 Need for Desalination
2 What Is Sustainability
3 Review of Desalination Technologies
31 Thermal-Based Processes
32 Membrane ndash Based Technologies
33 Renewable Energies
4 Desalination Using Solar Energy
41 Direct Utilization of Solar Radiation in the Solar Still
42 Solar Collectors
43 Solar Concentrating System
44 Solar Ponds
45 Photovoltaic Cells
46 Storage of Solar Energy
5 Desalination Using Other Renewable Energies
51 Wind Energy
52 Geothermal Energy
53 Wave Energy
54 Tidal Energy
55 Ocean Temperature Difference or Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
56 Hydraulic Energy
57 Biomass as Energy Source
6 Concluding Remarks
Why Use Renewable Energy for Desalination 342
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 The Need of Desalination for Economic Development in Remote Arid Areas
3 The Need of Energy for Desalination
4 The Availability of Renewable Energy
5 The Economic and Social Benefits of Using Renewable Energy for Desalination
6 Examples of Arid Remote Regions where Renewable Energy for Desalination can have a High
Economic Potential
61 The Southern and Eastern Mediterranean Regions
62 The Mediterranean Islands
63 The Arab Gulf Region
7 Conclusions
Thermal Energy Storage 356
Hassan E S Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Solar Energy Storage
12 Thermal Energy Storage
13 Thermal Storage Efficiency
14 Thermal Insulation
2 Sensible Heat Storage
21 Introduction
22 Low Temperature Sensible Heat Storage
221 Storage in Liquids
23 Intermediate and High Temperature Sensible Heat Storage
231 Storage in Fluids
232 Storage in Solids
233 Storage in Fluid-Solid Media
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xviii
24 Concluding Remarks
3 Latent Heat (Phase Change) Storage
31 Introduction
32 Low Temperature Latent Heat Storage
321 Phase Change Materials
322 Storage Systems Problems
33 Intermediate and High Temperature Latent Heat Storage
34 Concluding Remarks
35 Heat of Vaporization
4 Combined Sensible and Latent Heat Storage
5 Closing Remarks
6 Some Recent Developments
61 Sensible Heat Storage
62 Latent Heat Storage
621 Heat Transfer with Thermal Energy Storage
622 Storage System Performance
623 Solar Collector Integrated with Storage System
Electrical Energy Storage 387
J Garche Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research Baden-Wuumlrttemberg Germany
A Jossen Energy Storage and Energy Conversion Division Ulm Germany
1 Introduction
2 Systems with Internal Storage
21 Demands on the Battery
22 Lead-Acid Battery
221 Electrochemical Reactions
222 Operation values
223 Types of Lead-Acid Batteries
2231 Differentiation by electrodes
2232 Batteries with positive plates protected against active mass shedding
2233 Differentiation by container technology
224 Main Problems while Operation of Lead-Acid Batteries
2241 Charging and Overdischarge
2242 Deep Discharge
2243 Sulfation
225 Other Battery Systems
2251 Nickel-Cadmium Battery
2252 New Battery Systems
3 Systems with External Storage
31 Gas-Accumulator
32 Redox-Flow-Systems
4 Storage Sizing
Tidal Energy 406
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Consideration
5 Prospects
Index 416
About EOLSS 421
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xix
VOLUME IV
Desalination Using Tidal Energy 1
Abdalla S Hanafi Cairo University Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Tides
21 Spring and Neap Tides
3 Tidal Power Plants
31 Barrage
32 Locks and Gates
33 Power House
34 Basins
35 Storage
36 Economical Considerations
37 Tidal Sites
4 Tidal Desalination Technologies
41 Tidal-Vapor Compression Desalination
42 Tidal-Reverse Osmosis
421 Overall Analysis of the Reverse Osmosis Modules
43 Tidal - Electrodialysis (ED)
431 Electrodialysis DC Power
44 Tidal Freezing-Melting (FM)
441 Freezing-Melting System Analysis
5 Economic Comparisons with Wind and Solar Energy
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
15
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
22 Humidifying with cooling and dehumidifying processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in Desalination HD Process
25 Overview on Some desalination HD projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process description
32 The condenser in the SWGH
321 Different condenser layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot plant
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xx
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot plant
522 Performances of the SWGH
53 Case Study 3 The SWGH project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Wave Energy 81
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Considerations
5 Prospects
Wind Energy 97
B Sorensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Worldwide Distribution of Wind Energy Resources
11 Physical Potential Wind Maps
12 Practical Potential for Wind Turbines
13 Restrictions due to Competing Land Use
14 Off-Shore Potential
15 Methods for Determining Local Potential Atlas Technique
16 Overall Assessment of Potential
2 Wind Turbine Technology
21 Current Status and Prospects for the Future
22 Basic Theory Wind Turbine Types and Efficiencies
23 Prospects for Further Development
24 Current Penetration of Wind Power Utilization
25 National Plans and Future Prospects
26 Plant Lifetime and Reliability
27 Impacts on Requirements for Transmission and Back-Up
28 Energy Storage and Demand Management
3 Economic Social and Environmental Impacts of Wind Energy Utilization
31 Current Cost and Cost Trends
32 Employment Generation
33 Energy Balance
34 Noise
35 Aspects of Decentralized Energy Supply
36 Life-Cycle Estimate of Externalities Including Construction and Decommissioning Impacts
4 Evaluation of Greenhouse Warming Mitigation Potential of Wind Power
41 Assessment of Marginal Life-Cycle Impacts Including Greenhouse Warming
42 Elements of Non-Marginal Analysis of Energy Systems with Large Wind Power Share
43 Relationship between Demand Development and the Valuations of Wind Energy
44 Concluding Remarks
Availability of Wind Energy and Its Estimation 139
Richard Morris Richard Morris Associates Glasgow United Kingdom
1 The Sun as the Wind Driver
2 The Nature of Wind
3 Wind Power Statistics
4 Estimating Wind Power
5 Siting for Wind Energy
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxi
The Use of Geothermal Energy in Desalination 155
BW Tleimat Water Reuse Technology Alamo California USA
ADK Laird (deceased) Professor Emeritus and Director Emeritus Sea Water Conversion Laboratory
University of California Berkeley California USA
1 Introduction
2 Historical Perspective
3 Heat Transfer from Geothermal Reservoirs
4 Geothermal Energy Utilization
5 Electricity Generation
6 Water Production from Geothermal Sources
7 Idealized Liquid-dominated Reservoirs
8 Water and Power Generation Effects of Some System Parameters
9 Multiple-effect and Multistage Distillation Processes
10 Energy-budget Management
11 Processes for Decentralized Desalination
12 Water-budget Management
13 Solids-budget Management
Solar Photovoltaic Energy Conversion 181
G Schumm Zentrum fuer Sonnenenergie und Wasserstoff-Forschung Baden Wuerttemberg Stuttgart
Germany
1 The General Photovoltaic System
2 Non-Concentrating PV Systems
3 Tracking and Concentrating PV Systems
Flat-Plate Collectors 191
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Solar Collector Applications
3 Definitions
31 Solar Collectors
311 Solar Thermal Collector
312 Flat-Plate Collector
32 Construction Elements of a Solar Collector
321 Absorber Plate or Selective Surface
322 The Transparent Cover
323 The Collector Insulation
324 The Heat Transfer Medium
33 The Surface Areas
331 The Surface Area of the Absorber Plate
332 The Transparent Cover Surface
333 Total Surface Area
34 Operational Characteristics of the Collector
341 Collector efficiency (η)
342 Thermal Capacity of the Collector (C)
343 Pressure Drop (Δp)
344 Stagnant Conditions
345 Incidence Angle Coefficient (kθ)
35 The Characteristic Parameters of the Collector
351 The cover reflectance (ρc)
353 Cover Absorptance (αc)
352 Cover Transmittance (τc)
354 Coefficient of cover Emissivity (εc)
355 Coefficient of Absorber Emissivity
356 Selective Surface
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxii
357 Selective Coat
358 Collector Efficiency Factor (Fprime) 359 Collector Flow Factor (FPrime) 3510 Collector Heat Removal Factor (FR)
3511 Collector Heat Loss Coefficient (UL)
4 Main Collector Components
41 The Solar Radiation Absorber
42 The Transparent Cover
43 Thermal Insulation
44 The Casing of the Collector
45 The Supporting of the Collector
5 The Solar Absorbers
51 Types of Solar Absorbers
511 Absorbers of Common Paint
512 Selective coat Absorbers
52 Forms of Absorbers and Tubes
521 General considerations
522 Sandwich Type Absorber
523 Roll Bond Tube Absorber
524 Soldered Type Absorbers
525 Absorbers with Ω Type Fins
6 Characteristics of Flat-Plate Collectors
61 General considerations
62 Installation Configuration of a Collector System
63 Orientation and Slope of the Collector
7 Dynamic Operational Characteristics of a Collector
71 The Incident Angle Coefficient
72 The Thermal Capacity of the Collector C
73 The Heat Removal Factor FR
8 The Thermal Characteristics of a Collector
81 Determination of the Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL
82 Determination of Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL for in Series Interconnection
83 Equivalent Thermal Loss between Tubes and Collector
84 The Influence of Wind Velocity
9 Shading of the Collectors
10 Basic Calculation Methods
101 Cover Reflectance
102 Cover Transmittance
103 The Transmittance-Absorptance Product
104 Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
105 Multi-Cover Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
11 The Heat Transfer Loss Coefficients
111 Loss Coefficient Uc
112 Loss Coefficient Ub
113 Loss Coefficient Us
114 The Collector Efficiency Factor Fprime 115 Collector flow factor FPrime Large Active Solar Systems Load 220
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and other Energy Systems National Centre for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Estimation of Thermal Load
21 Estimation of the Required Heat Qload
22 Estimation of the Required Heat for the Water Qw
23 Estimation of the Heat Loss in Distribution Pipes Qp
24 Estimation of Heat Loss in the Storage Tank Qt
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiii
Large Active Solar Systems Typical Economic Analysis 225
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Cost of a Solar Hot Water System
21 Initial Capital Cost
22 Operational Costs
221 Cost of Fuel
222 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
223 Cost of Maintenance
224 Cost for Loans
225 Costs for Insurance
226 Miscellaneous Expenses
3 Cost of Conventional Hot Water System
31 Operational Costs
311 Cost of Fuel
312 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
313 Cost of Maintenance
4 Inflation
5 Rate of Interest
6 Methods of Life Cycle Cost
61 General
62 Present and Future Costs
63 Yearly Instalment
64 Yearly Expenses
7 Methodology
8 Present Value Factor
9 Comparison Methodology
Integration of Solar Pond with Water Desalination 240
U Fisher J Weinberg and B Doron Ormat Industries Ltd Yavne Israel
1 Introduction
2 Historical Background
3 The Solar Pond
31 Structure
32 Heat Absorption and Storage
33 Main Demands when Building a Pond
331 Surface Area
332 Surface Water Make-up
333 Concentrated Brine Supply
34 How to Build a Solar Pond
341 Geometry or Shape
342 Lining
343 Construction Materials in the Pond
344 Initial Filling and Build-up of Gradient
35 How to Control
36 Heat Losses (Ground Diffusion Evaporation)
361 Top Losses
362 Bottom Heat Losses
37 Disturbances
371 Algae
372 Corrosion
373 Wind
38 Heat Extraction
39 Fuel Assisted Solar Ponds
310 Maintenance
3101 Clarity
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiv
3102 Cleaning of Wind Breakers
3103 Blow Down
3104 Make-up
3105 Leakages
311 Practical Size of a Single Pond
312 Investment in Solar Ponds
313 OampM Costs
4 Desalination Processes Coupled to the Solar Pond
41 Economic Aspects of Coupling Desalination Plants to Solar Ponds
411 Desalination Processes
412 The Choice and Proportion of Producing Heat and Power in the Solar Pond
4121 The Solar Pond Yield
4122 Desalination Plant Performance
4123 The Impact of Daily and Seasonal Fluctuations
4124 Economic Considerations and Evaluations
42 Experience with SP-Desalination Systems
43 Conclusions
Evacuated Tube Collectors 276
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Current Designs of Evacuated Tube Collectors
3 Thermal Analysis
4 Analysis of Flat Plate Evacuated Tube Collector
5 Analysis of Concentric-Tube Collector
6 Performance of Evacuated Tube Collectors
7 Case Study (Collector Field at the Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant)
71 Description of collector field
72 Performance of collector field
73 Economics
Parabolic Trough Collectors 299
Wolfgang Meinecke Deutsches Zentrum fuumlr Luft-und Raumfahrt eV (DLR German Aerospace Center)
Solar Energy Technology Division Koumlln Germany
1 Introduction
2 Brief History of Trough Development
3 State of the Art of Trough Applications
31 Conventional Thermal Water Desalination Applications
32 Solar Thermal Water Desalination Applications
33 Solar Electric Power Generation
34 Solar Process Heat Generation
35 Process Hot Water (Project Examples)
36 Process Steam (Project Examples)
37 Process Steam for Water Desalination (Project Examples)
38 Process Hot Air
4 Trough Technologies
41 LS 3 Trough Collector System
411 LS 3 Parabolic Reflector
412 Steel Support Structure
413 Absorber Element
414 Tracking System and Field Control System
415 Heat Transfer Fluid System
416 Steam Generator
417 Balance of Plant Technologies
418 Energy Storage System
42 IST Trough Collector System
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxv
421 IST Parabolic Reflector
422 Support Structure
423 Absorber Element
424 Tracking System and Field Control System
425 Heat Transfer Fluid System
426 Heat Exchanger
427 Balance of Plant Technology
428 Energy Storage
5 Prospects and Potential
51 Solar Electric Power Generation
52 Solar Process Heat Generation
53 Solar Thermal Water Desalination
6 Cost and Economic Aspects
61 Collector Investment Costs
611 LS 3 Collector Costs
612 IST Collector Costs
62 Other Economic Parameters
621 Fossil Fuel Prices
622 Solar Energy Yield
623 Solar Share
624 Plant Power Size
625 Capacity Factor
626 OampM Costs
627 Non-Technical Parameters
63 Costs of Solar Water Desalination
7 Conclusions
Index 363
About EOLSS 369
VOLUME V
Central Receivers 1
MM Elsayed Mechanical Engineering Department Kuwait University Safat Kuwait
1 Introduction
2 Heliostats Types and Design Shapes
3 Heliostat Angles
4 Heliostat Field Heliostat Layout
5 Heliostat Field Cosine Effect
6 Heliostat Field Preliminary Sizing of the Field
7 Heliostat Field Usefulness Efficiency
8 Reflected Solar Radiation
9 The Effective Sunshape
10 Principal Images and Relation between Receiver and Image Planes
11 Models to Predict the Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Image Plane
111 Incoming Ray Formulation
112 The Mirror Plane Formulation
113 Solar Disk Formulation
114 The Pinhole View
12 Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Receiver Surface Using the Separation of
VariableSuperposition Technique
121 Concept
122 Calculation of φ 123 Validation of Model Using Measurements
13 Receivers Types and Losses
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvi
14 Preliminary Sizing of the Receiver
15 Overall System Optimization
Configuration Theoretical Analysis and Performance of Simple Solar Stills 98
A Kumar Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources Solar Energy Center New Delhi India
1 Introduction
2 Configuration of Simple Solar Stills
21 Basic Principle
22 Classification
23 Single Basin Solar Stills
24 Inclined Solar Stills
241 Basin Type Solar Stills
242 Wick Type Solar Stills
25 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
26 Solar Earth Water Stills
27 Plastic Solar Stills
271 Life Raft Solar Still
272 Circular Solar Still
273 Extruded Plastic Solar Still
274 Concentric Tube Solar Still
28 A Typical Solar Distillation Plant
3 Theoretical Analysis of Simple Solar Stills
31 Heat and Mass Transfer in Solar Stills
311 Inside the Solar Still
312 Outside the Solar Still
32 Solar Radiation Balance
321 Transmission through Top Cover
322 Absorption in the Top Cover
33 Energy Balance Equations
34 Solution Procedure
4 Performance of Solar Stills
41 Single Basin Solar Stills
42 Inclined Solar Stills
43 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
44 Solar Earth Water Stills
45 Plastic Solar Stills
46 Case Studies
461 Australia
462 Greek Islands
463 India
47 Suggested Practices for Installing Solar Stills
Development in Simple Solar Stills 169
Hassan ES Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Modified Simple (Passive) Stills
21 Basin Still
211 Single Slope versus Double Slope Basin Stills
212 Basin Still with Cover Cooling
213 Basin Still with Treated Cover Surface
214 Basin Still with Additional Condenser
215 Basin Still with Black DyeMuddy Water
22 Wick Stills
221 Single-wick Stills
222 Multi-wick Stills
223 Wick versus Basin Stills
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvii
224 Combined Wick-Basin Stills
23 Other Stills Configurations
231 Vertical Microporous Evaporator Still
232 Cascade Solar Still
233 Still Integrated with Greenhouse
3 Externally Heated (Active) Solar Stills
31 Introduction
32 Stills Coupled to a Solar Collector
321 Direct and Indirect Heating
322 Use of Dye and Cover Cooling
323 Other Solar Heaters
33 Stills Coupled with Solar Concentrator
34 The Use of Waste Heat in Solar Stills
4 Other Types of Solar Distillation Systems
41 Water Recovery from Air
Multi-Effect Solar Stills 197
HES Fath Al-Jubail 31951 Saudi Arabia
1 Why Multi Effect
2 Double Effect Basin Stills
21 Double Basins Stills
22 Double Effect Tilted Stills
23 Purging Vapor to a Second Effect
3 Multi-Effect Multi-Wick Stills
4 Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
41 Introduction
42 Mass Diffusion
43 Comparison between Diffusion and Basin Stills
44 Description of Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
45 Analysis and Performance Considerations
5 Other Distillation Systems
51 Stacked Tray Stills
52 Multi-Effect Humidification-Dehumidification
Materials for Construction of Solar Stills 218
TA Lawand and J Ayoub Brace Research Institute Canada
1 Introduction
2 General Specifications of Solar Stills
3 Transparent Cover
4 Basin Liner
5 Solar Still Frame
6 Sealants
7 Insulation
8 Auxiliaries - Piping Pumping and Reservoirs
Reverse Osmosis by Solar Energy 225
W Bucher DLR German Aerospace Research Establishment Cologne Germany
1 Introduction
2 Basic Parameters and Energy Demand for Osmosis
21 Physical Properties of Hyperfiltration
22 Energy required for the RO Process
3 Solar Power Conversion Systems
31 Solar Conversion Principles
32 Technical Data of Solar Energy Conversion Methods
33 RO Plant Operation Utilizing Variable Energy Sources
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxviii
4 Reverse Osmosis System Configuration and Operation Aspects
41 Process Design of RO Desalination Systems
42 Procedural Steps and Data for Water Treatment and Energy Consumption
43 Components of RO -Desalination
431 Membranes and Modules
432 High Pressure Pumps
433 Pressure Regulating Devices
5 Solar Powered Desalination Units
51 Specific Figures or RO Systems
52 Solar Power Concepts for RO Desalination
53 Operational Experience with Solar driven RO Systems
6 Costs
61 Specific Cost Figures for the Plant Components
62 Water Delivery Cost
Availability of Solar Radiation and Its Estimation 265
VG Belessiotis Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems National Center for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun and the Radiation Emitted
21 The Physics of the Sun
22 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
3 The Extraterrestrial Radiation
31 What is the Solar Constant
32 Variations of the Extraterrestrial Radiation
33 The Black-body Emittance and Absorptance
34 Blackbody Absorbers - Application to Desalination
4 The Co-ordinate Systems The Basic Solar Angles
41 The Earth-Sun Relationships
42 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Sky
43 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Celestial Sphere
44 Earth-Sun Geometric Relationship
45 Time and its Units - Day Length
46 Terrestrial Solar Radiation
461 Estimation of Radiation Availability
462 Average Radiation Values - Clearness Index
463 Clear Sky Radiation
464 Sky Radiation
47 Atmospheric Factors Affecting Radiation
5 Computation of Insolation at the Earths Surface
51 Insolation Data
52 Measurement of Solar Radiation
53 Models for Solar Radiation
54 Where the Models Apply
55 Tilted Surfaces - Absorptance of Solar Radiation
551 Fixed Tilted Surfaces
552 Tracking Surfaces
6 Applications of Solar Radiation
7 Impact of Solar Energy to the Environment
Economics of Small Solar-Assisted Multiple-Effect Seawater Distillation Plants 296
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Configurations
3 Design and Sizing Considerations
31 Thermal Energy Requirement
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxix
32 Pumping Requirements
33 Collector Performance
34 Sizing Thermal Collector Area
35 Sizing the PV System
351 Sizing the PV Array
4 Economic Ground Rules and Water Cost Optimization
41 Capital Equipment Cost
42 Operating Costs
43 Optimum Cost of Water for each Plant Configuration
5 Results
6 Conclusion
A Solar-Assisted Sea Water Multiple Effect Distillation Plant 15 Years of Operating
Performance (1985-1999) 316
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Basic Design Concept
21 General Plant Description
22 Design Specifications
23 Evaporator Heat Transfer Coefficient
24 Tube Dimensions Heat Transfer Areas and Materials
3 Performance during Commissioning Tests
31 The MES Evaporator
32 The Solar Collector Field
33 The Heat Accumulator
34 Total Plant Performance
4 Performance History
41 The MES Evaporator
42 The Solar Collector Field
43 The Heat Accumulator
431 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
4311 The heat balance method
4312 The direct temperature measurement method
4313 Thermal stratification ratio
44 Total Plant Performance
5 Major Maintenance Activities
51 Equipment Failure and Replacement
52 Acid Cleanings and Silt Removal from Evaporator
6 Evaluation of Water Cost
61 Capital Costs
62 Operation and Maintenance Costs
7 Conclusions
Mathematical Simulation of a Solar Desalination Plant 341
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Description
3 System Operating Conditions
31 Solar Heat Collecting Subsystem
32 Evaporator Subsystem
4 Mathematical Modeling of System Components
41 Solar radiation model
42 Ambient temperature model
43 Solar collector subsystem
431 Effect of shade on solar radiation
432 Effect of dust on transmissivity of glass tubes
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxx
433 Control of heat collecting operation
434 Heat collection by solar collectors
435 Heat loss from piping
4351 Piping specifications
4352 Standard pipe lengths
4353 Heat loss from piping during operation of heat collecting pump
4354 Heat loss from piping while the heat collecting pump is shutdown
4355 Correction of piping heat loss
44 Heat accumulator subsystem
441 Temperature distribution
442 MES evaporator subsystem
5 The Simulation Program
51 Program structure
52 Input and output data
6 Results
7 Conclusions
Index 379
About EOLSS 385
VOLUME VI
Modeling and Design of Solar Energy Systems Including Solar Economics 1
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 F-Chart Method
11 Performance and Design of Liquid-Based Solar Heating Systems
111 Storage Capacity Correction
112 Collector Flow Rate Correction
113 Load Heat Exchanger Size Correction
12 Performance and Design of Air-Based Solar Heating Systems
121 Pebble Bed Storage Size Correction
122 Air Flow Rate Correction
13 Performance and Design of Solar Service Water Systems
14 Thermosiphon Solar Water Heating Systems
15 General Remarks
2 Modeling and Simulation of Solar Energy Systems
21 Simple System Models
211 Pipe Losses
22 F-Chart Program
23 Trnsys Simulation Program
24 Limitations of Simulations
3 Solar Economic Analysis
31 Life Cycle Costing
32 Life Cycle Analysis Method
33 Payback Time
331 Not Discounted Fuel Savings
332 Discounted Fuel Savings
34 Alternative Method
341 System Optimization Using Economic Analysis
35 Uncertainties in Economic Analysis
Solar Energy Power Generation and Desalination Systems 47
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 Global Energy Problems and the Role of Renewables
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxi
11 Energy demand
12 Energy environmental problems and sustainable development
13 Water demand and consumption
14 Water and energy
15 Desalination and energy
16 Renewable energy technologies
2 Solar Collectors
21 Parabolic trough collectors
22 Fresnel collectors
23 Parabolic dish reflector
24 Heliostat field collector
3 Power Generation and Industrial Process Heat Systems
31 Parabolic trough collector systems
32 Power tower systems
33 Dish systems
34 Solar ponds
341 Heat extraction and applications
35 Industrial process heat systems
36 Solar industrial steam generation systems
4 Desalination Processes
41 Direct collection systems
42 Indirect collection systems
421 The multi-stage flash process
422 The multiple-effect distillation process
423 The vapor-compression process
424 Reverse osmosis
425 Electrodialysis
Solar Updraft Power Plant Technology Basic Concepts and Structural Design 94
Francesca Lupi University of Florence Florence Italy
Claudio Borri University of Florence Florence Italy
Wilfried B Kraumltzig Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
Hans-Juumlrgen Niemann Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
1 Solar Updraft Power Technology Introduction and Working Principles
2 History of the Solar Updraft Power Technology
21 Solar Tower Prototype in Manzanares (Spain)
3 Evaluation of Plant Efficiency
31 The Collector
32 The Chimney
33 The Turbines
34 Electric Power Generated by Supps
4 The Collector
5 Actions on Solar Updraft Towers
6 Wind Loading on Solar Updraft Towers
61 Wind Flow Structure in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer at High Altitudes
611 Boundary Layer Meteorology
612 The Ekman Spiral
613 Theoretical Considerations on the Mean Wind and Turbulence in the Ekman Layer
62 Modeling of the Wind Load on Solar Towers
621 Mean Wind Load
622 Response to Wind Turbulence
623 Fluctuating Wind Load
624 Equivalent Static Wind Pressures
625 Vortex Excitation
626 Other Effects The Effect of the Efflux
63 Wind Load on the Collector Roof
7 Structural Behavior of Solar Updraft Towers
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxii
71 Structural Elements of Solar Tower Shells
72 Some Typical Response Characteristics of Solar Tower Shells Vibration and Instability
Behavior
73 Non-Linear Tower Response
8 Structural Optimization of Solar Updraft Towers
81 The Role of the Stiffening Rings in the Structural Design of Solar Towers
82 Strategies of Optimization
9 Technology of Construction
Renewable Energy Potential in The Arab Region 162
Mohammed Mostafa El-Khayat General Manager of Planning New and Renewable Energy Authority
NREA Cairo Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Research Problem and Objectives
111 Research Problem
12 Research Objectives
2 Energy Demand
3 The Current Situation of Renewable Energy
31 Hydropower
32 Wind Energy
33 Solar Energy
34 Biomass and Geothermal Energy
4 Strategies
5 Institutional and Regulatory Framework
6 Main Policies and Incentives
7 RE Policies and Incentives Profiles
71 Algeria
72 Egypt
73 Jordan
74 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
75 Lebanon
76 Libya
77 Morocco
78 Palestine
79 Sudan
710 Syria
711 Tunisia
712 United Arab Emirates
713 Yemen
8 Financing Schemes and Investment Opportunities
9 Motivations and Barriers of Renewable Energy
10 Renewable Energy Initiatives
101 Arabian Initiatives
102 DESERTEC
11 Potential of Renewable Energy in the Region
12 The proposed mechanisms to enhance and accelerate the rate of using RE applications
13 The situation of localizing RE technologies
14 RE and climate change in Arab countries
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
198
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiii
22 Humidifying with Cooling and Dehumidifying Processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in HD Desalination Process
25 Overview on Some Desalination HD Projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process Description
32 The Condenser in the SWGH
321 Different Condenser Layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the Condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of Condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot Plant
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH Project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot Plant
522 Performances of the Pilot Plant
53 The SWGH Project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot Plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Evolution of Photovoltaic Materials for Renewable Energy Development 262
Abdelilah Slaoui InESS ndash CNRS ndash University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
Jef Poortmans IMEC Leuven Belgium
Marko Topic University of Ljubljana Faculty of Elec Eng Ljubljana Slovenia
Gavin Conibeer ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence UNSW Sydney Australia
1 General Introduction
2 Photovoltaic Materials and Technologies State of the Art
21 Crystalline Silicon
22 Thin Films
221 Amorphous Silicon
222 Nanocrystalline and Microcrystalline Silicon
223 Polycrystalline Silicon
224 Copper Indium Selenide Its alloys and Related Chalcopyrites
225 Cadmium Telluride
226 Materials for Photochemical Solar Cells
227 Materials for Organic Solar Cells
3 Next Generation Solar Cells
31 Introduction
32 Multiple energy level approaches
33 Multiple Exciton Generation solar cells
34 Intermediate Band (IB) cells
35 Hot carrier cells
4 Conclusions and Perspectives
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiv
Wind and Solar Renewable Energy Potential Resources Estimation 302
Philippe Drobinski Institut Pierre Simon LaplaceLaboratoire de Meacuteteacuteorologie Dynamique CNRSEcole
Polytechnique Palaiseau France
1 Renewable Wind and Solar Energies The Context
11 An Economical and Environmental Necessity
12 Energy Definitions and Units
2 Basic Knowledge in Geophysics for Energy Resource Evaluation
21 Earth Energy Budget and Atmospheric Motion
22 Near Surface Wind
23 Impacts of Clouds and Aerosols on Surface Solar Radiation
3 Wind Energy Resource
31 Wind Energy A Brief History
32 Wind Energy Resources Evaluation
33 Wind Energy Installed Capacity in the World
4 Solar Energy Resources
41 Solar Energy An Introduction
42 Worldwide Solar Heat
5 Methods for Wind and Solar Energy Resources Forecast
Index 353
About EOLSS 361
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) ix
Solar Photochemistry Technology 139
J Blanco Gaacutelvez and S Malato Rodriacuteguez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain
1 Introduction
2 Solar Collectors for Photochemical Processes
21 Parabolic Trough Collectors (PTCs)
22 One-Sun Collectors
23 Compound Parabolic Concentrators (CPCs)
24 Holographic Collectors
3 Peculiarities of Solar Tracking and Non-Tracking Systems
4 Technological Issues
41 Photochemical Reactor
42 Reflective Surfaces
43 Piping
44 Radiation Absorption
5 Gas-Phase Photochemical Technology
Solar Photochemistry Applications 163
J Blanco Gaacutelvez and S Malato Rodriacuteguez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT Spain
1 Introduction
2 Solar Photocatalytic Treatment Plants
3 Cost Estimations
4 Water Phase Photocatalytic Applications
41 Phenols
42 Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
43 Pharmaceutical Compounds
44 Wood Preservative Waste
45 Agrochemical Wastes (Pesticides)
46 Seaport Tank Terminals
47 Removal of Hazardous Metal Ions
48 Cyanide degradation
49 Groundwater Decontamination
5 Water Disinfection
6 Gas-Phase Photocatalytic Applications
7 Contaminated Landfill Cleaning
Research and Environmental Issues in The 1990s 184
S Malato Rodriacuteguez and J Blanco Gaacutelvez Plataforma Solar de Almeriacutea CIEMAT SPAIN
1 Introduction
2 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of Chlorophenols
3 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of Pesticides
4 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of NBCS
5 Solar-TiO2 Photocatalytic Treatment of Cyanide
6 Solar Photo-Fenton
61 Photo-Fenton Treatment of Pesticides
62 Photo-Fenton Treatment of Olive Mill Wastewater
7 Photoelectrochemical Reactors Development
Mathematical Models of Solar Energy Conversion Systems 205
Viorel Badescu Candida Oancea Institute Polytechnic University of Bucharest Romania
1 Introduction
2 Properties of Radiation Fluxes
21 Photons in Discrete Quantum States
22 Photons in Continuous Spectrum
23 Properties of Photon Fluxes
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) x
24 Spectral Property Radiances for Blackbodies and Band-gap Materials
3 Concentration of Solar Radiation
31 The Lagrangian of Beam Radiation
32 Upper Bounds on Solar Radiation Concentration
33 Geometrical Concentration Ratio for Several Mirrors
331 Spherical mirrors
332 Paraboloidal Mirrors
333 Cylinder Parabolic Mirrors
34 Perturbing Factors
4 Photothermal Conversion
41 Detailed Balance Models
411 The End-user Requires a Heat Flux
412 The End-user Requires Mechanical Power
42 Models Based on Spectrally Integrated Fluxes
421 The End-user Requires Heat The Flat Plate Solar Collector
422 The End-user Requires Work Solar Power Generation
423 Upper Bounds on Solar Energy Conversion Efficiency into Work
43 Discussion and Perspectives
5 Photovoltaic Conversion
51 Models Based on the Diode Equation
52 Models Based on Detailed Balance Equations
521 Radiation Received From the Environment Neglected
522 Radiation Received From the Environment Included
523 The Solar Cell Equation
53 Discussion and Perspectives
6 Photochemical Conversion
7 Conclusion
Multiple Effect Distillation of Seawater Using Solar Energy ndash The Case of Abu Dhabi Solar
Desalination Plant 256
Ali M El-Nashar International Center for Water amp Energy Systems Abu Dhabi United Arab Emirates
1 Introduction
2 History of Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant
3 Description of Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant
31 Plant Description
311 The solar heat collector subsystem
312 The heat accumulator subsystem
313 MED evaporator subsystem
32 Design Features
4 Measurements and Data Acquisition System
41 Measuring the heat collected in block F
5 Data Analysis
51 Calculating the solar radiation on absorber plate
52 Calculating the performance of the collector bank
53 Calculating the performance of the evaporator
531 Calculating the brine concentration at each effect
532 OHTC of heater (first effect)
533 Average OHTC of other evaporator effects
534 Average OHTC of preheaters
535 OHTC of condenser
536 Evaporator economy
6 Weather Condition in Abu Dhabi
7 Operating Characteristics
71 Heat collecting subsystem
711 Heat collector efficiency
712 Daily heat collection efficiency
72 Heat accumulator system
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xi
721 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
722 Thermal stratification ratio
73 Evaporating system
731 Evaporator performance
74 Performance of the plant
8 Plant Maintenance and Modifications
81 Heat collecting system
811 Cleaning the solar collector field
812 Corrosion of the collector air vent valves
813 Vacuum loss inside glass tubes
814 Scale prevention
815 Anti-corrosion chemical for use in the heat collecting water
816 Measures against power failure
82 Evaporating system
821 Evaporator pump maintenance
822 Inspection of the evaporator
823 Change in operating sequence
825 Modification of the method of feeding sealing water to the priming vacuum pump
824 Modification of the system for injecting anti-scale chemical
9 Simulation Program and its Validation
91 Simulation program
911 Outline
912 Flow chart of the SOLDES program
913 Program Input and output data
914 Mathematical Models
92 Comparison of simulation and actually measured Values
10 Evaluation of the Test Plant
101 Optimum operating conditions
102 Simulation results
103 Evaluation of the solar plant
11 Economic Considerations and Comparison with Conventional MED Plants
111 Basic economic parameters
112 Capital equipment cost
1121 Capital cost of MED evaporator
1122 Capital cost of solar thermal collectors
1123 Capital cost of heat accumulator
1124 Capital cost of steam generator for conventional MED systems
1125 Capital cost of diesel generator
113 Operation and maintenance expenses
1131 Consumable chemical expenses
1132 Electrical energy consumption
1133 Spare parts cost
1134 Personnel cost
114 Estimating the cost of water produced
12 Results of the Economic Study
13 Conclusion
131 System Reliability
132 Response to varying weather condition
133 Establishment of a method for cleaning of solar collectors
134 Comparison of the test plant results with that of the basic design
Index 335
About EOLSS 341
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xii
VOLUME III
Solar Irradiation Fundamentals 1
Zekacirci Sen Istanbul Technical University Maslak 34469 Istanbul Turkey
1 Introduction
2 The Sun
3 Atmospheric effects and Electro-magnetic Radiation (EMR) spectrum
4 Astronomic effects
5 Meteorological effects
51 Cloud Index
6 Topographic effects
7 Solar parameters
71 Solar geometry quantities
711 Earth eccentricity
712 Declination angle
713 Zenith angle
72 Solar time quantities
721 Solar time
722 Equation of time
723 Apparent solar time (AST)
73 Solar irradiation quantities
731 Solar constant
732 Irradiation path
8 Solar radiation modeling
81 Solar energy laws
82 Solar irradiation calculation
83 Estimation of clear sky radiation
84 Irradiation model
9 Astronomic calculations
91 The Daily Solar Profile
92 Daily solar energy on horizontal surface
93 Solar energy on inclined surface
10 Solar-Hydrogen Energy
11 Conclusions
Direct Solar Energy 67
S C Bhattacharya and S Kumar Energy Program Asian Institute of Technology Pathumthani
Thailand
1 Introduction
11 A Brief History of Energy
12 Origin of Solar Energy
13 Solar Thermal Energy
14 Photovoltaics (PV)
15 The Future of Solar Energy
2 Solar Radiation
21 Sun and Earth
22 Solar Radiation Estimation
3 Solar Thermal Conversion
31 Solar Collectors
311 Flat Plate Collectors
312 Concentrating Collectors
313 Evacuated Type Collectors
314 Selective Surfaces
32 Solar Water Heating
321 Introduction
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xiii
322 Natural Circulation Systems
323 Forced Circulation Systems
324 Materials Used in Solar Water Heaters
325 Advantages and Disadvantages
33 Solar Space Heating
331 Active Systems
332 Passive Systems
333 Solar District Heating
34 Solar Thermal Power Generation
341 Introduction
342 Parabolic Trough Systems
343 Power Towers
344 Parabolic Dish
35 Solar Drying
351 Introduction
352 Types of Solar Drier
353 Advantages of Solar Drying
4 Solar Photovoltaic Conversion
41 Solar Cells and Modules
42 Other Components of PV Systems
43 PV Applications
5 Other Solar Technologies
51 Solar Photochemical Conversion
52 Space Solar Power
521 Introduction
522 The SSP Concept
523 Promise and Problems
524 Future Prospects
6 Solar Energy Storage
61 Solar Thermal Energy Storage
611 Sensible Heat Storage
612 Latent Heat Storage
613 Chemical Energy Storage
614 Solar Electrical Energy Storage
7 Environmental Impacts of Solar Energy
71 General Impacts
72 Solar Thermal Systems
73 PV Systems
74 Health and Environmental Aspects
75 Energy Payback and CO2 Abatement
76 Other implications
761 Batteries
762 Operation and Decommissioning
8 The Way Forward
81 General
82 Solar Thermal Systems
83 PV Systems
9 Concluding Remarks
Solar Drying - A Technology for Sustainable Agriculture and Food Production 112
RJ Fuller Principal Fellow IDTC Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of
Melbourne Australia
1 Introduction
2 Drying Fundamentals
3 Sun vs Solar Drying
4 Types of Solar Dryer
41 Direct Mode
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xiv
42 Indirect Mode
43 Mixed Mode
44 Further Classifications
441 Natural Convection
442 Forced Convection
45 Other Differences
451 Supplementary Energy
452 Air Flow Direction
453 Heat Transfer Fluid
454 Thermal Storage
5 Solar Dryers in Practice
51 Direct mode natural convection dryers
52 Direct Mode Forced Convection Dryers
53 Indirect Mode Forced Convection Dryers
6 Performance Evaluation of Solar Dryers
61 Overall System Drying Efficiency
62 Pick-up Efficiency
63 Solar Collection Efficiency
64 Performance of Solar Dryers
65 Comparative Testing
7 Designing Solar Drying Systems
71 Rules-of-Thumb
72 Sizing Equations
73 Chart Methods
74 Simulation Techniques
8 Non-technical Factors
81 Economics
82 Practical Issues
83 Technology Transfer
84 Developing Country Issues
85 Industrialized Country Issues
9 Prospects and Future Developments
91 Technical Developments
92 Costs
93 Design
94 External Factors
10 Conclusions
A Short Historical Review of Renewable Energy 136
E Delyannis NCSR Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems ldquoDemokritosrdquo Aghia Paraskevi
Greece
A El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority (WEA) Abu-Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
11 The History of Renewable Energy Achievements
12 The Set-up of this Historical Review
2 The Renewable Energies in the Antiquity
21 From Legends to the First Written Documents
3 The Power of the Sun
31 The Dawn of the History
32 The Capture of the Suns Radiation
321 Antiquity to Middle Age The Philosophers
322 Renaissance to the 20th Century The Founders
323 The 20th Century The Engineers
324 The Present Times The Technologists
4 The Development of the Solar Distillation
41 From Philosophy to Practice
42 The First Large Applications
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xv
43 The Last 50 Years
5 Solar Driven Desalination
51 General Considerations
52 The Solar Driven Distillation Plants
53 Freezing Plants
54 Electrodialysis Plants
55 Solar Powered Reverse Osmosis Plants
6 The Energy of the Mother Gaia
7 The Power of Aeolos
71 The Aeolian Gods
72 The Harvest of the Winds Energy
73 The Raise and the Fall of Windmills
74 Wind Turbine Generation
8 The Power of the Moving Water
81 Hydraulic Power
9 The Impulsive Power of Poseidon
91 The Power of the Waves
92 The Tides and their Energy
93 The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) System
Renewable Energy Resources 186
V Belessiotis and E Delyannis NCSR Demokritos Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems
Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun as an Energy Source
21 The Availability of Solar Energy
22 Application of Solar Energy to Desalination
3 The Geothermal Energy
31 Introduction
32 The Geothermal Resources System
321 Hydrothermal Reservoirs
322 The Geopressurized Reservoirs
323 The Hot Dry Rocks
33 The Available Resources
34 The Geographic Distribution of Reservoirs
35 The Geothermal Brines
36 Application of Geothermal Resources
4 The Hydraulic Energy
41 Introduction
42 The Available Hydropower Resources
43 Limit of Hydropower Output
5 Wind Energy Resources
51 The Origin of Wind
52 The Distribution of Wind Forces
53 Wind Speed Distribution
54 The Utilization of the Wind Energy
6 Biomass as an Energy Source
61 Introduction
62 The Origin of Biomass
63 The Alternate Biomass Products
64 Biomass Residues
641 The Crop Residues
642 Fuel Wood
643 Sugar Crops
644 Livestock Manure
65 Refuse and Municipal Sewage
66 Plantation Biomass
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xvi
7 Thermal Energy from Biomass
71 Introduction
72 The Energy Conversion Methods
73 Environmental Impacts of Biomass Energy Sources
8 The Ocean Systems Energy Resources
81 Introduction
82 The Energy of the Waves
821 The Origin of the Waves
822 Distribution of Wave Resources
83 The Tidal Power as Energy Source
831 The Generation of Tides
832 The Tidal Potential
84 The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) Source
841 The Trapping of the OTEC Energy
Desalination with Renewable Energy - A Review 227
Ali M El-Nashar 22 Ahmed Gharbo St Apt 703 Zizinia Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Commercial Desalination Processes and Their Energy Consumption
21 Description of the Commercial Desalination Processes
211 Distillation Processes
212 Membrane Processes
22 Technical and Economic Characteristics of Commercial Desalination Processes
3 Available Renewable Energy Sources
31 Solar Energy
32 Wind Energy
33 Geothermal Energy
34 Other Renewable Energy Sources
4 Devices for Transforming Renewable Energy into Useful Energy for Desalination
41 Solar Collectors
42 Solar Ponds
43 Photovoltaic Cells
44 Wind Turbines
5 Coupling of Desalination Processes and Renewable Energy
51 Direct and Indirect Coupling of Solar Energy and Desalination
511 Direct coupling (Solar still technology)
512 Indirect Coupling
52 Desalination Systems Driven by Solar Thermal Energy
521 Solar Thermal Collectors-MSF Desalination
522 Solar Thermal Collectors-MED Desalination
53 Desalination Systems Driven by Wind Energy
531 Wind-MVC Systems
532 Wind-RO Systems
54 Desalination Systems Driven by Solar Photovoltaics (PV)
55 Hybrid Desalination Systems
6 Current Status
7 Selection Criteria among Different RE Desalination Technologies
8 Performance of Selected RE Desalination Projects
81 Solar Stills
82 Wind-Energy Driven RO Desalination Technology
83 PV-Powered Seawater RO System
84 Abu Dhabi Solar MED Desalination Plant
9 Economics of RE Desalination
91 Financial Analysis
92 Cost of Water from RES Desalination Plants
10 Conclusion
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xvii
Renewable Energy and Desalination Systems 301
Asghar Husain International Center for Water and Energy Systems (ICWES) Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
11 Need for Desalination
2 What Is Sustainability
3 Review of Desalination Technologies
31 Thermal-Based Processes
32 Membrane ndash Based Technologies
33 Renewable Energies
4 Desalination Using Solar Energy
41 Direct Utilization of Solar Radiation in the Solar Still
42 Solar Collectors
43 Solar Concentrating System
44 Solar Ponds
45 Photovoltaic Cells
46 Storage of Solar Energy
5 Desalination Using Other Renewable Energies
51 Wind Energy
52 Geothermal Energy
53 Wave Energy
54 Tidal Energy
55 Ocean Temperature Difference or Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
56 Hydraulic Energy
57 Biomass as Energy Source
6 Concluding Remarks
Why Use Renewable Energy for Desalination 342
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 The Need of Desalination for Economic Development in Remote Arid Areas
3 The Need of Energy for Desalination
4 The Availability of Renewable Energy
5 The Economic and Social Benefits of Using Renewable Energy for Desalination
6 Examples of Arid Remote Regions where Renewable Energy for Desalination can have a High
Economic Potential
61 The Southern and Eastern Mediterranean Regions
62 The Mediterranean Islands
63 The Arab Gulf Region
7 Conclusions
Thermal Energy Storage 356
Hassan E S Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Solar Energy Storage
12 Thermal Energy Storage
13 Thermal Storage Efficiency
14 Thermal Insulation
2 Sensible Heat Storage
21 Introduction
22 Low Temperature Sensible Heat Storage
221 Storage in Liquids
23 Intermediate and High Temperature Sensible Heat Storage
231 Storage in Fluids
232 Storage in Solids
233 Storage in Fluid-Solid Media
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xviii
24 Concluding Remarks
3 Latent Heat (Phase Change) Storage
31 Introduction
32 Low Temperature Latent Heat Storage
321 Phase Change Materials
322 Storage Systems Problems
33 Intermediate and High Temperature Latent Heat Storage
34 Concluding Remarks
35 Heat of Vaporization
4 Combined Sensible and Latent Heat Storage
5 Closing Remarks
6 Some Recent Developments
61 Sensible Heat Storage
62 Latent Heat Storage
621 Heat Transfer with Thermal Energy Storage
622 Storage System Performance
623 Solar Collector Integrated with Storage System
Electrical Energy Storage 387
J Garche Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research Baden-Wuumlrttemberg Germany
A Jossen Energy Storage and Energy Conversion Division Ulm Germany
1 Introduction
2 Systems with Internal Storage
21 Demands on the Battery
22 Lead-Acid Battery
221 Electrochemical Reactions
222 Operation values
223 Types of Lead-Acid Batteries
2231 Differentiation by electrodes
2232 Batteries with positive plates protected against active mass shedding
2233 Differentiation by container technology
224 Main Problems while Operation of Lead-Acid Batteries
2241 Charging and Overdischarge
2242 Deep Discharge
2243 Sulfation
225 Other Battery Systems
2251 Nickel-Cadmium Battery
2252 New Battery Systems
3 Systems with External Storage
31 Gas-Accumulator
32 Redox-Flow-Systems
4 Storage Sizing
Tidal Energy 406
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Consideration
5 Prospects
Index 416
About EOLSS 421
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xix
VOLUME IV
Desalination Using Tidal Energy 1
Abdalla S Hanafi Cairo University Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Tides
21 Spring and Neap Tides
3 Tidal Power Plants
31 Barrage
32 Locks and Gates
33 Power House
34 Basins
35 Storage
36 Economical Considerations
37 Tidal Sites
4 Tidal Desalination Technologies
41 Tidal-Vapor Compression Desalination
42 Tidal-Reverse Osmosis
421 Overall Analysis of the Reverse Osmosis Modules
43 Tidal - Electrodialysis (ED)
431 Electrodialysis DC Power
44 Tidal Freezing-Melting (FM)
441 Freezing-Melting System Analysis
5 Economic Comparisons with Wind and Solar Energy
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
15
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
22 Humidifying with cooling and dehumidifying processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in Desalination HD Process
25 Overview on Some desalination HD projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process description
32 The condenser in the SWGH
321 Different condenser layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot plant
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xx
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot plant
522 Performances of the SWGH
53 Case Study 3 The SWGH project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Wave Energy 81
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Considerations
5 Prospects
Wind Energy 97
B Sorensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Worldwide Distribution of Wind Energy Resources
11 Physical Potential Wind Maps
12 Practical Potential for Wind Turbines
13 Restrictions due to Competing Land Use
14 Off-Shore Potential
15 Methods for Determining Local Potential Atlas Technique
16 Overall Assessment of Potential
2 Wind Turbine Technology
21 Current Status and Prospects for the Future
22 Basic Theory Wind Turbine Types and Efficiencies
23 Prospects for Further Development
24 Current Penetration of Wind Power Utilization
25 National Plans and Future Prospects
26 Plant Lifetime and Reliability
27 Impacts on Requirements for Transmission and Back-Up
28 Energy Storage and Demand Management
3 Economic Social and Environmental Impacts of Wind Energy Utilization
31 Current Cost and Cost Trends
32 Employment Generation
33 Energy Balance
34 Noise
35 Aspects of Decentralized Energy Supply
36 Life-Cycle Estimate of Externalities Including Construction and Decommissioning Impacts
4 Evaluation of Greenhouse Warming Mitigation Potential of Wind Power
41 Assessment of Marginal Life-Cycle Impacts Including Greenhouse Warming
42 Elements of Non-Marginal Analysis of Energy Systems with Large Wind Power Share
43 Relationship between Demand Development and the Valuations of Wind Energy
44 Concluding Remarks
Availability of Wind Energy and Its Estimation 139
Richard Morris Richard Morris Associates Glasgow United Kingdom
1 The Sun as the Wind Driver
2 The Nature of Wind
3 Wind Power Statistics
4 Estimating Wind Power
5 Siting for Wind Energy
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxi
The Use of Geothermal Energy in Desalination 155
BW Tleimat Water Reuse Technology Alamo California USA
ADK Laird (deceased) Professor Emeritus and Director Emeritus Sea Water Conversion Laboratory
University of California Berkeley California USA
1 Introduction
2 Historical Perspective
3 Heat Transfer from Geothermal Reservoirs
4 Geothermal Energy Utilization
5 Electricity Generation
6 Water Production from Geothermal Sources
7 Idealized Liquid-dominated Reservoirs
8 Water and Power Generation Effects of Some System Parameters
9 Multiple-effect and Multistage Distillation Processes
10 Energy-budget Management
11 Processes for Decentralized Desalination
12 Water-budget Management
13 Solids-budget Management
Solar Photovoltaic Energy Conversion 181
G Schumm Zentrum fuer Sonnenenergie und Wasserstoff-Forschung Baden Wuerttemberg Stuttgart
Germany
1 The General Photovoltaic System
2 Non-Concentrating PV Systems
3 Tracking and Concentrating PV Systems
Flat-Plate Collectors 191
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Solar Collector Applications
3 Definitions
31 Solar Collectors
311 Solar Thermal Collector
312 Flat-Plate Collector
32 Construction Elements of a Solar Collector
321 Absorber Plate or Selective Surface
322 The Transparent Cover
323 The Collector Insulation
324 The Heat Transfer Medium
33 The Surface Areas
331 The Surface Area of the Absorber Plate
332 The Transparent Cover Surface
333 Total Surface Area
34 Operational Characteristics of the Collector
341 Collector efficiency (η)
342 Thermal Capacity of the Collector (C)
343 Pressure Drop (Δp)
344 Stagnant Conditions
345 Incidence Angle Coefficient (kθ)
35 The Characteristic Parameters of the Collector
351 The cover reflectance (ρc)
353 Cover Absorptance (αc)
352 Cover Transmittance (τc)
354 Coefficient of cover Emissivity (εc)
355 Coefficient of Absorber Emissivity
356 Selective Surface
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxii
357 Selective Coat
358 Collector Efficiency Factor (Fprime) 359 Collector Flow Factor (FPrime) 3510 Collector Heat Removal Factor (FR)
3511 Collector Heat Loss Coefficient (UL)
4 Main Collector Components
41 The Solar Radiation Absorber
42 The Transparent Cover
43 Thermal Insulation
44 The Casing of the Collector
45 The Supporting of the Collector
5 The Solar Absorbers
51 Types of Solar Absorbers
511 Absorbers of Common Paint
512 Selective coat Absorbers
52 Forms of Absorbers and Tubes
521 General considerations
522 Sandwich Type Absorber
523 Roll Bond Tube Absorber
524 Soldered Type Absorbers
525 Absorbers with Ω Type Fins
6 Characteristics of Flat-Plate Collectors
61 General considerations
62 Installation Configuration of a Collector System
63 Orientation and Slope of the Collector
7 Dynamic Operational Characteristics of a Collector
71 The Incident Angle Coefficient
72 The Thermal Capacity of the Collector C
73 The Heat Removal Factor FR
8 The Thermal Characteristics of a Collector
81 Determination of the Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL
82 Determination of Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL for in Series Interconnection
83 Equivalent Thermal Loss between Tubes and Collector
84 The Influence of Wind Velocity
9 Shading of the Collectors
10 Basic Calculation Methods
101 Cover Reflectance
102 Cover Transmittance
103 The Transmittance-Absorptance Product
104 Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
105 Multi-Cover Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
11 The Heat Transfer Loss Coefficients
111 Loss Coefficient Uc
112 Loss Coefficient Ub
113 Loss Coefficient Us
114 The Collector Efficiency Factor Fprime 115 Collector flow factor FPrime Large Active Solar Systems Load 220
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and other Energy Systems National Centre for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Estimation of Thermal Load
21 Estimation of the Required Heat Qload
22 Estimation of the Required Heat for the Water Qw
23 Estimation of the Heat Loss in Distribution Pipes Qp
24 Estimation of Heat Loss in the Storage Tank Qt
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiii
Large Active Solar Systems Typical Economic Analysis 225
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Cost of a Solar Hot Water System
21 Initial Capital Cost
22 Operational Costs
221 Cost of Fuel
222 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
223 Cost of Maintenance
224 Cost for Loans
225 Costs for Insurance
226 Miscellaneous Expenses
3 Cost of Conventional Hot Water System
31 Operational Costs
311 Cost of Fuel
312 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
313 Cost of Maintenance
4 Inflation
5 Rate of Interest
6 Methods of Life Cycle Cost
61 General
62 Present and Future Costs
63 Yearly Instalment
64 Yearly Expenses
7 Methodology
8 Present Value Factor
9 Comparison Methodology
Integration of Solar Pond with Water Desalination 240
U Fisher J Weinberg and B Doron Ormat Industries Ltd Yavne Israel
1 Introduction
2 Historical Background
3 The Solar Pond
31 Structure
32 Heat Absorption and Storage
33 Main Demands when Building a Pond
331 Surface Area
332 Surface Water Make-up
333 Concentrated Brine Supply
34 How to Build a Solar Pond
341 Geometry or Shape
342 Lining
343 Construction Materials in the Pond
344 Initial Filling and Build-up of Gradient
35 How to Control
36 Heat Losses (Ground Diffusion Evaporation)
361 Top Losses
362 Bottom Heat Losses
37 Disturbances
371 Algae
372 Corrosion
373 Wind
38 Heat Extraction
39 Fuel Assisted Solar Ponds
310 Maintenance
3101 Clarity
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiv
3102 Cleaning of Wind Breakers
3103 Blow Down
3104 Make-up
3105 Leakages
311 Practical Size of a Single Pond
312 Investment in Solar Ponds
313 OampM Costs
4 Desalination Processes Coupled to the Solar Pond
41 Economic Aspects of Coupling Desalination Plants to Solar Ponds
411 Desalination Processes
412 The Choice and Proportion of Producing Heat and Power in the Solar Pond
4121 The Solar Pond Yield
4122 Desalination Plant Performance
4123 The Impact of Daily and Seasonal Fluctuations
4124 Economic Considerations and Evaluations
42 Experience with SP-Desalination Systems
43 Conclusions
Evacuated Tube Collectors 276
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Current Designs of Evacuated Tube Collectors
3 Thermal Analysis
4 Analysis of Flat Plate Evacuated Tube Collector
5 Analysis of Concentric-Tube Collector
6 Performance of Evacuated Tube Collectors
7 Case Study (Collector Field at the Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant)
71 Description of collector field
72 Performance of collector field
73 Economics
Parabolic Trough Collectors 299
Wolfgang Meinecke Deutsches Zentrum fuumlr Luft-und Raumfahrt eV (DLR German Aerospace Center)
Solar Energy Technology Division Koumlln Germany
1 Introduction
2 Brief History of Trough Development
3 State of the Art of Trough Applications
31 Conventional Thermal Water Desalination Applications
32 Solar Thermal Water Desalination Applications
33 Solar Electric Power Generation
34 Solar Process Heat Generation
35 Process Hot Water (Project Examples)
36 Process Steam (Project Examples)
37 Process Steam for Water Desalination (Project Examples)
38 Process Hot Air
4 Trough Technologies
41 LS 3 Trough Collector System
411 LS 3 Parabolic Reflector
412 Steel Support Structure
413 Absorber Element
414 Tracking System and Field Control System
415 Heat Transfer Fluid System
416 Steam Generator
417 Balance of Plant Technologies
418 Energy Storage System
42 IST Trough Collector System
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxv
421 IST Parabolic Reflector
422 Support Structure
423 Absorber Element
424 Tracking System and Field Control System
425 Heat Transfer Fluid System
426 Heat Exchanger
427 Balance of Plant Technology
428 Energy Storage
5 Prospects and Potential
51 Solar Electric Power Generation
52 Solar Process Heat Generation
53 Solar Thermal Water Desalination
6 Cost and Economic Aspects
61 Collector Investment Costs
611 LS 3 Collector Costs
612 IST Collector Costs
62 Other Economic Parameters
621 Fossil Fuel Prices
622 Solar Energy Yield
623 Solar Share
624 Plant Power Size
625 Capacity Factor
626 OampM Costs
627 Non-Technical Parameters
63 Costs of Solar Water Desalination
7 Conclusions
Index 363
About EOLSS 369
VOLUME V
Central Receivers 1
MM Elsayed Mechanical Engineering Department Kuwait University Safat Kuwait
1 Introduction
2 Heliostats Types and Design Shapes
3 Heliostat Angles
4 Heliostat Field Heliostat Layout
5 Heliostat Field Cosine Effect
6 Heliostat Field Preliminary Sizing of the Field
7 Heliostat Field Usefulness Efficiency
8 Reflected Solar Radiation
9 The Effective Sunshape
10 Principal Images and Relation between Receiver and Image Planes
11 Models to Predict the Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Image Plane
111 Incoming Ray Formulation
112 The Mirror Plane Formulation
113 Solar Disk Formulation
114 The Pinhole View
12 Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Receiver Surface Using the Separation of
VariableSuperposition Technique
121 Concept
122 Calculation of φ 123 Validation of Model Using Measurements
13 Receivers Types and Losses
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvi
14 Preliminary Sizing of the Receiver
15 Overall System Optimization
Configuration Theoretical Analysis and Performance of Simple Solar Stills 98
A Kumar Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources Solar Energy Center New Delhi India
1 Introduction
2 Configuration of Simple Solar Stills
21 Basic Principle
22 Classification
23 Single Basin Solar Stills
24 Inclined Solar Stills
241 Basin Type Solar Stills
242 Wick Type Solar Stills
25 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
26 Solar Earth Water Stills
27 Plastic Solar Stills
271 Life Raft Solar Still
272 Circular Solar Still
273 Extruded Plastic Solar Still
274 Concentric Tube Solar Still
28 A Typical Solar Distillation Plant
3 Theoretical Analysis of Simple Solar Stills
31 Heat and Mass Transfer in Solar Stills
311 Inside the Solar Still
312 Outside the Solar Still
32 Solar Radiation Balance
321 Transmission through Top Cover
322 Absorption in the Top Cover
33 Energy Balance Equations
34 Solution Procedure
4 Performance of Solar Stills
41 Single Basin Solar Stills
42 Inclined Solar Stills
43 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
44 Solar Earth Water Stills
45 Plastic Solar Stills
46 Case Studies
461 Australia
462 Greek Islands
463 India
47 Suggested Practices for Installing Solar Stills
Development in Simple Solar Stills 169
Hassan ES Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Modified Simple (Passive) Stills
21 Basin Still
211 Single Slope versus Double Slope Basin Stills
212 Basin Still with Cover Cooling
213 Basin Still with Treated Cover Surface
214 Basin Still with Additional Condenser
215 Basin Still with Black DyeMuddy Water
22 Wick Stills
221 Single-wick Stills
222 Multi-wick Stills
223 Wick versus Basin Stills
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvii
224 Combined Wick-Basin Stills
23 Other Stills Configurations
231 Vertical Microporous Evaporator Still
232 Cascade Solar Still
233 Still Integrated with Greenhouse
3 Externally Heated (Active) Solar Stills
31 Introduction
32 Stills Coupled to a Solar Collector
321 Direct and Indirect Heating
322 Use of Dye and Cover Cooling
323 Other Solar Heaters
33 Stills Coupled with Solar Concentrator
34 The Use of Waste Heat in Solar Stills
4 Other Types of Solar Distillation Systems
41 Water Recovery from Air
Multi-Effect Solar Stills 197
HES Fath Al-Jubail 31951 Saudi Arabia
1 Why Multi Effect
2 Double Effect Basin Stills
21 Double Basins Stills
22 Double Effect Tilted Stills
23 Purging Vapor to a Second Effect
3 Multi-Effect Multi-Wick Stills
4 Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
41 Introduction
42 Mass Diffusion
43 Comparison between Diffusion and Basin Stills
44 Description of Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
45 Analysis and Performance Considerations
5 Other Distillation Systems
51 Stacked Tray Stills
52 Multi-Effect Humidification-Dehumidification
Materials for Construction of Solar Stills 218
TA Lawand and J Ayoub Brace Research Institute Canada
1 Introduction
2 General Specifications of Solar Stills
3 Transparent Cover
4 Basin Liner
5 Solar Still Frame
6 Sealants
7 Insulation
8 Auxiliaries - Piping Pumping and Reservoirs
Reverse Osmosis by Solar Energy 225
W Bucher DLR German Aerospace Research Establishment Cologne Germany
1 Introduction
2 Basic Parameters and Energy Demand for Osmosis
21 Physical Properties of Hyperfiltration
22 Energy required for the RO Process
3 Solar Power Conversion Systems
31 Solar Conversion Principles
32 Technical Data of Solar Energy Conversion Methods
33 RO Plant Operation Utilizing Variable Energy Sources
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxviii
4 Reverse Osmosis System Configuration and Operation Aspects
41 Process Design of RO Desalination Systems
42 Procedural Steps and Data for Water Treatment and Energy Consumption
43 Components of RO -Desalination
431 Membranes and Modules
432 High Pressure Pumps
433 Pressure Regulating Devices
5 Solar Powered Desalination Units
51 Specific Figures or RO Systems
52 Solar Power Concepts for RO Desalination
53 Operational Experience with Solar driven RO Systems
6 Costs
61 Specific Cost Figures for the Plant Components
62 Water Delivery Cost
Availability of Solar Radiation and Its Estimation 265
VG Belessiotis Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems National Center for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun and the Radiation Emitted
21 The Physics of the Sun
22 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
3 The Extraterrestrial Radiation
31 What is the Solar Constant
32 Variations of the Extraterrestrial Radiation
33 The Black-body Emittance and Absorptance
34 Blackbody Absorbers - Application to Desalination
4 The Co-ordinate Systems The Basic Solar Angles
41 The Earth-Sun Relationships
42 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Sky
43 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Celestial Sphere
44 Earth-Sun Geometric Relationship
45 Time and its Units - Day Length
46 Terrestrial Solar Radiation
461 Estimation of Radiation Availability
462 Average Radiation Values - Clearness Index
463 Clear Sky Radiation
464 Sky Radiation
47 Atmospheric Factors Affecting Radiation
5 Computation of Insolation at the Earths Surface
51 Insolation Data
52 Measurement of Solar Radiation
53 Models for Solar Radiation
54 Where the Models Apply
55 Tilted Surfaces - Absorptance of Solar Radiation
551 Fixed Tilted Surfaces
552 Tracking Surfaces
6 Applications of Solar Radiation
7 Impact of Solar Energy to the Environment
Economics of Small Solar-Assisted Multiple-Effect Seawater Distillation Plants 296
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Configurations
3 Design and Sizing Considerations
31 Thermal Energy Requirement
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxix
32 Pumping Requirements
33 Collector Performance
34 Sizing Thermal Collector Area
35 Sizing the PV System
351 Sizing the PV Array
4 Economic Ground Rules and Water Cost Optimization
41 Capital Equipment Cost
42 Operating Costs
43 Optimum Cost of Water for each Plant Configuration
5 Results
6 Conclusion
A Solar-Assisted Sea Water Multiple Effect Distillation Plant 15 Years of Operating
Performance (1985-1999) 316
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Basic Design Concept
21 General Plant Description
22 Design Specifications
23 Evaporator Heat Transfer Coefficient
24 Tube Dimensions Heat Transfer Areas and Materials
3 Performance during Commissioning Tests
31 The MES Evaporator
32 The Solar Collector Field
33 The Heat Accumulator
34 Total Plant Performance
4 Performance History
41 The MES Evaporator
42 The Solar Collector Field
43 The Heat Accumulator
431 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
4311 The heat balance method
4312 The direct temperature measurement method
4313 Thermal stratification ratio
44 Total Plant Performance
5 Major Maintenance Activities
51 Equipment Failure and Replacement
52 Acid Cleanings and Silt Removal from Evaporator
6 Evaluation of Water Cost
61 Capital Costs
62 Operation and Maintenance Costs
7 Conclusions
Mathematical Simulation of a Solar Desalination Plant 341
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Description
3 System Operating Conditions
31 Solar Heat Collecting Subsystem
32 Evaporator Subsystem
4 Mathematical Modeling of System Components
41 Solar radiation model
42 Ambient temperature model
43 Solar collector subsystem
431 Effect of shade on solar radiation
432 Effect of dust on transmissivity of glass tubes
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxx
433 Control of heat collecting operation
434 Heat collection by solar collectors
435 Heat loss from piping
4351 Piping specifications
4352 Standard pipe lengths
4353 Heat loss from piping during operation of heat collecting pump
4354 Heat loss from piping while the heat collecting pump is shutdown
4355 Correction of piping heat loss
44 Heat accumulator subsystem
441 Temperature distribution
442 MES evaporator subsystem
5 The Simulation Program
51 Program structure
52 Input and output data
6 Results
7 Conclusions
Index 379
About EOLSS 385
VOLUME VI
Modeling and Design of Solar Energy Systems Including Solar Economics 1
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 F-Chart Method
11 Performance and Design of Liquid-Based Solar Heating Systems
111 Storage Capacity Correction
112 Collector Flow Rate Correction
113 Load Heat Exchanger Size Correction
12 Performance and Design of Air-Based Solar Heating Systems
121 Pebble Bed Storage Size Correction
122 Air Flow Rate Correction
13 Performance and Design of Solar Service Water Systems
14 Thermosiphon Solar Water Heating Systems
15 General Remarks
2 Modeling and Simulation of Solar Energy Systems
21 Simple System Models
211 Pipe Losses
22 F-Chart Program
23 Trnsys Simulation Program
24 Limitations of Simulations
3 Solar Economic Analysis
31 Life Cycle Costing
32 Life Cycle Analysis Method
33 Payback Time
331 Not Discounted Fuel Savings
332 Discounted Fuel Savings
34 Alternative Method
341 System Optimization Using Economic Analysis
35 Uncertainties in Economic Analysis
Solar Energy Power Generation and Desalination Systems 47
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 Global Energy Problems and the Role of Renewables
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxi
11 Energy demand
12 Energy environmental problems and sustainable development
13 Water demand and consumption
14 Water and energy
15 Desalination and energy
16 Renewable energy technologies
2 Solar Collectors
21 Parabolic trough collectors
22 Fresnel collectors
23 Parabolic dish reflector
24 Heliostat field collector
3 Power Generation and Industrial Process Heat Systems
31 Parabolic trough collector systems
32 Power tower systems
33 Dish systems
34 Solar ponds
341 Heat extraction and applications
35 Industrial process heat systems
36 Solar industrial steam generation systems
4 Desalination Processes
41 Direct collection systems
42 Indirect collection systems
421 The multi-stage flash process
422 The multiple-effect distillation process
423 The vapor-compression process
424 Reverse osmosis
425 Electrodialysis
Solar Updraft Power Plant Technology Basic Concepts and Structural Design 94
Francesca Lupi University of Florence Florence Italy
Claudio Borri University of Florence Florence Italy
Wilfried B Kraumltzig Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
Hans-Juumlrgen Niemann Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
1 Solar Updraft Power Technology Introduction and Working Principles
2 History of the Solar Updraft Power Technology
21 Solar Tower Prototype in Manzanares (Spain)
3 Evaluation of Plant Efficiency
31 The Collector
32 The Chimney
33 The Turbines
34 Electric Power Generated by Supps
4 The Collector
5 Actions on Solar Updraft Towers
6 Wind Loading on Solar Updraft Towers
61 Wind Flow Structure in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer at High Altitudes
611 Boundary Layer Meteorology
612 The Ekman Spiral
613 Theoretical Considerations on the Mean Wind and Turbulence in the Ekman Layer
62 Modeling of the Wind Load on Solar Towers
621 Mean Wind Load
622 Response to Wind Turbulence
623 Fluctuating Wind Load
624 Equivalent Static Wind Pressures
625 Vortex Excitation
626 Other Effects The Effect of the Efflux
63 Wind Load on the Collector Roof
7 Structural Behavior of Solar Updraft Towers
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxii
71 Structural Elements of Solar Tower Shells
72 Some Typical Response Characteristics of Solar Tower Shells Vibration and Instability
Behavior
73 Non-Linear Tower Response
8 Structural Optimization of Solar Updraft Towers
81 The Role of the Stiffening Rings in the Structural Design of Solar Towers
82 Strategies of Optimization
9 Technology of Construction
Renewable Energy Potential in The Arab Region 162
Mohammed Mostafa El-Khayat General Manager of Planning New and Renewable Energy Authority
NREA Cairo Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Research Problem and Objectives
111 Research Problem
12 Research Objectives
2 Energy Demand
3 The Current Situation of Renewable Energy
31 Hydropower
32 Wind Energy
33 Solar Energy
34 Biomass and Geothermal Energy
4 Strategies
5 Institutional and Regulatory Framework
6 Main Policies and Incentives
7 RE Policies and Incentives Profiles
71 Algeria
72 Egypt
73 Jordan
74 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
75 Lebanon
76 Libya
77 Morocco
78 Palestine
79 Sudan
710 Syria
711 Tunisia
712 United Arab Emirates
713 Yemen
8 Financing Schemes and Investment Opportunities
9 Motivations and Barriers of Renewable Energy
10 Renewable Energy Initiatives
101 Arabian Initiatives
102 DESERTEC
11 Potential of Renewable Energy in the Region
12 The proposed mechanisms to enhance and accelerate the rate of using RE applications
13 The situation of localizing RE technologies
14 RE and climate change in Arab countries
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
198
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiii
22 Humidifying with Cooling and Dehumidifying Processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in HD Desalination Process
25 Overview on Some Desalination HD Projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process Description
32 The Condenser in the SWGH
321 Different Condenser Layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the Condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of Condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot Plant
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH Project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot Plant
522 Performances of the Pilot Plant
53 The SWGH Project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot Plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Evolution of Photovoltaic Materials for Renewable Energy Development 262
Abdelilah Slaoui InESS ndash CNRS ndash University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
Jef Poortmans IMEC Leuven Belgium
Marko Topic University of Ljubljana Faculty of Elec Eng Ljubljana Slovenia
Gavin Conibeer ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence UNSW Sydney Australia
1 General Introduction
2 Photovoltaic Materials and Technologies State of the Art
21 Crystalline Silicon
22 Thin Films
221 Amorphous Silicon
222 Nanocrystalline and Microcrystalline Silicon
223 Polycrystalline Silicon
224 Copper Indium Selenide Its alloys and Related Chalcopyrites
225 Cadmium Telluride
226 Materials for Photochemical Solar Cells
227 Materials for Organic Solar Cells
3 Next Generation Solar Cells
31 Introduction
32 Multiple energy level approaches
33 Multiple Exciton Generation solar cells
34 Intermediate Band (IB) cells
35 Hot carrier cells
4 Conclusions and Perspectives
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiv
Wind and Solar Renewable Energy Potential Resources Estimation 302
Philippe Drobinski Institut Pierre Simon LaplaceLaboratoire de Meacuteteacuteorologie Dynamique CNRSEcole
Polytechnique Palaiseau France
1 Renewable Wind and Solar Energies The Context
11 An Economical and Environmental Necessity
12 Energy Definitions and Units
2 Basic Knowledge in Geophysics for Energy Resource Evaluation
21 Earth Energy Budget and Atmospheric Motion
22 Near Surface Wind
23 Impacts of Clouds and Aerosols on Surface Solar Radiation
3 Wind Energy Resource
31 Wind Energy A Brief History
32 Wind Energy Resources Evaluation
33 Wind Energy Installed Capacity in the World
4 Solar Energy Resources
41 Solar Energy An Introduction
42 Worldwide Solar Heat
5 Methods for Wind and Solar Energy Resources Forecast
Index 353
About EOLSS 361
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) x
24 Spectral Property Radiances for Blackbodies and Band-gap Materials
3 Concentration of Solar Radiation
31 The Lagrangian of Beam Radiation
32 Upper Bounds on Solar Radiation Concentration
33 Geometrical Concentration Ratio for Several Mirrors
331 Spherical mirrors
332 Paraboloidal Mirrors
333 Cylinder Parabolic Mirrors
34 Perturbing Factors
4 Photothermal Conversion
41 Detailed Balance Models
411 The End-user Requires a Heat Flux
412 The End-user Requires Mechanical Power
42 Models Based on Spectrally Integrated Fluxes
421 The End-user Requires Heat The Flat Plate Solar Collector
422 The End-user Requires Work Solar Power Generation
423 Upper Bounds on Solar Energy Conversion Efficiency into Work
43 Discussion and Perspectives
5 Photovoltaic Conversion
51 Models Based on the Diode Equation
52 Models Based on Detailed Balance Equations
521 Radiation Received From the Environment Neglected
522 Radiation Received From the Environment Included
523 The Solar Cell Equation
53 Discussion and Perspectives
6 Photochemical Conversion
7 Conclusion
Multiple Effect Distillation of Seawater Using Solar Energy ndash The Case of Abu Dhabi Solar
Desalination Plant 256
Ali M El-Nashar International Center for Water amp Energy Systems Abu Dhabi United Arab Emirates
1 Introduction
2 History of Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant
3 Description of Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant
31 Plant Description
311 The solar heat collector subsystem
312 The heat accumulator subsystem
313 MED evaporator subsystem
32 Design Features
4 Measurements and Data Acquisition System
41 Measuring the heat collected in block F
5 Data Analysis
51 Calculating the solar radiation on absorber plate
52 Calculating the performance of the collector bank
53 Calculating the performance of the evaporator
531 Calculating the brine concentration at each effect
532 OHTC of heater (first effect)
533 Average OHTC of other evaporator effects
534 Average OHTC of preheaters
535 OHTC of condenser
536 Evaporator economy
6 Weather Condition in Abu Dhabi
7 Operating Characteristics
71 Heat collecting subsystem
711 Heat collector efficiency
712 Daily heat collection efficiency
72 Heat accumulator system
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xi
721 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
722 Thermal stratification ratio
73 Evaporating system
731 Evaporator performance
74 Performance of the plant
8 Plant Maintenance and Modifications
81 Heat collecting system
811 Cleaning the solar collector field
812 Corrosion of the collector air vent valves
813 Vacuum loss inside glass tubes
814 Scale prevention
815 Anti-corrosion chemical for use in the heat collecting water
816 Measures against power failure
82 Evaporating system
821 Evaporator pump maintenance
822 Inspection of the evaporator
823 Change in operating sequence
825 Modification of the method of feeding sealing water to the priming vacuum pump
824 Modification of the system for injecting anti-scale chemical
9 Simulation Program and its Validation
91 Simulation program
911 Outline
912 Flow chart of the SOLDES program
913 Program Input and output data
914 Mathematical Models
92 Comparison of simulation and actually measured Values
10 Evaluation of the Test Plant
101 Optimum operating conditions
102 Simulation results
103 Evaluation of the solar plant
11 Economic Considerations and Comparison with Conventional MED Plants
111 Basic economic parameters
112 Capital equipment cost
1121 Capital cost of MED evaporator
1122 Capital cost of solar thermal collectors
1123 Capital cost of heat accumulator
1124 Capital cost of steam generator for conventional MED systems
1125 Capital cost of diesel generator
113 Operation and maintenance expenses
1131 Consumable chemical expenses
1132 Electrical energy consumption
1133 Spare parts cost
1134 Personnel cost
114 Estimating the cost of water produced
12 Results of the Economic Study
13 Conclusion
131 System Reliability
132 Response to varying weather condition
133 Establishment of a method for cleaning of solar collectors
134 Comparison of the test plant results with that of the basic design
Index 335
About EOLSS 341
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xii
VOLUME III
Solar Irradiation Fundamentals 1
Zekacirci Sen Istanbul Technical University Maslak 34469 Istanbul Turkey
1 Introduction
2 The Sun
3 Atmospheric effects and Electro-magnetic Radiation (EMR) spectrum
4 Astronomic effects
5 Meteorological effects
51 Cloud Index
6 Topographic effects
7 Solar parameters
71 Solar geometry quantities
711 Earth eccentricity
712 Declination angle
713 Zenith angle
72 Solar time quantities
721 Solar time
722 Equation of time
723 Apparent solar time (AST)
73 Solar irradiation quantities
731 Solar constant
732 Irradiation path
8 Solar radiation modeling
81 Solar energy laws
82 Solar irradiation calculation
83 Estimation of clear sky radiation
84 Irradiation model
9 Astronomic calculations
91 The Daily Solar Profile
92 Daily solar energy on horizontal surface
93 Solar energy on inclined surface
10 Solar-Hydrogen Energy
11 Conclusions
Direct Solar Energy 67
S C Bhattacharya and S Kumar Energy Program Asian Institute of Technology Pathumthani
Thailand
1 Introduction
11 A Brief History of Energy
12 Origin of Solar Energy
13 Solar Thermal Energy
14 Photovoltaics (PV)
15 The Future of Solar Energy
2 Solar Radiation
21 Sun and Earth
22 Solar Radiation Estimation
3 Solar Thermal Conversion
31 Solar Collectors
311 Flat Plate Collectors
312 Concentrating Collectors
313 Evacuated Type Collectors
314 Selective Surfaces
32 Solar Water Heating
321 Introduction
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xiii
322 Natural Circulation Systems
323 Forced Circulation Systems
324 Materials Used in Solar Water Heaters
325 Advantages and Disadvantages
33 Solar Space Heating
331 Active Systems
332 Passive Systems
333 Solar District Heating
34 Solar Thermal Power Generation
341 Introduction
342 Parabolic Trough Systems
343 Power Towers
344 Parabolic Dish
35 Solar Drying
351 Introduction
352 Types of Solar Drier
353 Advantages of Solar Drying
4 Solar Photovoltaic Conversion
41 Solar Cells and Modules
42 Other Components of PV Systems
43 PV Applications
5 Other Solar Technologies
51 Solar Photochemical Conversion
52 Space Solar Power
521 Introduction
522 The SSP Concept
523 Promise and Problems
524 Future Prospects
6 Solar Energy Storage
61 Solar Thermal Energy Storage
611 Sensible Heat Storage
612 Latent Heat Storage
613 Chemical Energy Storage
614 Solar Electrical Energy Storage
7 Environmental Impacts of Solar Energy
71 General Impacts
72 Solar Thermal Systems
73 PV Systems
74 Health and Environmental Aspects
75 Energy Payback and CO2 Abatement
76 Other implications
761 Batteries
762 Operation and Decommissioning
8 The Way Forward
81 General
82 Solar Thermal Systems
83 PV Systems
9 Concluding Remarks
Solar Drying - A Technology for Sustainable Agriculture and Food Production 112
RJ Fuller Principal Fellow IDTC Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of
Melbourne Australia
1 Introduction
2 Drying Fundamentals
3 Sun vs Solar Drying
4 Types of Solar Dryer
41 Direct Mode
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xiv
42 Indirect Mode
43 Mixed Mode
44 Further Classifications
441 Natural Convection
442 Forced Convection
45 Other Differences
451 Supplementary Energy
452 Air Flow Direction
453 Heat Transfer Fluid
454 Thermal Storage
5 Solar Dryers in Practice
51 Direct mode natural convection dryers
52 Direct Mode Forced Convection Dryers
53 Indirect Mode Forced Convection Dryers
6 Performance Evaluation of Solar Dryers
61 Overall System Drying Efficiency
62 Pick-up Efficiency
63 Solar Collection Efficiency
64 Performance of Solar Dryers
65 Comparative Testing
7 Designing Solar Drying Systems
71 Rules-of-Thumb
72 Sizing Equations
73 Chart Methods
74 Simulation Techniques
8 Non-technical Factors
81 Economics
82 Practical Issues
83 Technology Transfer
84 Developing Country Issues
85 Industrialized Country Issues
9 Prospects and Future Developments
91 Technical Developments
92 Costs
93 Design
94 External Factors
10 Conclusions
A Short Historical Review of Renewable Energy 136
E Delyannis NCSR Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems ldquoDemokritosrdquo Aghia Paraskevi
Greece
A El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority (WEA) Abu-Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
11 The History of Renewable Energy Achievements
12 The Set-up of this Historical Review
2 The Renewable Energies in the Antiquity
21 From Legends to the First Written Documents
3 The Power of the Sun
31 The Dawn of the History
32 The Capture of the Suns Radiation
321 Antiquity to Middle Age The Philosophers
322 Renaissance to the 20th Century The Founders
323 The 20th Century The Engineers
324 The Present Times The Technologists
4 The Development of the Solar Distillation
41 From Philosophy to Practice
42 The First Large Applications
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xv
43 The Last 50 Years
5 Solar Driven Desalination
51 General Considerations
52 The Solar Driven Distillation Plants
53 Freezing Plants
54 Electrodialysis Plants
55 Solar Powered Reverse Osmosis Plants
6 The Energy of the Mother Gaia
7 The Power of Aeolos
71 The Aeolian Gods
72 The Harvest of the Winds Energy
73 The Raise and the Fall of Windmills
74 Wind Turbine Generation
8 The Power of the Moving Water
81 Hydraulic Power
9 The Impulsive Power of Poseidon
91 The Power of the Waves
92 The Tides and their Energy
93 The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) System
Renewable Energy Resources 186
V Belessiotis and E Delyannis NCSR Demokritos Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems
Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun as an Energy Source
21 The Availability of Solar Energy
22 Application of Solar Energy to Desalination
3 The Geothermal Energy
31 Introduction
32 The Geothermal Resources System
321 Hydrothermal Reservoirs
322 The Geopressurized Reservoirs
323 The Hot Dry Rocks
33 The Available Resources
34 The Geographic Distribution of Reservoirs
35 The Geothermal Brines
36 Application of Geothermal Resources
4 The Hydraulic Energy
41 Introduction
42 The Available Hydropower Resources
43 Limit of Hydropower Output
5 Wind Energy Resources
51 The Origin of Wind
52 The Distribution of Wind Forces
53 Wind Speed Distribution
54 The Utilization of the Wind Energy
6 Biomass as an Energy Source
61 Introduction
62 The Origin of Biomass
63 The Alternate Biomass Products
64 Biomass Residues
641 The Crop Residues
642 Fuel Wood
643 Sugar Crops
644 Livestock Manure
65 Refuse and Municipal Sewage
66 Plantation Biomass
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xvi
7 Thermal Energy from Biomass
71 Introduction
72 The Energy Conversion Methods
73 Environmental Impacts of Biomass Energy Sources
8 The Ocean Systems Energy Resources
81 Introduction
82 The Energy of the Waves
821 The Origin of the Waves
822 Distribution of Wave Resources
83 The Tidal Power as Energy Source
831 The Generation of Tides
832 The Tidal Potential
84 The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) Source
841 The Trapping of the OTEC Energy
Desalination with Renewable Energy - A Review 227
Ali M El-Nashar 22 Ahmed Gharbo St Apt 703 Zizinia Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Commercial Desalination Processes and Their Energy Consumption
21 Description of the Commercial Desalination Processes
211 Distillation Processes
212 Membrane Processes
22 Technical and Economic Characteristics of Commercial Desalination Processes
3 Available Renewable Energy Sources
31 Solar Energy
32 Wind Energy
33 Geothermal Energy
34 Other Renewable Energy Sources
4 Devices for Transforming Renewable Energy into Useful Energy for Desalination
41 Solar Collectors
42 Solar Ponds
43 Photovoltaic Cells
44 Wind Turbines
5 Coupling of Desalination Processes and Renewable Energy
51 Direct and Indirect Coupling of Solar Energy and Desalination
511 Direct coupling (Solar still technology)
512 Indirect Coupling
52 Desalination Systems Driven by Solar Thermal Energy
521 Solar Thermal Collectors-MSF Desalination
522 Solar Thermal Collectors-MED Desalination
53 Desalination Systems Driven by Wind Energy
531 Wind-MVC Systems
532 Wind-RO Systems
54 Desalination Systems Driven by Solar Photovoltaics (PV)
55 Hybrid Desalination Systems
6 Current Status
7 Selection Criteria among Different RE Desalination Technologies
8 Performance of Selected RE Desalination Projects
81 Solar Stills
82 Wind-Energy Driven RO Desalination Technology
83 PV-Powered Seawater RO System
84 Abu Dhabi Solar MED Desalination Plant
9 Economics of RE Desalination
91 Financial Analysis
92 Cost of Water from RES Desalination Plants
10 Conclusion
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xvii
Renewable Energy and Desalination Systems 301
Asghar Husain International Center for Water and Energy Systems (ICWES) Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
11 Need for Desalination
2 What Is Sustainability
3 Review of Desalination Technologies
31 Thermal-Based Processes
32 Membrane ndash Based Technologies
33 Renewable Energies
4 Desalination Using Solar Energy
41 Direct Utilization of Solar Radiation in the Solar Still
42 Solar Collectors
43 Solar Concentrating System
44 Solar Ponds
45 Photovoltaic Cells
46 Storage of Solar Energy
5 Desalination Using Other Renewable Energies
51 Wind Energy
52 Geothermal Energy
53 Wave Energy
54 Tidal Energy
55 Ocean Temperature Difference or Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
56 Hydraulic Energy
57 Biomass as Energy Source
6 Concluding Remarks
Why Use Renewable Energy for Desalination 342
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 The Need of Desalination for Economic Development in Remote Arid Areas
3 The Need of Energy for Desalination
4 The Availability of Renewable Energy
5 The Economic and Social Benefits of Using Renewable Energy for Desalination
6 Examples of Arid Remote Regions where Renewable Energy for Desalination can have a High
Economic Potential
61 The Southern and Eastern Mediterranean Regions
62 The Mediterranean Islands
63 The Arab Gulf Region
7 Conclusions
Thermal Energy Storage 356
Hassan E S Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Solar Energy Storage
12 Thermal Energy Storage
13 Thermal Storage Efficiency
14 Thermal Insulation
2 Sensible Heat Storage
21 Introduction
22 Low Temperature Sensible Heat Storage
221 Storage in Liquids
23 Intermediate and High Temperature Sensible Heat Storage
231 Storage in Fluids
232 Storage in Solids
233 Storage in Fluid-Solid Media
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xviii
24 Concluding Remarks
3 Latent Heat (Phase Change) Storage
31 Introduction
32 Low Temperature Latent Heat Storage
321 Phase Change Materials
322 Storage Systems Problems
33 Intermediate and High Temperature Latent Heat Storage
34 Concluding Remarks
35 Heat of Vaporization
4 Combined Sensible and Latent Heat Storage
5 Closing Remarks
6 Some Recent Developments
61 Sensible Heat Storage
62 Latent Heat Storage
621 Heat Transfer with Thermal Energy Storage
622 Storage System Performance
623 Solar Collector Integrated with Storage System
Electrical Energy Storage 387
J Garche Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research Baden-Wuumlrttemberg Germany
A Jossen Energy Storage and Energy Conversion Division Ulm Germany
1 Introduction
2 Systems with Internal Storage
21 Demands on the Battery
22 Lead-Acid Battery
221 Electrochemical Reactions
222 Operation values
223 Types of Lead-Acid Batteries
2231 Differentiation by electrodes
2232 Batteries with positive plates protected against active mass shedding
2233 Differentiation by container technology
224 Main Problems while Operation of Lead-Acid Batteries
2241 Charging and Overdischarge
2242 Deep Discharge
2243 Sulfation
225 Other Battery Systems
2251 Nickel-Cadmium Battery
2252 New Battery Systems
3 Systems with External Storage
31 Gas-Accumulator
32 Redox-Flow-Systems
4 Storage Sizing
Tidal Energy 406
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Consideration
5 Prospects
Index 416
About EOLSS 421
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xix
VOLUME IV
Desalination Using Tidal Energy 1
Abdalla S Hanafi Cairo University Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Tides
21 Spring and Neap Tides
3 Tidal Power Plants
31 Barrage
32 Locks and Gates
33 Power House
34 Basins
35 Storage
36 Economical Considerations
37 Tidal Sites
4 Tidal Desalination Technologies
41 Tidal-Vapor Compression Desalination
42 Tidal-Reverse Osmosis
421 Overall Analysis of the Reverse Osmosis Modules
43 Tidal - Electrodialysis (ED)
431 Electrodialysis DC Power
44 Tidal Freezing-Melting (FM)
441 Freezing-Melting System Analysis
5 Economic Comparisons with Wind and Solar Energy
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
15
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
22 Humidifying with cooling and dehumidifying processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in Desalination HD Process
25 Overview on Some desalination HD projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process description
32 The condenser in the SWGH
321 Different condenser layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot plant
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xx
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot plant
522 Performances of the SWGH
53 Case Study 3 The SWGH project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Wave Energy 81
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Considerations
5 Prospects
Wind Energy 97
B Sorensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Worldwide Distribution of Wind Energy Resources
11 Physical Potential Wind Maps
12 Practical Potential for Wind Turbines
13 Restrictions due to Competing Land Use
14 Off-Shore Potential
15 Methods for Determining Local Potential Atlas Technique
16 Overall Assessment of Potential
2 Wind Turbine Technology
21 Current Status and Prospects for the Future
22 Basic Theory Wind Turbine Types and Efficiencies
23 Prospects for Further Development
24 Current Penetration of Wind Power Utilization
25 National Plans and Future Prospects
26 Plant Lifetime and Reliability
27 Impacts on Requirements for Transmission and Back-Up
28 Energy Storage and Demand Management
3 Economic Social and Environmental Impacts of Wind Energy Utilization
31 Current Cost and Cost Trends
32 Employment Generation
33 Energy Balance
34 Noise
35 Aspects of Decentralized Energy Supply
36 Life-Cycle Estimate of Externalities Including Construction and Decommissioning Impacts
4 Evaluation of Greenhouse Warming Mitigation Potential of Wind Power
41 Assessment of Marginal Life-Cycle Impacts Including Greenhouse Warming
42 Elements of Non-Marginal Analysis of Energy Systems with Large Wind Power Share
43 Relationship between Demand Development and the Valuations of Wind Energy
44 Concluding Remarks
Availability of Wind Energy and Its Estimation 139
Richard Morris Richard Morris Associates Glasgow United Kingdom
1 The Sun as the Wind Driver
2 The Nature of Wind
3 Wind Power Statistics
4 Estimating Wind Power
5 Siting for Wind Energy
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxi
The Use of Geothermal Energy in Desalination 155
BW Tleimat Water Reuse Technology Alamo California USA
ADK Laird (deceased) Professor Emeritus and Director Emeritus Sea Water Conversion Laboratory
University of California Berkeley California USA
1 Introduction
2 Historical Perspective
3 Heat Transfer from Geothermal Reservoirs
4 Geothermal Energy Utilization
5 Electricity Generation
6 Water Production from Geothermal Sources
7 Idealized Liquid-dominated Reservoirs
8 Water and Power Generation Effects of Some System Parameters
9 Multiple-effect and Multistage Distillation Processes
10 Energy-budget Management
11 Processes for Decentralized Desalination
12 Water-budget Management
13 Solids-budget Management
Solar Photovoltaic Energy Conversion 181
G Schumm Zentrum fuer Sonnenenergie und Wasserstoff-Forschung Baden Wuerttemberg Stuttgart
Germany
1 The General Photovoltaic System
2 Non-Concentrating PV Systems
3 Tracking and Concentrating PV Systems
Flat-Plate Collectors 191
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Solar Collector Applications
3 Definitions
31 Solar Collectors
311 Solar Thermal Collector
312 Flat-Plate Collector
32 Construction Elements of a Solar Collector
321 Absorber Plate or Selective Surface
322 The Transparent Cover
323 The Collector Insulation
324 The Heat Transfer Medium
33 The Surface Areas
331 The Surface Area of the Absorber Plate
332 The Transparent Cover Surface
333 Total Surface Area
34 Operational Characteristics of the Collector
341 Collector efficiency (η)
342 Thermal Capacity of the Collector (C)
343 Pressure Drop (Δp)
344 Stagnant Conditions
345 Incidence Angle Coefficient (kθ)
35 The Characteristic Parameters of the Collector
351 The cover reflectance (ρc)
353 Cover Absorptance (αc)
352 Cover Transmittance (τc)
354 Coefficient of cover Emissivity (εc)
355 Coefficient of Absorber Emissivity
356 Selective Surface
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxii
357 Selective Coat
358 Collector Efficiency Factor (Fprime) 359 Collector Flow Factor (FPrime) 3510 Collector Heat Removal Factor (FR)
3511 Collector Heat Loss Coefficient (UL)
4 Main Collector Components
41 The Solar Radiation Absorber
42 The Transparent Cover
43 Thermal Insulation
44 The Casing of the Collector
45 The Supporting of the Collector
5 The Solar Absorbers
51 Types of Solar Absorbers
511 Absorbers of Common Paint
512 Selective coat Absorbers
52 Forms of Absorbers and Tubes
521 General considerations
522 Sandwich Type Absorber
523 Roll Bond Tube Absorber
524 Soldered Type Absorbers
525 Absorbers with Ω Type Fins
6 Characteristics of Flat-Plate Collectors
61 General considerations
62 Installation Configuration of a Collector System
63 Orientation and Slope of the Collector
7 Dynamic Operational Characteristics of a Collector
71 The Incident Angle Coefficient
72 The Thermal Capacity of the Collector C
73 The Heat Removal Factor FR
8 The Thermal Characteristics of a Collector
81 Determination of the Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL
82 Determination of Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL for in Series Interconnection
83 Equivalent Thermal Loss between Tubes and Collector
84 The Influence of Wind Velocity
9 Shading of the Collectors
10 Basic Calculation Methods
101 Cover Reflectance
102 Cover Transmittance
103 The Transmittance-Absorptance Product
104 Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
105 Multi-Cover Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
11 The Heat Transfer Loss Coefficients
111 Loss Coefficient Uc
112 Loss Coefficient Ub
113 Loss Coefficient Us
114 The Collector Efficiency Factor Fprime 115 Collector flow factor FPrime Large Active Solar Systems Load 220
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and other Energy Systems National Centre for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Estimation of Thermal Load
21 Estimation of the Required Heat Qload
22 Estimation of the Required Heat for the Water Qw
23 Estimation of the Heat Loss in Distribution Pipes Qp
24 Estimation of Heat Loss in the Storage Tank Qt
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiii
Large Active Solar Systems Typical Economic Analysis 225
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Cost of a Solar Hot Water System
21 Initial Capital Cost
22 Operational Costs
221 Cost of Fuel
222 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
223 Cost of Maintenance
224 Cost for Loans
225 Costs for Insurance
226 Miscellaneous Expenses
3 Cost of Conventional Hot Water System
31 Operational Costs
311 Cost of Fuel
312 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
313 Cost of Maintenance
4 Inflation
5 Rate of Interest
6 Methods of Life Cycle Cost
61 General
62 Present and Future Costs
63 Yearly Instalment
64 Yearly Expenses
7 Methodology
8 Present Value Factor
9 Comparison Methodology
Integration of Solar Pond with Water Desalination 240
U Fisher J Weinberg and B Doron Ormat Industries Ltd Yavne Israel
1 Introduction
2 Historical Background
3 The Solar Pond
31 Structure
32 Heat Absorption and Storage
33 Main Demands when Building a Pond
331 Surface Area
332 Surface Water Make-up
333 Concentrated Brine Supply
34 How to Build a Solar Pond
341 Geometry or Shape
342 Lining
343 Construction Materials in the Pond
344 Initial Filling and Build-up of Gradient
35 How to Control
36 Heat Losses (Ground Diffusion Evaporation)
361 Top Losses
362 Bottom Heat Losses
37 Disturbances
371 Algae
372 Corrosion
373 Wind
38 Heat Extraction
39 Fuel Assisted Solar Ponds
310 Maintenance
3101 Clarity
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiv
3102 Cleaning of Wind Breakers
3103 Blow Down
3104 Make-up
3105 Leakages
311 Practical Size of a Single Pond
312 Investment in Solar Ponds
313 OampM Costs
4 Desalination Processes Coupled to the Solar Pond
41 Economic Aspects of Coupling Desalination Plants to Solar Ponds
411 Desalination Processes
412 The Choice and Proportion of Producing Heat and Power in the Solar Pond
4121 The Solar Pond Yield
4122 Desalination Plant Performance
4123 The Impact of Daily and Seasonal Fluctuations
4124 Economic Considerations and Evaluations
42 Experience with SP-Desalination Systems
43 Conclusions
Evacuated Tube Collectors 276
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Current Designs of Evacuated Tube Collectors
3 Thermal Analysis
4 Analysis of Flat Plate Evacuated Tube Collector
5 Analysis of Concentric-Tube Collector
6 Performance of Evacuated Tube Collectors
7 Case Study (Collector Field at the Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant)
71 Description of collector field
72 Performance of collector field
73 Economics
Parabolic Trough Collectors 299
Wolfgang Meinecke Deutsches Zentrum fuumlr Luft-und Raumfahrt eV (DLR German Aerospace Center)
Solar Energy Technology Division Koumlln Germany
1 Introduction
2 Brief History of Trough Development
3 State of the Art of Trough Applications
31 Conventional Thermal Water Desalination Applications
32 Solar Thermal Water Desalination Applications
33 Solar Electric Power Generation
34 Solar Process Heat Generation
35 Process Hot Water (Project Examples)
36 Process Steam (Project Examples)
37 Process Steam for Water Desalination (Project Examples)
38 Process Hot Air
4 Trough Technologies
41 LS 3 Trough Collector System
411 LS 3 Parabolic Reflector
412 Steel Support Structure
413 Absorber Element
414 Tracking System and Field Control System
415 Heat Transfer Fluid System
416 Steam Generator
417 Balance of Plant Technologies
418 Energy Storage System
42 IST Trough Collector System
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxv
421 IST Parabolic Reflector
422 Support Structure
423 Absorber Element
424 Tracking System and Field Control System
425 Heat Transfer Fluid System
426 Heat Exchanger
427 Balance of Plant Technology
428 Energy Storage
5 Prospects and Potential
51 Solar Electric Power Generation
52 Solar Process Heat Generation
53 Solar Thermal Water Desalination
6 Cost and Economic Aspects
61 Collector Investment Costs
611 LS 3 Collector Costs
612 IST Collector Costs
62 Other Economic Parameters
621 Fossil Fuel Prices
622 Solar Energy Yield
623 Solar Share
624 Plant Power Size
625 Capacity Factor
626 OampM Costs
627 Non-Technical Parameters
63 Costs of Solar Water Desalination
7 Conclusions
Index 363
About EOLSS 369
VOLUME V
Central Receivers 1
MM Elsayed Mechanical Engineering Department Kuwait University Safat Kuwait
1 Introduction
2 Heliostats Types and Design Shapes
3 Heliostat Angles
4 Heliostat Field Heliostat Layout
5 Heliostat Field Cosine Effect
6 Heliostat Field Preliminary Sizing of the Field
7 Heliostat Field Usefulness Efficiency
8 Reflected Solar Radiation
9 The Effective Sunshape
10 Principal Images and Relation between Receiver and Image Planes
11 Models to Predict the Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Image Plane
111 Incoming Ray Formulation
112 The Mirror Plane Formulation
113 Solar Disk Formulation
114 The Pinhole View
12 Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Receiver Surface Using the Separation of
VariableSuperposition Technique
121 Concept
122 Calculation of φ 123 Validation of Model Using Measurements
13 Receivers Types and Losses
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvi
14 Preliminary Sizing of the Receiver
15 Overall System Optimization
Configuration Theoretical Analysis and Performance of Simple Solar Stills 98
A Kumar Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources Solar Energy Center New Delhi India
1 Introduction
2 Configuration of Simple Solar Stills
21 Basic Principle
22 Classification
23 Single Basin Solar Stills
24 Inclined Solar Stills
241 Basin Type Solar Stills
242 Wick Type Solar Stills
25 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
26 Solar Earth Water Stills
27 Plastic Solar Stills
271 Life Raft Solar Still
272 Circular Solar Still
273 Extruded Plastic Solar Still
274 Concentric Tube Solar Still
28 A Typical Solar Distillation Plant
3 Theoretical Analysis of Simple Solar Stills
31 Heat and Mass Transfer in Solar Stills
311 Inside the Solar Still
312 Outside the Solar Still
32 Solar Radiation Balance
321 Transmission through Top Cover
322 Absorption in the Top Cover
33 Energy Balance Equations
34 Solution Procedure
4 Performance of Solar Stills
41 Single Basin Solar Stills
42 Inclined Solar Stills
43 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
44 Solar Earth Water Stills
45 Plastic Solar Stills
46 Case Studies
461 Australia
462 Greek Islands
463 India
47 Suggested Practices for Installing Solar Stills
Development in Simple Solar Stills 169
Hassan ES Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Modified Simple (Passive) Stills
21 Basin Still
211 Single Slope versus Double Slope Basin Stills
212 Basin Still with Cover Cooling
213 Basin Still with Treated Cover Surface
214 Basin Still with Additional Condenser
215 Basin Still with Black DyeMuddy Water
22 Wick Stills
221 Single-wick Stills
222 Multi-wick Stills
223 Wick versus Basin Stills
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvii
224 Combined Wick-Basin Stills
23 Other Stills Configurations
231 Vertical Microporous Evaporator Still
232 Cascade Solar Still
233 Still Integrated with Greenhouse
3 Externally Heated (Active) Solar Stills
31 Introduction
32 Stills Coupled to a Solar Collector
321 Direct and Indirect Heating
322 Use of Dye and Cover Cooling
323 Other Solar Heaters
33 Stills Coupled with Solar Concentrator
34 The Use of Waste Heat in Solar Stills
4 Other Types of Solar Distillation Systems
41 Water Recovery from Air
Multi-Effect Solar Stills 197
HES Fath Al-Jubail 31951 Saudi Arabia
1 Why Multi Effect
2 Double Effect Basin Stills
21 Double Basins Stills
22 Double Effect Tilted Stills
23 Purging Vapor to a Second Effect
3 Multi-Effect Multi-Wick Stills
4 Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
41 Introduction
42 Mass Diffusion
43 Comparison between Diffusion and Basin Stills
44 Description of Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
45 Analysis and Performance Considerations
5 Other Distillation Systems
51 Stacked Tray Stills
52 Multi-Effect Humidification-Dehumidification
Materials for Construction of Solar Stills 218
TA Lawand and J Ayoub Brace Research Institute Canada
1 Introduction
2 General Specifications of Solar Stills
3 Transparent Cover
4 Basin Liner
5 Solar Still Frame
6 Sealants
7 Insulation
8 Auxiliaries - Piping Pumping and Reservoirs
Reverse Osmosis by Solar Energy 225
W Bucher DLR German Aerospace Research Establishment Cologne Germany
1 Introduction
2 Basic Parameters and Energy Demand for Osmosis
21 Physical Properties of Hyperfiltration
22 Energy required for the RO Process
3 Solar Power Conversion Systems
31 Solar Conversion Principles
32 Technical Data of Solar Energy Conversion Methods
33 RO Plant Operation Utilizing Variable Energy Sources
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxviii
4 Reverse Osmosis System Configuration and Operation Aspects
41 Process Design of RO Desalination Systems
42 Procedural Steps and Data for Water Treatment and Energy Consumption
43 Components of RO -Desalination
431 Membranes and Modules
432 High Pressure Pumps
433 Pressure Regulating Devices
5 Solar Powered Desalination Units
51 Specific Figures or RO Systems
52 Solar Power Concepts for RO Desalination
53 Operational Experience with Solar driven RO Systems
6 Costs
61 Specific Cost Figures for the Plant Components
62 Water Delivery Cost
Availability of Solar Radiation and Its Estimation 265
VG Belessiotis Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems National Center for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun and the Radiation Emitted
21 The Physics of the Sun
22 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
3 The Extraterrestrial Radiation
31 What is the Solar Constant
32 Variations of the Extraterrestrial Radiation
33 The Black-body Emittance and Absorptance
34 Blackbody Absorbers - Application to Desalination
4 The Co-ordinate Systems The Basic Solar Angles
41 The Earth-Sun Relationships
42 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Sky
43 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Celestial Sphere
44 Earth-Sun Geometric Relationship
45 Time and its Units - Day Length
46 Terrestrial Solar Radiation
461 Estimation of Radiation Availability
462 Average Radiation Values - Clearness Index
463 Clear Sky Radiation
464 Sky Radiation
47 Atmospheric Factors Affecting Radiation
5 Computation of Insolation at the Earths Surface
51 Insolation Data
52 Measurement of Solar Radiation
53 Models for Solar Radiation
54 Where the Models Apply
55 Tilted Surfaces - Absorptance of Solar Radiation
551 Fixed Tilted Surfaces
552 Tracking Surfaces
6 Applications of Solar Radiation
7 Impact of Solar Energy to the Environment
Economics of Small Solar-Assisted Multiple-Effect Seawater Distillation Plants 296
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Configurations
3 Design and Sizing Considerations
31 Thermal Energy Requirement
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxix
32 Pumping Requirements
33 Collector Performance
34 Sizing Thermal Collector Area
35 Sizing the PV System
351 Sizing the PV Array
4 Economic Ground Rules and Water Cost Optimization
41 Capital Equipment Cost
42 Operating Costs
43 Optimum Cost of Water for each Plant Configuration
5 Results
6 Conclusion
A Solar-Assisted Sea Water Multiple Effect Distillation Plant 15 Years of Operating
Performance (1985-1999) 316
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Basic Design Concept
21 General Plant Description
22 Design Specifications
23 Evaporator Heat Transfer Coefficient
24 Tube Dimensions Heat Transfer Areas and Materials
3 Performance during Commissioning Tests
31 The MES Evaporator
32 The Solar Collector Field
33 The Heat Accumulator
34 Total Plant Performance
4 Performance History
41 The MES Evaporator
42 The Solar Collector Field
43 The Heat Accumulator
431 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
4311 The heat balance method
4312 The direct temperature measurement method
4313 Thermal stratification ratio
44 Total Plant Performance
5 Major Maintenance Activities
51 Equipment Failure and Replacement
52 Acid Cleanings and Silt Removal from Evaporator
6 Evaluation of Water Cost
61 Capital Costs
62 Operation and Maintenance Costs
7 Conclusions
Mathematical Simulation of a Solar Desalination Plant 341
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Description
3 System Operating Conditions
31 Solar Heat Collecting Subsystem
32 Evaporator Subsystem
4 Mathematical Modeling of System Components
41 Solar radiation model
42 Ambient temperature model
43 Solar collector subsystem
431 Effect of shade on solar radiation
432 Effect of dust on transmissivity of glass tubes
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxx
433 Control of heat collecting operation
434 Heat collection by solar collectors
435 Heat loss from piping
4351 Piping specifications
4352 Standard pipe lengths
4353 Heat loss from piping during operation of heat collecting pump
4354 Heat loss from piping while the heat collecting pump is shutdown
4355 Correction of piping heat loss
44 Heat accumulator subsystem
441 Temperature distribution
442 MES evaporator subsystem
5 The Simulation Program
51 Program structure
52 Input and output data
6 Results
7 Conclusions
Index 379
About EOLSS 385
VOLUME VI
Modeling and Design of Solar Energy Systems Including Solar Economics 1
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 F-Chart Method
11 Performance and Design of Liquid-Based Solar Heating Systems
111 Storage Capacity Correction
112 Collector Flow Rate Correction
113 Load Heat Exchanger Size Correction
12 Performance and Design of Air-Based Solar Heating Systems
121 Pebble Bed Storage Size Correction
122 Air Flow Rate Correction
13 Performance and Design of Solar Service Water Systems
14 Thermosiphon Solar Water Heating Systems
15 General Remarks
2 Modeling and Simulation of Solar Energy Systems
21 Simple System Models
211 Pipe Losses
22 F-Chart Program
23 Trnsys Simulation Program
24 Limitations of Simulations
3 Solar Economic Analysis
31 Life Cycle Costing
32 Life Cycle Analysis Method
33 Payback Time
331 Not Discounted Fuel Savings
332 Discounted Fuel Savings
34 Alternative Method
341 System Optimization Using Economic Analysis
35 Uncertainties in Economic Analysis
Solar Energy Power Generation and Desalination Systems 47
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 Global Energy Problems and the Role of Renewables
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxi
11 Energy demand
12 Energy environmental problems and sustainable development
13 Water demand and consumption
14 Water and energy
15 Desalination and energy
16 Renewable energy technologies
2 Solar Collectors
21 Parabolic trough collectors
22 Fresnel collectors
23 Parabolic dish reflector
24 Heliostat field collector
3 Power Generation and Industrial Process Heat Systems
31 Parabolic trough collector systems
32 Power tower systems
33 Dish systems
34 Solar ponds
341 Heat extraction and applications
35 Industrial process heat systems
36 Solar industrial steam generation systems
4 Desalination Processes
41 Direct collection systems
42 Indirect collection systems
421 The multi-stage flash process
422 The multiple-effect distillation process
423 The vapor-compression process
424 Reverse osmosis
425 Electrodialysis
Solar Updraft Power Plant Technology Basic Concepts and Structural Design 94
Francesca Lupi University of Florence Florence Italy
Claudio Borri University of Florence Florence Italy
Wilfried B Kraumltzig Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
Hans-Juumlrgen Niemann Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
1 Solar Updraft Power Technology Introduction and Working Principles
2 History of the Solar Updraft Power Technology
21 Solar Tower Prototype in Manzanares (Spain)
3 Evaluation of Plant Efficiency
31 The Collector
32 The Chimney
33 The Turbines
34 Electric Power Generated by Supps
4 The Collector
5 Actions on Solar Updraft Towers
6 Wind Loading on Solar Updraft Towers
61 Wind Flow Structure in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer at High Altitudes
611 Boundary Layer Meteorology
612 The Ekman Spiral
613 Theoretical Considerations on the Mean Wind and Turbulence in the Ekman Layer
62 Modeling of the Wind Load on Solar Towers
621 Mean Wind Load
622 Response to Wind Turbulence
623 Fluctuating Wind Load
624 Equivalent Static Wind Pressures
625 Vortex Excitation
626 Other Effects The Effect of the Efflux
63 Wind Load on the Collector Roof
7 Structural Behavior of Solar Updraft Towers
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxii
71 Structural Elements of Solar Tower Shells
72 Some Typical Response Characteristics of Solar Tower Shells Vibration and Instability
Behavior
73 Non-Linear Tower Response
8 Structural Optimization of Solar Updraft Towers
81 The Role of the Stiffening Rings in the Structural Design of Solar Towers
82 Strategies of Optimization
9 Technology of Construction
Renewable Energy Potential in The Arab Region 162
Mohammed Mostafa El-Khayat General Manager of Planning New and Renewable Energy Authority
NREA Cairo Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Research Problem and Objectives
111 Research Problem
12 Research Objectives
2 Energy Demand
3 The Current Situation of Renewable Energy
31 Hydropower
32 Wind Energy
33 Solar Energy
34 Biomass and Geothermal Energy
4 Strategies
5 Institutional and Regulatory Framework
6 Main Policies and Incentives
7 RE Policies and Incentives Profiles
71 Algeria
72 Egypt
73 Jordan
74 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
75 Lebanon
76 Libya
77 Morocco
78 Palestine
79 Sudan
710 Syria
711 Tunisia
712 United Arab Emirates
713 Yemen
8 Financing Schemes and Investment Opportunities
9 Motivations and Barriers of Renewable Energy
10 Renewable Energy Initiatives
101 Arabian Initiatives
102 DESERTEC
11 Potential of Renewable Energy in the Region
12 The proposed mechanisms to enhance and accelerate the rate of using RE applications
13 The situation of localizing RE technologies
14 RE and climate change in Arab countries
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
198
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiii
22 Humidifying with Cooling and Dehumidifying Processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in HD Desalination Process
25 Overview on Some Desalination HD Projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process Description
32 The Condenser in the SWGH
321 Different Condenser Layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the Condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of Condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot Plant
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH Project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot Plant
522 Performances of the Pilot Plant
53 The SWGH Project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot Plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Evolution of Photovoltaic Materials for Renewable Energy Development 262
Abdelilah Slaoui InESS ndash CNRS ndash University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
Jef Poortmans IMEC Leuven Belgium
Marko Topic University of Ljubljana Faculty of Elec Eng Ljubljana Slovenia
Gavin Conibeer ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence UNSW Sydney Australia
1 General Introduction
2 Photovoltaic Materials and Technologies State of the Art
21 Crystalline Silicon
22 Thin Films
221 Amorphous Silicon
222 Nanocrystalline and Microcrystalline Silicon
223 Polycrystalline Silicon
224 Copper Indium Selenide Its alloys and Related Chalcopyrites
225 Cadmium Telluride
226 Materials for Photochemical Solar Cells
227 Materials for Organic Solar Cells
3 Next Generation Solar Cells
31 Introduction
32 Multiple energy level approaches
33 Multiple Exciton Generation solar cells
34 Intermediate Band (IB) cells
35 Hot carrier cells
4 Conclusions and Perspectives
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiv
Wind and Solar Renewable Energy Potential Resources Estimation 302
Philippe Drobinski Institut Pierre Simon LaplaceLaboratoire de Meacuteteacuteorologie Dynamique CNRSEcole
Polytechnique Palaiseau France
1 Renewable Wind and Solar Energies The Context
11 An Economical and Environmental Necessity
12 Energy Definitions and Units
2 Basic Knowledge in Geophysics for Energy Resource Evaluation
21 Earth Energy Budget and Atmospheric Motion
22 Near Surface Wind
23 Impacts of Clouds and Aerosols on Surface Solar Radiation
3 Wind Energy Resource
31 Wind Energy A Brief History
32 Wind Energy Resources Evaluation
33 Wind Energy Installed Capacity in the World
4 Solar Energy Resources
41 Solar Energy An Introduction
42 Worldwide Solar Heat
5 Methods for Wind and Solar Energy Resources Forecast
Index 353
About EOLSS 361
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xi
721 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
722 Thermal stratification ratio
73 Evaporating system
731 Evaporator performance
74 Performance of the plant
8 Plant Maintenance and Modifications
81 Heat collecting system
811 Cleaning the solar collector field
812 Corrosion of the collector air vent valves
813 Vacuum loss inside glass tubes
814 Scale prevention
815 Anti-corrosion chemical for use in the heat collecting water
816 Measures against power failure
82 Evaporating system
821 Evaporator pump maintenance
822 Inspection of the evaporator
823 Change in operating sequence
825 Modification of the method of feeding sealing water to the priming vacuum pump
824 Modification of the system for injecting anti-scale chemical
9 Simulation Program and its Validation
91 Simulation program
911 Outline
912 Flow chart of the SOLDES program
913 Program Input and output data
914 Mathematical Models
92 Comparison of simulation and actually measured Values
10 Evaluation of the Test Plant
101 Optimum operating conditions
102 Simulation results
103 Evaluation of the solar plant
11 Economic Considerations and Comparison with Conventional MED Plants
111 Basic economic parameters
112 Capital equipment cost
1121 Capital cost of MED evaporator
1122 Capital cost of solar thermal collectors
1123 Capital cost of heat accumulator
1124 Capital cost of steam generator for conventional MED systems
1125 Capital cost of diesel generator
113 Operation and maintenance expenses
1131 Consumable chemical expenses
1132 Electrical energy consumption
1133 Spare parts cost
1134 Personnel cost
114 Estimating the cost of water produced
12 Results of the Economic Study
13 Conclusion
131 System Reliability
132 Response to varying weather condition
133 Establishment of a method for cleaning of solar collectors
134 Comparison of the test plant results with that of the basic design
Index 335
About EOLSS 341
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xii
VOLUME III
Solar Irradiation Fundamentals 1
Zekacirci Sen Istanbul Technical University Maslak 34469 Istanbul Turkey
1 Introduction
2 The Sun
3 Atmospheric effects and Electro-magnetic Radiation (EMR) spectrum
4 Astronomic effects
5 Meteorological effects
51 Cloud Index
6 Topographic effects
7 Solar parameters
71 Solar geometry quantities
711 Earth eccentricity
712 Declination angle
713 Zenith angle
72 Solar time quantities
721 Solar time
722 Equation of time
723 Apparent solar time (AST)
73 Solar irradiation quantities
731 Solar constant
732 Irradiation path
8 Solar radiation modeling
81 Solar energy laws
82 Solar irradiation calculation
83 Estimation of clear sky radiation
84 Irradiation model
9 Astronomic calculations
91 The Daily Solar Profile
92 Daily solar energy on horizontal surface
93 Solar energy on inclined surface
10 Solar-Hydrogen Energy
11 Conclusions
Direct Solar Energy 67
S C Bhattacharya and S Kumar Energy Program Asian Institute of Technology Pathumthani
Thailand
1 Introduction
11 A Brief History of Energy
12 Origin of Solar Energy
13 Solar Thermal Energy
14 Photovoltaics (PV)
15 The Future of Solar Energy
2 Solar Radiation
21 Sun and Earth
22 Solar Radiation Estimation
3 Solar Thermal Conversion
31 Solar Collectors
311 Flat Plate Collectors
312 Concentrating Collectors
313 Evacuated Type Collectors
314 Selective Surfaces
32 Solar Water Heating
321 Introduction
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xiii
322 Natural Circulation Systems
323 Forced Circulation Systems
324 Materials Used in Solar Water Heaters
325 Advantages and Disadvantages
33 Solar Space Heating
331 Active Systems
332 Passive Systems
333 Solar District Heating
34 Solar Thermal Power Generation
341 Introduction
342 Parabolic Trough Systems
343 Power Towers
344 Parabolic Dish
35 Solar Drying
351 Introduction
352 Types of Solar Drier
353 Advantages of Solar Drying
4 Solar Photovoltaic Conversion
41 Solar Cells and Modules
42 Other Components of PV Systems
43 PV Applications
5 Other Solar Technologies
51 Solar Photochemical Conversion
52 Space Solar Power
521 Introduction
522 The SSP Concept
523 Promise and Problems
524 Future Prospects
6 Solar Energy Storage
61 Solar Thermal Energy Storage
611 Sensible Heat Storage
612 Latent Heat Storage
613 Chemical Energy Storage
614 Solar Electrical Energy Storage
7 Environmental Impacts of Solar Energy
71 General Impacts
72 Solar Thermal Systems
73 PV Systems
74 Health and Environmental Aspects
75 Energy Payback and CO2 Abatement
76 Other implications
761 Batteries
762 Operation and Decommissioning
8 The Way Forward
81 General
82 Solar Thermal Systems
83 PV Systems
9 Concluding Remarks
Solar Drying - A Technology for Sustainable Agriculture and Food Production 112
RJ Fuller Principal Fellow IDTC Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of
Melbourne Australia
1 Introduction
2 Drying Fundamentals
3 Sun vs Solar Drying
4 Types of Solar Dryer
41 Direct Mode
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xiv
42 Indirect Mode
43 Mixed Mode
44 Further Classifications
441 Natural Convection
442 Forced Convection
45 Other Differences
451 Supplementary Energy
452 Air Flow Direction
453 Heat Transfer Fluid
454 Thermal Storage
5 Solar Dryers in Practice
51 Direct mode natural convection dryers
52 Direct Mode Forced Convection Dryers
53 Indirect Mode Forced Convection Dryers
6 Performance Evaluation of Solar Dryers
61 Overall System Drying Efficiency
62 Pick-up Efficiency
63 Solar Collection Efficiency
64 Performance of Solar Dryers
65 Comparative Testing
7 Designing Solar Drying Systems
71 Rules-of-Thumb
72 Sizing Equations
73 Chart Methods
74 Simulation Techniques
8 Non-technical Factors
81 Economics
82 Practical Issues
83 Technology Transfer
84 Developing Country Issues
85 Industrialized Country Issues
9 Prospects and Future Developments
91 Technical Developments
92 Costs
93 Design
94 External Factors
10 Conclusions
A Short Historical Review of Renewable Energy 136
E Delyannis NCSR Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems ldquoDemokritosrdquo Aghia Paraskevi
Greece
A El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority (WEA) Abu-Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
11 The History of Renewable Energy Achievements
12 The Set-up of this Historical Review
2 The Renewable Energies in the Antiquity
21 From Legends to the First Written Documents
3 The Power of the Sun
31 The Dawn of the History
32 The Capture of the Suns Radiation
321 Antiquity to Middle Age The Philosophers
322 Renaissance to the 20th Century The Founders
323 The 20th Century The Engineers
324 The Present Times The Technologists
4 The Development of the Solar Distillation
41 From Philosophy to Practice
42 The First Large Applications
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xv
43 The Last 50 Years
5 Solar Driven Desalination
51 General Considerations
52 The Solar Driven Distillation Plants
53 Freezing Plants
54 Electrodialysis Plants
55 Solar Powered Reverse Osmosis Plants
6 The Energy of the Mother Gaia
7 The Power of Aeolos
71 The Aeolian Gods
72 The Harvest of the Winds Energy
73 The Raise and the Fall of Windmills
74 Wind Turbine Generation
8 The Power of the Moving Water
81 Hydraulic Power
9 The Impulsive Power of Poseidon
91 The Power of the Waves
92 The Tides and their Energy
93 The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) System
Renewable Energy Resources 186
V Belessiotis and E Delyannis NCSR Demokritos Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems
Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun as an Energy Source
21 The Availability of Solar Energy
22 Application of Solar Energy to Desalination
3 The Geothermal Energy
31 Introduction
32 The Geothermal Resources System
321 Hydrothermal Reservoirs
322 The Geopressurized Reservoirs
323 The Hot Dry Rocks
33 The Available Resources
34 The Geographic Distribution of Reservoirs
35 The Geothermal Brines
36 Application of Geothermal Resources
4 The Hydraulic Energy
41 Introduction
42 The Available Hydropower Resources
43 Limit of Hydropower Output
5 Wind Energy Resources
51 The Origin of Wind
52 The Distribution of Wind Forces
53 Wind Speed Distribution
54 The Utilization of the Wind Energy
6 Biomass as an Energy Source
61 Introduction
62 The Origin of Biomass
63 The Alternate Biomass Products
64 Biomass Residues
641 The Crop Residues
642 Fuel Wood
643 Sugar Crops
644 Livestock Manure
65 Refuse and Municipal Sewage
66 Plantation Biomass
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xvi
7 Thermal Energy from Biomass
71 Introduction
72 The Energy Conversion Methods
73 Environmental Impacts of Biomass Energy Sources
8 The Ocean Systems Energy Resources
81 Introduction
82 The Energy of the Waves
821 The Origin of the Waves
822 Distribution of Wave Resources
83 The Tidal Power as Energy Source
831 The Generation of Tides
832 The Tidal Potential
84 The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) Source
841 The Trapping of the OTEC Energy
Desalination with Renewable Energy - A Review 227
Ali M El-Nashar 22 Ahmed Gharbo St Apt 703 Zizinia Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Commercial Desalination Processes and Their Energy Consumption
21 Description of the Commercial Desalination Processes
211 Distillation Processes
212 Membrane Processes
22 Technical and Economic Characteristics of Commercial Desalination Processes
3 Available Renewable Energy Sources
31 Solar Energy
32 Wind Energy
33 Geothermal Energy
34 Other Renewable Energy Sources
4 Devices for Transforming Renewable Energy into Useful Energy for Desalination
41 Solar Collectors
42 Solar Ponds
43 Photovoltaic Cells
44 Wind Turbines
5 Coupling of Desalination Processes and Renewable Energy
51 Direct and Indirect Coupling of Solar Energy and Desalination
511 Direct coupling (Solar still technology)
512 Indirect Coupling
52 Desalination Systems Driven by Solar Thermal Energy
521 Solar Thermal Collectors-MSF Desalination
522 Solar Thermal Collectors-MED Desalination
53 Desalination Systems Driven by Wind Energy
531 Wind-MVC Systems
532 Wind-RO Systems
54 Desalination Systems Driven by Solar Photovoltaics (PV)
55 Hybrid Desalination Systems
6 Current Status
7 Selection Criteria among Different RE Desalination Technologies
8 Performance of Selected RE Desalination Projects
81 Solar Stills
82 Wind-Energy Driven RO Desalination Technology
83 PV-Powered Seawater RO System
84 Abu Dhabi Solar MED Desalination Plant
9 Economics of RE Desalination
91 Financial Analysis
92 Cost of Water from RES Desalination Plants
10 Conclusion
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xvii
Renewable Energy and Desalination Systems 301
Asghar Husain International Center for Water and Energy Systems (ICWES) Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
11 Need for Desalination
2 What Is Sustainability
3 Review of Desalination Technologies
31 Thermal-Based Processes
32 Membrane ndash Based Technologies
33 Renewable Energies
4 Desalination Using Solar Energy
41 Direct Utilization of Solar Radiation in the Solar Still
42 Solar Collectors
43 Solar Concentrating System
44 Solar Ponds
45 Photovoltaic Cells
46 Storage of Solar Energy
5 Desalination Using Other Renewable Energies
51 Wind Energy
52 Geothermal Energy
53 Wave Energy
54 Tidal Energy
55 Ocean Temperature Difference or Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
56 Hydraulic Energy
57 Biomass as Energy Source
6 Concluding Remarks
Why Use Renewable Energy for Desalination 342
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 The Need of Desalination for Economic Development in Remote Arid Areas
3 The Need of Energy for Desalination
4 The Availability of Renewable Energy
5 The Economic and Social Benefits of Using Renewable Energy for Desalination
6 Examples of Arid Remote Regions where Renewable Energy for Desalination can have a High
Economic Potential
61 The Southern and Eastern Mediterranean Regions
62 The Mediterranean Islands
63 The Arab Gulf Region
7 Conclusions
Thermal Energy Storage 356
Hassan E S Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Solar Energy Storage
12 Thermal Energy Storage
13 Thermal Storage Efficiency
14 Thermal Insulation
2 Sensible Heat Storage
21 Introduction
22 Low Temperature Sensible Heat Storage
221 Storage in Liquids
23 Intermediate and High Temperature Sensible Heat Storage
231 Storage in Fluids
232 Storage in Solids
233 Storage in Fluid-Solid Media
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xviii
24 Concluding Remarks
3 Latent Heat (Phase Change) Storage
31 Introduction
32 Low Temperature Latent Heat Storage
321 Phase Change Materials
322 Storage Systems Problems
33 Intermediate and High Temperature Latent Heat Storage
34 Concluding Remarks
35 Heat of Vaporization
4 Combined Sensible and Latent Heat Storage
5 Closing Remarks
6 Some Recent Developments
61 Sensible Heat Storage
62 Latent Heat Storage
621 Heat Transfer with Thermal Energy Storage
622 Storage System Performance
623 Solar Collector Integrated with Storage System
Electrical Energy Storage 387
J Garche Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research Baden-Wuumlrttemberg Germany
A Jossen Energy Storage and Energy Conversion Division Ulm Germany
1 Introduction
2 Systems with Internal Storage
21 Demands on the Battery
22 Lead-Acid Battery
221 Electrochemical Reactions
222 Operation values
223 Types of Lead-Acid Batteries
2231 Differentiation by electrodes
2232 Batteries with positive plates protected against active mass shedding
2233 Differentiation by container technology
224 Main Problems while Operation of Lead-Acid Batteries
2241 Charging and Overdischarge
2242 Deep Discharge
2243 Sulfation
225 Other Battery Systems
2251 Nickel-Cadmium Battery
2252 New Battery Systems
3 Systems with External Storage
31 Gas-Accumulator
32 Redox-Flow-Systems
4 Storage Sizing
Tidal Energy 406
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Consideration
5 Prospects
Index 416
About EOLSS 421
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xix
VOLUME IV
Desalination Using Tidal Energy 1
Abdalla S Hanafi Cairo University Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Tides
21 Spring and Neap Tides
3 Tidal Power Plants
31 Barrage
32 Locks and Gates
33 Power House
34 Basins
35 Storage
36 Economical Considerations
37 Tidal Sites
4 Tidal Desalination Technologies
41 Tidal-Vapor Compression Desalination
42 Tidal-Reverse Osmosis
421 Overall Analysis of the Reverse Osmosis Modules
43 Tidal - Electrodialysis (ED)
431 Electrodialysis DC Power
44 Tidal Freezing-Melting (FM)
441 Freezing-Melting System Analysis
5 Economic Comparisons with Wind and Solar Energy
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
15
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
22 Humidifying with cooling and dehumidifying processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in Desalination HD Process
25 Overview on Some desalination HD projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process description
32 The condenser in the SWGH
321 Different condenser layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot plant
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xx
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot plant
522 Performances of the SWGH
53 Case Study 3 The SWGH project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Wave Energy 81
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Considerations
5 Prospects
Wind Energy 97
B Sorensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Worldwide Distribution of Wind Energy Resources
11 Physical Potential Wind Maps
12 Practical Potential for Wind Turbines
13 Restrictions due to Competing Land Use
14 Off-Shore Potential
15 Methods for Determining Local Potential Atlas Technique
16 Overall Assessment of Potential
2 Wind Turbine Technology
21 Current Status and Prospects for the Future
22 Basic Theory Wind Turbine Types and Efficiencies
23 Prospects for Further Development
24 Current Penetration of Wind Power Utilization
25 National Plans and Future Prospects
26 Plant Lifetime and Reliability
27 Impacts on Requirements for Transmission and Back-Up
28 Energy Storage and Demand Management
3 Economic Social and Environmental Impacts of Wind Energy Utilization
31 Current Cost and Cost Trends
32 Employment Generation
33 Energy Balance
34 Noise
35 Aspects of Decentralized Energy Supply
36 Life-Cycle Estimate of Externalities Including Construction and Decommissioning Impacts
4 Evaluation of Greenhouse Warming Mitigation Potential of Wind Power
41 Assessment of Marginal Life-Cycle Impacts Including Greenhouse Warming
42 Elements of Non-Marginal Analysis of Energy Systems with Large Wind Power Share
43 Relationship between Demand Development and the Valuations of Wind Energy
44 Concluding Remarks
Availability of Wind Energy and Its Estimation 139
Richard Morris Richard Morris Associates Glasgow United Kingdom
1 The Sun as the Wind Driver
2 The Nature of Wind
3 Wind Power Statistics
4 Estimating Wind Power
5 Siting for Wind Energy
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxi
The Use of Geothermal Energy in Desalination 155
BW Tleimat Water Reuse Technology Alamo California USA
ADK Laird (deceased) Professor Emeritus and Director Emeritus Sea Water Conversion Laboratory
University of California Berkeley California USA
1 Introduction
2 Historical Perspective
3 Heat Transfer from Geothermal Reservoirs
4 Geothermal Energy Utilization
5 Electricity Generation
6 Water Production from Geothermal Sources
7 Idealized Liquid-dominated Reservoirs
8 Water and Power Generation Effects of Some System Parameters
9 Multiple-effect and Multistage Distillation Processes
10 Energy-budget Management
11 Processes for Decentralized Desalination
12 Water-budget Management
13 Solids-budget Management
Solar Photovoltaic Energy Conversion 181
G Schumm Zentrum fuer Sonnenenergie und Wasserstoff-Forschung Baden Wuerttemberg Stuttgart
Germany
1 The General Photovoltaic System
2 Non-Concentrating PV Systems
3 Tracking and Concentrating PV Systems
Flat-Plate Collectors 191
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Solar Collector Applications
3 Definitions
31 Solar Collectors
311 Solar Thermal Collector
312 Flat-Plate Collector
32 Construction Elements of a Solar Collector
321 Absorber Plate or Selective Surface
322 The Transparent Cover
323 The Collector Insulation
324 The Heat Transfer Medium
33 The Surface Areas
331 The Surface Area of the Absorber Plate
332 The Transparent Cover Surface
333 Total Surface Area
34 Operational Characteristics of the Collector
341 Collector efficiency (η)
342 Thermal Capacity of the Collector (C)
343 Pressure Drop (Δp)
344 Stagnant Conditions
345 Incidence Angle Coefficient (kθ)
35 The Characteristic Parameters of the Collector
351 The cover reflectance (ρc)
353 Cover Absorptance (αc)
352 Cover Transmittance (τc)
354 Coefficient of cover Emissivity (εc)
355 Coefficient of Absorber Emissivity
356 Selective Surface
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxii
357 Selective Coat
358 Collector Efficiency Factor (Fprime) 359 Collector Flow Factor (FPrime) 3510 Collector Heat Removal Factor (FR)
3511 Collector Heat Loss Coefficient (UL)
4 Main Collector Components
41 The Solar Radiation Absorber
42 The Transparent Cover
43 Thermal Insulation
44 The Casing of the Collector
45 The Supporting of the Collector
5 The Solar Absorbers
51 Types of Solar Absorbers
511 Absorbers of Common Paint
512 Selective coat Absorbers
52 Forms of Absorbers and Tubes
521 General considerations
522 Sandwich Type Absorber
523 Roll Bond Tube Absorber
524 Soldered Type Absorbers
525 Absorbers with Ω Type Fins
6 Characteristics of Flat-Plate Collectors
61 General considerations
62 Installation Configuration of a Collector System
63 Orientation and Slope of the Collector
7 Dynamic Operational Characteristics of a Collector
71 The Incident Angle Coefficient
72 The Thermal Capacity of the Collector C
73 The Heat Removal Factor FR
8 The Thermal Characteristics of a Collector
81 Determination of the Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL
82 Determination of Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL for in Series Interconnection
83 Equivalent Thermal Loss between Tubes and Collector
84 The Influence of Wind Velocity
9 Shading of the Collectors
10 Basic Calculation Methods
101 Cover Reflectance
102 Cover Transmittance
103 The Transmittance-Absorptance Product
104 Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
105 Multi-Cover Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
11 The Heat Transfer Loss Coefficients
111 Loss Coefficient Uc
112 Loss Coefficient Ub
113 Loss Coefficient Us
114 The Collector Efficiency Factor Fprime 115 Collector flow factor FPrime Large Active Solar Systems Load 220
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and other Energy Systems National Centre for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Estimation of Thermal Load
21 Estimation of the Required Heat Qload
22 Estimation of the Required Heat for the Water Qw
23 Estimation of the Heat Loss in Distribution Pipes Qp
24 Estimation of Heat Loss in the Storage Tank Qt
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiii
Large Active Solar Systems Typical Economic Analysis 225
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Cost of a Solar Hot Water System
21 Initial Capital Cost
22 Operational Costs
221 Cost of Fuel
222 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
223 Cost of Maintenance
224 Cost for Loans
225 Costs for Insurance
226 Miscellaneous Expenses
3 Cost of Conventional Hot Water System
31 Operational Costs
311 Cost of Fuel
312 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
313 Cost of Maintenance
4 Inflation
5 Rate of Interest
6 Methods of Life Cycle Cost
61 General
62 Present and Future Costs
63 Yearly Instalment
64 Yearly Expenses
7 Methodology
8 Present Value Factor
9 Comparison Methodology
Integration of Solar Pond with Water Desalination 240
U Fisher J Weinberg and B Doron Ormat Industries Ltd Yavne Israel
1 Introduction
2 Historical Background
3 The Solar Pond
31 Structure
32 Heat Absorption and Storage
33 Main Demands when Building a Pond
331 Surface Area
332 Surface Water Make-up
333 Concentrated Brine Supply
34 How to Build a Solar Pond
341 Geometry or Shape
342 Lining
343 Construction Materials in the Pond
344 Initial Filling and Build-up of Gradient
35 How to Control
36 Heat Losses (Ground Diffusion Evaporation)
361 Top Losses
362 Bottom Heat Losses
37 Disturbances
371 Algae
372 Corrosion
373 Wind
38 Heat Extraction
39 Fuel Assisted Solar Ponds
310 Maintenance
3101 Clarity
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiv
3102 Cleaning of Wind Breakers
3103 Blow Down
3104 Make-up
3105 Leakages
311 Practical Size of a Single Pond
312 Investment in Solar Ponds
313 OampM Costs
4 Desalination Processes Coupled to the Solar Pond
41 Economic Aspects of Coupling Desalination Plants to Solar Ponds
411 Desalination Processes
412 The Choice and Proportion of Producing Heat and Power in the Solar Pond
4121 The Solar Pond Yield
4122 Desalination Plant Performance
4123 The Impact of Daily and Seasonal Fluctuations
4124 Economic Considerations and Evaluations
42 Experience with SP-Desalination Systems
43 Conclusions
Evacuated Tube Collectors 276
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Current Designs of Evacuated Tube Collectors
3 Thermal Analysis
4 Analysis of Flat Plate Evacuated Tube Collector
5 Analysis of Concentric-Tube Collector
6 Performance of Evacuated Tube Collectors
7 Case Study (Collector Field at the Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant)
71 Description of collector field
72 Performance of collector field
73 Economics
Parabolic Trough Collectors 299
Wolfgang Meinecke Deutsches Zentrum fuumlr Luft-und Raumfahrt eV (DLR German Aerospace Center)
Solar Energy Technology Division Koumlln Germany
1 Introduction
2 Brief History of Trough Development
3 State of the Art of Trough Applications
31 Conventional Thermal Water Desalination Applications
32 Solar Thermal Water Desalination Applications
33 Solar Electric Power Generation
34 Solar Process Heat Generation
35 Process Hot Water (Project Examples)
36 Process Steam (Project Examples)
37 Process Steam for Water Desalination (Project Examples)
38 Process Hot Air
4 Trough Technologies
41 LS 3 Trough Collector System
411 LS 3 Parabolic Reflector
412 Steel Support Structure
413 Absorber Element
414 Tracking System and Field Control System
415 Heat Transfer Fluid System
416 Steam Generator
417 Balance of Plant Technologies
418 Energy Storage System
42 IST Trough Collector System
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxv
421 IST Parabolic Reflector
422 Support Structure
423 Absorber Element
424 Tracking System and Field Control System
425 Heat Transfer Fluid System
426 Heat Exchanger
427 Balance of Plant Technology
428 Energy Storage
5 Prospects and Potential
51 Solar Electric Power Generation
52 Solar Process Heat Generation
53 Solar Thermal Water Desalination
6 Cost and Economic Aspects
61 Collector Investment Costs
611 LS 3 Collector Costs
612 IST Collector Costs
62 Other Economic Parameters
621 Fossil Fuel Prices
622 Solar Energy Yield
623 Solar Share
624 Plant Power Size
625 Capacity Factor
626 OampM Costs
627 Non-Technical Parameters
63 Costs of Solar Water Desalination
7 Conclusions
Index 363
About EOLSS 369
VOLUME V
Central Receivers 1
MM Elsayed Mechanical Engineering Department Kuwait University Safat Kuwait
1 Introduction
2 Heliostats Types and Design Shapes
3 Heliostat Angles
4 Heliostat Field Heliostat Layout
5 Heliostat Field Cosine Effect
6 Heliostat Field Preliminary Sizing of the Field
7 Heliostat Field Usefulness Efficiency
8 Reflected Solar Radiation
9 The Effective Sunshape
10 Principal Images and Relation between Receiver and Image Planes
11 Models to Predict the Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Image Plane
111 Incoming Ray Formulation
112 The Mirror Plane Formulation
113 Solar Disk Formulation
114 The Pinhole View
12 Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Receiver Surface Using the Separation of
VariableSuperposition Technique
121 Concept
122 Calculation of φ 123 Validation of Model Using Measurements
13 Receivers Types and Losses
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvi
14 Preliminary Sizing of the Receiver
15 Overall System Optimization
Configuration Theoretical Analysis and Performance of Simple Solar Stills 98
A Kumar Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources Solar Energy Center New Delhi India
1 Introduction
2 Configuration of Simple Solar Stills
21 Basic Principle
22 Classification
23 Single Basin Solar Stills
24 Inclined Solar Stills
241 Basin Type Solar Stills
242 Wick Type Solar Stills
25 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
26 Solar Earth Water Stills
27 Plastic Solar Stills
271 Life Raft Solar Still
272 Circular Solar Still
273 Extruded Plastic Solar Still
274 Concentric Tube Solar Still
28 A Typical Solar Distillation Plant
3 Theoretical Analysis of Simple Solar Stills
31 Heat and Mass Transfer in Solar Stills
311 Inside the Solar Still
312 Outside the Solar Still
32 Solar Radiation Balance
321 Transmission through Top Cover
322 Absorption in the Top Cover
33 Energy Balance Equations
34 Solution Procedure
4 Performance of Solar Stills
41 Single Basin Solar Stills
42 Inclined Solar Stills
43 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
44 Solar Earth Water Stills
45 Plastic Solar Stills
46 Case Studies
461 Australia
462 Greek Islands
463 India
47 Suggested Practices for Installing Solar Stills
Development in Simple Solar Stills 169
Hassan ES Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Modified Simple (Passive) Stills
21 Basin Still
211 Single Slope versus Double Slope Basin Stills
212 Basin Still with Cover Cooling
213 Basin Still with Treated Cover Surface
214 Basin Still with Additional Condenser
215 Basin Still with Black DyeMuddy Water
22 Wick Stills
221 Single-wick Stills
222 Multi-wick Stills
223 Wick versus Basin Stills
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvii
224 Combined Wick-Basin Stills
23 Other Stills Configurations
231 Vertical Microporous Evaporator Still
232 Cascade Solar Still
233 Still Integrated with Greenhouse
3 Externally Heated (Active) Solar Stills
31 Introduction
32 Stills Coupled to a Solar Collector
321 Direct and Indirect Heating
322 Use of Dye and Cover Cooling
323 Other Solar Heaters
33 Stills Coupled with Solar Concentrator
34 The Use of Waste Heat in Solar Stills
4 Other Types of Solar Distillation Systems
41 Water Recovery from Air
Multi-Effect Solar Stills 197
HES Fath Al-Jubail 31951 Saudi Arabia
1 Why Multi Effect
2 Double Effect Basin Stills
21 Double Basins Stills
22 Double Effect Tilted Stills
23 Purging Vapor to a Second Effect
3 Multi-Effect Multi-Wick Stills
4 Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
41 Introduction
42 Mass Diffusion
43 Comparison between Diffusion and Basin Stills
44 Description of Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
45 Analysis and Performance Considerations
5 Other Distillation Systems
51 Stacked Tray Stills
52 Multi-Effect Humidification-Dehumidification
Materials for Construction of Solar Stills 218
TA Lawand and J Ayoub Brace Research Institute Canada
1 Introduction
2 General Specifications of Solar Stills
3 Transparent Cover
4 Basin Liner
5 Solar Still Frame
6 Sealants
7 Insulation
8 Auxiliaries - Piping Pumping and Reservoirs
Reverse Osmosis by Solar Energy 225
W Bucher DLR German Aerospace Research Establishment Cologne Germany
1 Introduction
2 Basic Parameters and Energy Demand for Osmosis
21 Physical Properties of Hyperfiltration
22 Energy required for the RO Process
3 Solar Power Conversion Systems
31 Solar Conversion Principles
32 Technical Data of Solar Energy Conversion Methods
33 RO Plant Operation Utilizing Variable Energy Sources
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxviii
4 Reverse Osmosis System Configuration and Operation Aspects
41 Process Design of RO Desalination Systems
42 Procedural Steps and Data for Water Treatment and Energy Consumption
43 Components of RO -Desalination
431 Membranes and Modules
432 High Pressure Pumps
433 Pressure Regulating Devices
5 Solar Powered Desalination Units
51 Specific Figures or RO Systems
52 Solar Power Concepts for RO Desalination
53 Operational Experience with Solar driven RO Systems
6 Costs
61 Specific Cost Figures for the Plant Components
62 Water Delivery Cost
Availability of Solar Radiation and Its Estimation 265
VG Belessiotis Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems National Center for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun and the Radiation Emitted
21 The Physics of the Sun
22 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
3 The Extraterrestrial Radiation
31 What is the Solar Constant
32 Variations of the Extraterrestrial Radiation
33 The Black-body Emittance and Absorptance
34 Blackbody Absorbers - Application to Desalination
4 The Co-ordinate Systems The Basic Solar Angles
41 The Earth-Sun Relationships
42 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Sky
43 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Celestial Sphere
44 Earth-Sun Geometric Relationship
45 Time and its Units - Day Length
46 Terrestrial Solar Radiation
461 Estimation of Radiation Availability
462 Average Radiation Values - Clearness Index
463 Clear Sky Radiation
464 Sky Radiation
47 Atmospheric Factors Affecting Radiation
5 Computation of Insolation at the Earths Surface
51 Insolation Data
52 Measurement of Solar Radiation
53 Models for Solar Radiation
54 Where the Models Apply
55 Tilted Surfaces - Absorptance of Solar Radiation
551 Fixed Tilted Surfaces
552 Tracking Surfaces
6 Applications of Solar Radiation
7 Impact of Solar Energy to the Environment
Economics of Small Solar-Assisted Multiple-Effect Seawater Distillation Plants 296
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Configurations
3 Design and Sizing Considerations
31 Thermal Energy Requirement
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxix
32 Pumping Requirements
33 Collector Performance
34 Sizing Thermal Collector Area
35 Sizing the PV System
351 Sizing the PV Array
4 Economic Ground Rules and Water Cost Optimization
41 Capital Equipment Cost
42 Operating Costs
43 Optimum Cost of Water for each Plant Configuration
5 Results
6 Conclusion
A Solar-Assisted Sea Water Multiple Effect Distillation Plant 15 Years of Operating
Performance (1985-1999) 316
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Basic Design Concept
21 General Plant Description
22 Design Specifications
23 Evaporator Heat Transfer Coefficient
24 Tube Dimensions Heat Transfer Areas and Materials
3 Performance during Commissioning Tests
31 The MES Evaporator
32 The Solar Collector Field
33 The Heat Accumulator
34 Total Plant Performance
4 Performance History
41 The MES Evaporator
42 The Solar Collector Field
43 The Heat Accumulator
431 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
4311 The heat balance method
4312 The direct temperature measurement method
4313 Thermal stratification ratio
44 Total Plant Performance
5 Major Maintenance Activities
51 Equipment Failure and Replacement
52 Acid Cleanings and Silt Removal from Evaporator
6 Evaluation of Water Cost
61 Capital Costs
62 Operation and Maintenance Costs
7 Conclusions
Mathematical Simulation of a Solar Desalination Plant 341
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Description
3 System Operating Conditions
31 Solar Heat Collecting Subsystem
32 Evaporator Subsystem
4 Mathematical Modeling of System Components
41 Solar radiation model
42 Ambient temperature model
43 Solar collector subsystem
431 Effect of shade on solar radiation
432 Effect of dust on transmissivity of glass tubes
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxx
433 Control of heat collecting operation
434 Heat collection by solar collectors
435 Heat loss from piping
4351 Piping specifications
4352 Standard pipe lengths
4353 Heat loss from piping during operation of heat collecting pump
4354 Heat loss from piping while the heat collecting pump is shutdown
4355 Correction of piping heat loss
44 Heat accumulator subsystem
441 Temperature distribution
442 MES evaporator subsystem
5 The Simulation Program
51 Program structure
52 Input and output data
6 Results
7 Conclusions
Index 379
About EOLSS 385
VOLUME VI
Modeling and Design of Solar Energy Systems Including Solar Economics 1
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 F-Chart Method
11 Performance and Design of Liquid-Based Solar Heating Systems
111 Storage Capacity Correction
112 Collector Flow Rate Correction
113 Load Heat Exchanger Size Correction
12 Performance and Design of Air-Based Solar Heating Systems
121 Pebble Bed Storage Size Correction
122 Air Flow Rate Correction
13 Performance and Design of Solar Service Water Systems
14 Thermosiphon Solar Water Heating Systems
15 General Remarks
2 Modeling and Simulation of Solar Energy Systems
21 Simple System Models
211 Pipe Losses
22 F-Chart Program
23 Trnsys Simulation Program
24 Limitations of Simulations
3 Solar Economic Analysis
31 Life Cycle Costing
32 Life Cycle Analysis Method
33 Payback Time
331 Not Discounted Fuel Savings
332 Discounted Fuel Savings
34 Alternative Method
341 System Optimization Using Economic Analysis
35 Uncertainties in Economic Analysis
Solar Energy Power Generation and Desalination Systems 47
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 Global Energy Problems and the Role of Renewables
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxi
11 Energy demand
12 Energy environmental problems and sustainable development
13 Water demand and consumption
14 Water and energy
15 Desalination and energy
16 Renewable energy technologies
2 Solar Collectors
21 Parabolic trough collectors
22 Fresnel collectors
23 Parabolic dish reflector
24 Heliostat field collector
3 Power Generation and Industrial Process Heat Systems
31 Parabolic trough collector systems
32 Power tower systems
33 Dish systems
34 Solar ponds
341 Heat extraction and applications
35 Industrial process heat systems
36 Solar industrial steam generation systems
4 Desalination Processes
41 Direct collection systems
42 Indirect collection systems
421 The multi-stage flash process
422 The multiple-effect distillation process
423 The vapor-compression process
424 Reverse osmosis
425 Electrodialysis
Solar Updraft Power Plant Technology Basic Concepts and Structural Design 94
Francesca Lupi University of Florence Florence Italy
Claudio Borri University of Florence Florence Italy
Wilfried B Kraumltzig Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
Hans-Juumlrgen Niemann Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
1 Solar Updraft Power Technology Introduction and Working Principles
2 History of the Solar Updraft Power Technology
21 Solar Tower Prototype in Manzanares (Spain)
3 Evaluation of Plant Efficiency
31 The Collector
32 The Chimney
33 The Turbines
34 Electric Power Generated by Supps
4 The Collector
5 Actions on Solar Updraft Towers
6 Wind Loading on Solar Updraft Towers
61 Wind Flow Structure in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer at High Altitudes
611 Boundary Layer Meteorology
612 The Ekman Spiral
613 Theoretical Considerations on the Mean Wind and Turbulence in the Ekman Layer
62 Modeling of the Wind Load on Solar Towers
621 Mean Wind Load
622 Response to Wind Turbulence
623 Fluctuating Wind Load
624 Equivalent Static Wind Pressures
625 Vortex Excitation
626 Other Effects The Effect of the Efflux
63 Wind Load on the Collector Roof
7 Structural Behavior of Solar Updraft Towers
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxii
71 Structural Elements of Solar Tower Shells
72 Some Typical Response Characteristics of Solar Tower Shells Vibration and Instability
Behavior
73 Non-Linear Tower Response
8 Structural Optimization of Solar Updraft Towers
81 The Role of the Stiffening Rings in the Structural Design of Solar Towers
82 Strategies of Optimization
9 Technology of Construction
Renewable Energy Potential in The Arab Region 162
Mohammed Mostafa El-Khayat General Manager of Planning New and Renewable Energy Authority
NREA Cairo Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Research Problem and Objectives
111 Research Problem
12 Research Objectives
2 Energy Demand
3 The Current Situation of Renewable Energy
31 Hydropower
32 Wind Energy
33 Solar Energy
34 Biomass and Geothermal Energy
4 Strategies
5 Institutional and Regulatory Framework
6 Main Policies and Incentives
7 RE Policies and Incentives Profiles
71 Algeria
72 Egypt
73 Jordan
74 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
75 Lebanon
76 Libya
77 Morocco
78 Palestine
79 Sudan
710 Syria
711 Tunisia
712 United Arab Emirates
713 Yemen
8 Financing Schemes and Investment Opportunities
9 Motivations and Barriers of Renewable Energy
10 Renewable Energy Initiatives
101 Arabian Initiatives
102 DESERTEC
11 Potential of Renewable Energy in the Region
12 The proposed mechanisms to enhance and accelerate the rate of using RE applications
13 The situation of localizing RE technologies
14 RE and climate change in Arab countries
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
198
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiii
22 Humidifying with Cooling and Dehumidifying Processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in HD Desalination Process
25 Overview on Some Desalination HD Projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process Description
32 The Condenser in the SWGH
321 Different Condenser Layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the Condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of Condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot Plant
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH Project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot Plant
522 Performances of the Pilot Plant
53 The SWGH Project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot Plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Evolution of Photovoltaic Materials for Renewable Energy Development 262
Abdelilah Slaoui InESS ndash CNRS ndash University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
Jef Poortmans IMEC Leuven Belgium
Marko Topic University of Ljubljana Faculty of Elec Eng Ljubljana Slovenia
Gavin Conibeer ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence UNSW Sydney Australia
1 General Introduction
2 Photovoltaic Materials and Technologies State of the Art
21 Crystalline Silicon
22 Thin Films
221 Amorphous Silicon
222 Nanocrystalline and Microcrystalline Silicon
223 Polycrystalline Silicon
224 Copper Indium Selenide Its alloys and Related Chalcopyrites
225 Cadmium Telluride
226 Materials for Photochemical Solar Cells
227 Materials for Organic Solar Cells
3 Next Generation Solar Cells
31 Introduction
32 Multiple energy level approaches
33 Multiple Exciton Generation solar cells
34 Intermediate Band (IB) cells
35 Hot carrier cells
4 Conclusions and Perspectives
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiv
Wind and Solar Renewable Energy Potential Resources Estimation 302
Philippe Drobinski Institut Pierre Simon LaplaceLaboratoire de Meacuteteacuteorologie Dynamique CNRSEcole
Polytechnique Palaiseau France
1 Renewable Wind and Solar Energies The Context
11 An Economical and Environmental Necessity
12 Energy Definitions and Units
2 Basic Knowledge in Geophysics for Energy Resource Evaluation
21 Earth Energy Budget and Atmospheric Motion
22 Near Surface Wind
23 Impacts of Clouds and Aerosols on Surface Solar Radiation
3 Wind Energy Resource
31 Wind Energy A Brief History
32 Wind Energy Resources Evaluation
33 Wind Energy Installed Capacity in the World
4 Solar Energy Resources
41 Solar Energy An Introduction
42 Worldwide Solar Heat
5 Methods for Wind and Solar Energy Resources Forecast
Index 353
About EOLSS 361
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xii
VOLUME III
Solar Irradiation Fundamentals 1
Zekacirci Sen Istanbul Technical University Maslak 34469 Istanbul Turkey
1 Introduction
2 The Sun
3 Atmospheric effects and Electro-magnetic Radiation (EMR) spectrum
4 Astronomic effects
5 Meteorological effects
51 Cloud Index
6 Topographic effects
7 Solar parameters
71 Solar geometry quantities
711 Earth eccentricity
712 Declination angle
713 Zenith angle
72 Solar time quantities
721 Solar time
722 Equation of time
723 Apparent solar time (AST)
73 Solar irradiation quantities
731 Solar constant
732 Irradiation path
8 Solar radiation modeling
81 Solar energy laws
82 Solar irradiation calculation
83 Estimation of clear sky radiation
84 Irradiation model
9 Astronomic calculations
91 The Daily Solar Profile
92 Daily solar energy on horizontal surface
93 Solar energy on inclined surface
10 Solar-Hydrogen Energy
11 Conclusions
Direct Solar Energy 67
S C Bhattacharya and S Kumar Energy Program Asian Institute of Technology Pathumthani
Thailand
1 Introduction
11 A Brief History of Energy
12 Origin of Solar Energy
13 Solar Thermal Energy
14 Photovoltaics (PV)
15 The Future of Solar Energy
2 Solar Radiation
21 Sun and Earth
22 Solar Radiation Estimation
3 Solar Thermal Conversion
31 Solar Collectors
311 Flat Plate Collectors
312 Concentrating Collectors
313 Evacuated Type Collectors
314 Selective Surfaces
32 Solar Water Heating
321 Introduction
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xiii
322 Natural Circulation Systems
323 Forced Circulation Systems
324 Materials Used in Solar Water Heaters
325 Advantages and Disadvantages
33 Solar Space Heating
331 Active Systems
332 Passive Systems
333 Solar District Heating
34 Solar Thermal Power Generation
341 Introduction
342 Parabolic Trough Systems
343 Power Towers
344 Parabolic Dish
35 Solar Drying
351 Introduction
352 Types of Solar Drier
353 Advantages of Solar Drying
4 Solar Photovoltaic Conversion
41 Solar Cells and Modules
42 Other Components of PV Systems
43 PV Applications
5 Other Solar Technologies
51 Solar Photochemical Conversion
52 Space Solar Power
521 Introduction
522 The SSP Concept
523 Promise and Problems
524 Future Prospects
6 Solar Energy Storage
61 Solar Thermal Energy Storage
611 Sensible Heat Storage
612 Latent Heat Storage
613 Chemical Energy Storage
614 Solar Electrical Energy Storage
7 Environmental Impacts of Solar Energy
71 General Impacts
72 Solar Thermal Systems
73 PV Systems
74 Health and Environmental Aspects
75 Energy Payback and CO2 Abatement
76 Other implications
761 Batteries
762 Operation and Decommissioning
8 The Way Forward
81 General
82 Solar Thermal Systems
83 PV Systems
9 Concluding Remarks
Solar Drying - A Technology for Sustainable Agriculture and Food Production 112
RJ Fuller Principal Fellow IDTC Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of
Melbourne Australia
1 Introduction
2 Drying Fundamentals
3 Sun vs Solar Drying
4 Types of Solar Dryer
41 Direct Mode
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xiv
42 Indirect Mode
43 Mixed Mode
44 Further Classifications
441 Natural Convection
442 Forced Convection
45 Other Differences
451 Supplementary Energy
452 Air Flow Direction
453 Heat Transfer Fluid
454 Thermal Storage
5 Solar Dryers in Practice
51 Direct mode natural convection dryers
52 Direct Mode Forced Convection Dryers
53 Indirect Mode Forced Convection Dryers
6 Performance Evaluation of Solar Dryers
61 Overall System Drying Efficiency
62 Pick-up Efficiency
63 Solar Collection Efficiency
64 Performance of Solar Dryers
65 Comparative Testing
7 Designing Solar Drying Systems
71 Rules-of-Thumb
72 Sizing Equations
73 Chart Methods
74 Simulation Techniques
8 Non-technical Factors
81 Economics
82 Practical Issues
83 Technology Transfer
84 Developing Country Issues
85 Industrialized Country Issues
9 Prospects and Future Developments
91 Technical Developments
92 Costs
93 Design
94 External Factors
10 Conclusions
A Short Historical Review of Renewable Energy 136
E Delyannis NCSR Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems ldquoDemokritosrdquo Aghia Paraskevi
Greece
A El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority (WEA) Abu-Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
11 The History of Renewable Energy Achievements
12 The Set-up of this Historical Review
2 The Renewable Energies in the Antiquity
21 From Legends to the First Written Documents
3 The Power of the Sun
31 The Dawn of the History
32 The Capture of the Suns Radiation
321 Antiquity to Middle Age The Philosophers
322 Renaissance to the 20th Century The Founders
323 The 20th Century The Engineers
324 The Present Times The Technologists
4 The Development of the Solar Distillation
41 From Philosophy to Practice
42 The First Large Applications
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xv
43 The Last 50 Years
5 Solar Driven Desalination
51 General Considerations
52 The Solar Driven Distillation Plants
53 Freezing Plants
54 Electrodialysis Plants
55 Solar Powered Reverse Osmosis Plants
6 The Energy of the Mother Gaia
7 The Power of Aeolos
71 The Aeolian Gods
72 The Harvest of the Winds Energy
73 The Raise and the Fall of Windmills
74 Wind Turbine Generation
8 The Power of the Moving Water
81 Hydraulic Power
9 The Impulsive Power of Poseidon
91 The Power of the Waves
92 The Tides and their Energy
93 The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) System
Renewable Energy Resources 186
V Belessiotis and E Delyannis NCSR Demokritos Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems
Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun as an Energy Source
21 The Availability of Solar Energy
22 Application of Solar Energy to Desalination
3 The Geothermal Energy
31 Introduction
32 The Geothermal Resources System
321 Hydrothermal Reservoirs
322 The Geopressurized Reservoirs
323 The Hot Dry Rocks
33 The Available Resources
34 The Geographic Distribution of Reservoirs
35 The Geothermal Brines
36 Application of Geothermal Resources
4 The Hydraulic Energy
41 Introduction
42 The Available Hydropower Resources
43 Limit of Hydropower Output
5 Wind Energy Resources
51 The Origin of Wind
52 The Distribution of Wind Forces
53 Wind Speed Distribution
54 The Utilization of the Wind Energy
6 Biomass as an Energy Source
61 Introduction
62 The Origin of Biomass
63 The Alternate Biomass Products
64 Biomass Residues
641 The Crop Residues
642 Fuel Wood
643 Sugar Crops
644 Livestock Manure
65 Refuse and Municipal Sewage
66 Plantation Biomass
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xvi
7 Thermal Energy from Biomass
71 Introduction
72 The Energy Conversion Methods
73 Environmental Impacts of Biomass Energy Sources
8 The Ocean Systems Energy Resources
81 Introduction
82 The Energy of the Waves
821 The Origin of the Waves
822 Distribution of Wave Resources
83 The Tidal Power as Energy Source
831 The Generation of Tides
832 The Tidal Potential
84 The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) Source
841 The Trapping of the OTEC Energy
Desalination with Renewable Energy - A Review 227
Ali M El-Nashar 22 Ahmed Gharbo St Apt 703 Zizinia Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Commercial Desalination Processes and Their Energy Consumption
21 Description of the Commercial Desalination Processes
211 Distillation Processes
212 Membrane Processes
22 Technical and Economic Characteristics of Commercial Desalination Processes
3 Available Renewable Energy Sources
31 Solar Energy
32 Wind Energy
33 Geothermal Energy
34 Other Renewable Energy Sources
4 Devices for Transforming Renewable Energy into Useful Energy for Desalination
41 Solar Collectors
42 Solar Ponds
43 Photovoltaic Cells
44 Wind Turbines
5 Coupling of Desalination Processes and Renewable Energy
51 Direct and Indirect Coupling of Solar Energy and Desalination
511 Direct coupling (Solar still technology)
512 Indirect Coupling
52 Desalination Systems Driven by Solar Thermal Energy
521 Solar Thermal Collectors-MSF Desalination
522 Solar Thermal Collectors-MED Desalination
53 Desalination Systems Driven by Wind Energy
531 Wind-MVC Systems
532 Wind-RO Systems
54 Desalination Systems Driven by Solar Photovoltaics (PV)
55 Hybrid Desalination Systems
6 Current Status
7 Selection Criteria among Different RE Desalination Technologies
8 Performance of Selected RE Desalination Projects
81 Solar Stills
82 Wind-Energy Driven RO Desalination Technology
83 PV-Powered Seawater RO System
84 Abu Dhabi Solar MED Desalination Plant
9 Economics of RE Desalination
91 Financial Analysis
92 Cost of Water from RES Desalination Plants
10 Conclusion
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xvii
Renewable Energy and Desalination Systems 301
Asghar Husain International Center for Water and Energy Systems (ICWES) Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
11 Need for Desalination
2 What Is Sustainability
3 Review of Desalination Technologies
31 Thermal-Based Processes
32 Membrane ndash Based Technologies
33 Renewable Energies
4 Desalination Using Solar Energy
41 Direct Utilization of Solar Radiation in the Solar Still
42 Solar Collectors
43 Solar Concentrating System
44 Solar Ponds
45 Photovoltaic Cells
46 Storage of Solar Energy
5 Desalination Using Other Renewable Energies
51 Wind Energy
52 Geothermal Energy
53 Wave Energy
54 Tidal Energy
55 Ocean Temperature Difference or Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
56 Hydraulic Energy
57 Biomass as Energy Source
6 Concluding Remarks
Why Use Renewable Energy for Desalination 342
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 The Need of Desalination for Economic Development in Remote Arid Areas
3 The Need of Energy for Desalination
4 The Availability of Renewable Energy
5 The Economic and Social Benefits of Using Renewable Energy for Desalination
6 Examples of Arid Remote Regions where Renewable Energy for Desalination can have a High
Economic Potential
61 The Southern and Eastern Mediterranean Regions
62 The Mediterranean Islands
63 The Arab Gulf Region
7 Conclusions
Thermal Energy Storage 356
Hassan E S Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Solar Energy Storage
12 Thermal Energy Storage
13 Thermal Storage Efficiency
14 Thermal Insulation
2 Sensible Heat Storage
21 Introduction
22 Low Temperature Sensible Heat Storage
221 Storage in Liquids
23 Intermediate and High Temperature Sensible Heat Storage
231 Storage in Fluids
232 Storage in Solids
233 Storage in Fluid-Solid Media
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xviii
24 Concluding Remarks
3 Latent Heat (Phase Change) Storage
31 Introduction
32 Low Temperature Latent Heat Storage
321 Phase Change Materials
322 Storage Systems Problems
33 Intermediate and High Temperature Latent Heat Storage
34 Concluding Remarks
35 Heat of Vaporization
4 Combined Sensible and Latent Heat Storage
5 Closing Remarks
6 Some Recent Developments
61 Sensible Heat Storage
62 Latent Heat Storage
621 Heat Transfer with Thermal Energy Storage
622 Storage System Performance
623 Solar Collector Integrated with Storage System
Electrical Energy Storage 387
J Garche Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research Baden-Wuumlrttemberg Germany
A Jossen Energy Storage and Energy Conversion Division Ulm Germany
1 Introduction
2 Systems with Internal Storage
21 Demands on the Battery
22 Lead-Acid Battery
221 Electrochemical Reactions
222 Operation values
223 Types of Lead-Acid Batteries
2231 Differentiation by electrodes
2232 Batteries with positive plates protected against active mass shedding
2233 Differentiation by container technology
224 Main Problems while Operation of Lead-Acid Batteries
2241 Charging and Overdischarge
2242 Deep Discharge
2243 Sulfation
225 Other Battery Systems
2251 Nickel-Cadmium Battery
2252 New Battery Systems
3 Systems with External Storage
31 Gas-Accumulator
32 Redox-Flow-Systems
4 Storage Sizing
Tidal Energy 406
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Consideration
5 Prospects
Index 416
About EOLSS 421
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xix
VOLUME IV
Desalination Using Tidal Energy 1
Abdalla S Hanafi Cairo University Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Tides
21 Spring and Neap Tides
3 Tidal Power Plants
31 Barrage
32 Locks and Gates
33 Power House
34 Basins
35 Storage
36 Economical Considerations
37 Tidal Sites
4 Tidal Desalination Technologies
41 Tidal-Vapor Compression Desalination
42 Tidal-Reverse Osmosis
421 Overall Analysis of the Reverse Osmosis Modules
43 Tidal - Electrodialysis (ED)
431 Electrodialysis DC Power
44 Tidal Freezing-Melting (FM)
441 Freezing-Melting System Analysis
5 Economic Comparisons with Wind and Solar Energy
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
15
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
22 Humidifying with cooling and dehumidifying processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in Desalination HD Process
25 Overview on Some desalination HD projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process description
32 The condenser in the SWGH
321 Different condenser layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot plant
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xx
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot plant
522 Performances of the SWGH
53 Case Study 3 The SWGH project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Wave Energy 81
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Considerations
5 Prospects
Wind Energy 97
B Sorensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Worldwide Distribution of Wind Energy Resources
11 Physical Potential Wind Maps
12 Practical Potential for Wind Turbines
13 Restrictions due to Competing Land Use
14 Off-Shore Potential
15 Methods for Determining Local Potential Atlas Technique
16 Overall Assessment of Potential
2 Wind Turbine Technology
21 Current Status and Prospects for the Future
22 Basic Theory Wind Turbine Types and Efficiencies
23 Prospects for Further Development
24 Current Penetration of Wind Power Utilization
25 National Plans and Future Prospects
26 Plant Lifetime and Reliability
27 Impacts on Requirements for Transmission and Back-Up
28 Energy Storage and Demand Management
3 Economic Social and Environmental Impacts of Wind Energy Utilization
31 Current Cost and Cost Trends
32 Employment Generation
33 Energy Balance
34 Noise
35 Aspects of Decentralized Energy Supply
36 Life-Cycle Estimate of Externalities Including Construction and Decommissioning Impacts
4 Evaluation of Greenhouse Warming Mitigation Potential of Wind Power
41 Assessment of Marginal Life-Cycle Impacts Including Greenhouse Warming
42 Elements of Non-Marginal Analysis of Energy Systems with Large Wind Power Share
43 Relationship between Demand Development and the Valuations of Wind Energy
44 Concluding Remarks
Availability of Wind Energy and Its Estimation 139
Richard Morris Richard Morris Associates Glasgow United Kingdom
1 The Sun as the Wind Driver
2 The Nature of Wind
3 Wind Power Statistics
4 Estimating Wind Power
5 Siting for Wind Energy
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxi
The Use of Geothermal Energy in Desalination 155
BW Tleimat Water Reuse Technology Alamo California USA
ADK Laird (deceased) Professor Emeritus and Director Emeritus Sea Water Conversion Laboratory
University of California Berkeley California USA
1 Introduction
2 Historical Perspective
3 Heat Transfer from Geothermal Reservoirs
4 Geothermal Energy Utilization
5 Electricity Generation
6 Water Production from Geothermal Sources
7 Idealized Liquid-dominated Reservoirs
8 Water and Power Generation Effects of Some System Parameters
9 Multiple-effect and Multistage Distillation Processes
10 Energy-budget Management
11 Processes for Decentralized Desalination
12 Water-budget Management
13 Solids-budget Management
Solar Photovoltaic Energy Conversion 181
G Schumm Zentrum fuer Sonnenenergie und Wasserstoff-Forschung Baden Wuerttemberg Stuttgart
Germany
1 The General Photovoltaic System
2 Non-Concentrating PV Systems
3 Tracking and Concentrating PV Systems
Flat-Plate Collectors 191
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Solar Collector Applications
3 Definitions
31 Solar Collectors
311 Solar Thermal Collector
312 Flat-Plate Collector
32 Construction Elements of a Solar Collector
321 Absorber Plate or Selective Surface
322 The Transparent Cover
323 The Collector Insulation
324 The Heat Transfer Medium
33 The Surface Areas
331 The Surface Area of the Absorber Plate
332 The Transparent Cover Surface
333 Total Surface Area
34 Operational Characteristics of the Collector
341 Collector efficiency (η)
342 Thermal Capacity of the Collector (C)
343 Pressure Drop (Δp)
344 Stagnant Conditions
345 Incidence Angle Coefficient (kθ)
35 The Characteristic Parameters of the Collector
351 The cover reflectance (ρc)
353 Cover Absorptance (αc)
352 Cover Transmittance (τc)
354 Coefficient of cover Emissivity (εc)
355 Coefficient of Absorber Emissivity
356 Selective Surface
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxii
357 Selective Coat
358 Collector Efficiency Factor (Fprime) 359 Collector Flow Factor (FPrime) 3510 Collector Heat Removal Factor (FR)
3511 Collector Heat Loss Coefficient (UL)
4 Main Collector Components
41 The Solar Radiation Absorber
42 The Transparent Cover
43 Thermal Insulation
44 The Casing of the Collector
45 The Supporting of the Collector
5 The Solar Absorbers
51 Types of Solar Absorbers
511 Absorbers of Common Paint
512 Selective coat Absorbers
52 Forms of Absorbers and Tubes
521 General considerations
522 Sandwich Type Absorber
523 Roll Bond Tube Absorber
524 Soldered Type Absorbers
525 Absorbers with Ω Type Fins
6 Characteristics of Flat-Plate Collectors
61 General considerations
62 Installation Configuration of a Collector System
63 Orientation and Slope of the Collector
7 Dynamic Operational Characteristics of a Collector
71 The Incident Angle Coefficient
72 The Thermal Capacity of the Collector C
73 The Heat Removal Factor FR
8 The Thermal Characteristics of a Collector
81 Determination of the Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL
82 Determination of Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL for in Series Interconnection
83 Equivalent Thermal Loss between Tubes and Collector
84 The Influence of Wind Velocity
9 Shading of the Collectors
10 Basic Calculation Methods
101 Cover Reflectance
102 Cover Transmittance
103 The Transmittance-Absorptance Product
104 Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
105 Multi-Cover Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
11 The Heat Transfer Loss Coefficients
111 Loss Coefficient Uc
112 Loss Coefficient Ub
113 Loss Coefficient Us
114 The Collector Efficiency Factor Fprime 115 Collector flow factor FPrime Large Active Solar Systems Load 220
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and other Energy Systems National Centre for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Estimation of Thermal Load
21 Estimation of the Required Heat Qload
22 Estimation of the Required Heat for the Water Qw
23 Estimation of the Heat Loss in Distribution Pipes Qp
24 Estimation of Heat Loss in the Storage Tank Qt
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiii
Large Active Solar Systems Typical Economic Analysis 225
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Cost of a Solar Hot Water System
21 Initial Capital Cost
22 Operational Costs
221 Cost of Fuel
222 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
223 Cost of Maintenance
224 Cost for Loans
225 Costs for Insurance
226 Miscellaneous Expenses
3 Cost of Conventional Hot Water System
31 Operational Costs
311 Cost of Fuel
312 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
313 Cost of Maintenance
4 Inflation
5 Rate of Interest
6 Methods of Life Cycle Cost
61 General
62 Present and Future Costs
63 Yearly Instalment
64 Yearly Expenses
7 Methodology
8 Present Value Factor
9 Comparison Methodology
Integration of Solar Pond with Water Desalination 240
U Fisher J Weinberg and B Doron Ormat Industries Ltd Yavne Israel
1 Introduction
2 Historical Background
3 The Solar Pond
31 Structure
32 Heat Absorption and Storage
33 Main Demands when Building a Pond
331 Surface Area
332 Surface Water Make-up
333 Concentrated Brine Supply
34 How to Build a Solar Pond
341 Geometry or Shape
342 Lining
343 Construction Materials in the Pond
344 Initial Filling and Build-up of Gradient
35 How to Control
36 Heat Losses (Ground Diffusion Evaporation)
361 Top Losses
362 Bottom Heat Losses
37 Disturbances
371 Algae
372 Corrosion
373 Wind
38 Heat Extraction
39 Fuel Assisted Solar Ponds
310 Maintenance
3101 Clarity
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiv
3102 Cleaning of Wind Breakers
3103 Blow Down
3104 Make-up
3105 Leakages
311 Practical Size of a Single Pond
312 Investment in Solar Ponds
313 OampM Costs
4 Desalination Processes Coupled to the Solar Pond
41 Economic Aspects of Coupling Desalination Plants to Solar Ponds
411 Desalination Processes
412 The Choice and Proportion of Producing Heat and Power in the Solar Pond
4121 The Solar Pond Yield
4122 Desalination Plant Performance
4123 The Impact of Daily and Seasonal Fluctuations
4124 Economic Considerations and Evaluations
42 Experience with SP-Desalination Systems
43 Conclusions
Evacuated Tube Collectors 276
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Current Designs of Evacuated Tube Collectors
3 Thermal Analysis
4 Analysis of Flat Plate Evacuated Tube Collector
5 Analysis of Concentric-Tube Collector
6 Performance of Evacuated Tube Collectors
7 Case Study (Collector Field at the Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant)
71 Description of collector field
72 Performance of collector field
73 Economics
Parabolic Trough Collectors 299
Wolfgang Meinecke Deutsches Zentrum fuumlr Luft-und Raumfahrt eV (DLR German Aerospace Center)
Solar Energy Technology Division Koumlln Germany
1 Introduction
2 Brief History of Trough Development
3 State of the Art of Trough Applications
31 Conventional Thermal Water Desalination Applications
32 Solar Thermal Water Desalination Applications
33 Solar Electric Power Generation
34 Solar Process Heat Generation
35 Process Hot Water (Project Examples)
36 Process Steam (Project Examples)
37 Process Steam for Water Desalination (Project Examples)
38 Process Hot Air
4 Trough Technologies
41 LS 3 Trough Collector System
411 LS 3 Parabolic Reflector
412 Steel Support Structure
413 Absorber Element
414 Tracking System and Field Control System
415 Heat Transfer Fluid System
416 Steam Generator
417 Balance of Plant Technologies
418 Energy Storage System
42 IST Trough Collector System
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxv
421 IST Parabolic Reflector
422 Support Structure
423 Absorber Element
424 Tracking System and Field Control System
425 Heat Transfer Fluid System
426 Heat Exchanger
427 Balance of Plant Technology
428 Energy Storage
5 Prospects and Potential
51 Solar Electric Power Generation
52 Solar Process Heat Generation
53 Solar Thermal Water Desalination
6 Cost and Economic Aspects
61 Collector Investment Costs
611 LS 3 Collector Costs
612 IST Collector Costs
62 Other Economic Parameters
621 Fossil Fuel Prices
622 Solar Energy Yield
623 Solar Share
624 Plant Power Size
625 Capacity Factor
626 OampM Costs
627 Non-Technical Parameters
63 Costs of Solar Water Desalination
7 Conclusions
Index 363
About EOLSS 369
VOLUME V
Central Receivers 1
MM Elsayed Mechanical Engineering Department Kuwait University Safat Kuwait
1 Introduction
2 Heliostats Types and Design Shapes
3 Heliostat Angles
4 Heliostat Field Heliostat Layout
5 Heliostat Field Cosine Effect
6 Heliostat Field Preliminary Sizing of the Field
7 Heliostat Field Usefulness Efficiency
8 Reflected Solar Radiation
9 The Effective Sunshape
10 Principal Images and Relation between Receiver and Image Planes
11 Models to Predict the Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Image Plane
111 Incoming Ray Formulation
112 The Mirror Plane Formulation
113 Solar Disk Formulation
114 The Pinhole View
12 Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Receiver Surface Using the Separation of
VariableSuperposition Technique
121 Concept
122 Calculation of φ 123 Validation of Model Using Measurements
13 Receivers Types and Losses
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvi
14 Preliminary Sizing of the Receiver
15 Overall System Optimization
Configuration Theoretical Analysis and Performance of Simple Solar Stills 98
A Kumar Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources Solar Energy Center New Delhi India
1 Introduction
2 Configuration of Simple Solar Stills
21 Basic Principle
22 Classification
23 Single Basin Solar Stills
24 Inclined Solar Stills
241 Basin Type Solar Stills
242 Wick Type Solar Stills
25 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
26 Solar Earth Water Stills
27 Plastic Solar Stills
271 Life Raft Solar Still
272 Circular Solar Still
273 Extruded Plastic Solar Still
274 Concentric Tube Solar Still
28 A Typical Solar Distillation Plant
3 Theoretical Analysis of Simple Solar Stills
31 Heat and Mass Transfer in Solar Stills
311 Inside the Solar Still
312 Outside the Solar Still
32 Solar Radiation Balance
321 Transmission through Top Cover
322 Absorption in the Top Cover
33 Energy Balance Equations
34 Solution Procedure
4 Performance of Solar Stills
41 Single Basin Solar Stills
42 Inclined Solar Stills
43 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
44 Solar Earth Water Stills
45 Plastic Solar Stills
46 Case Studies
461 Australia
462 Greek Islands
463 India
47 Suggested Practices for Installing Solar Stills
Development in Simple Solar Stills 169
Hassan ES Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Modified Simple (Passive) Stills
21 Basin Still
211 Single Slope versus Double Slope Basin Stills
212 Basin Still with Cover Cooling
213 Basin Still with Treated Cover Surface
214 Basin Still with Additional Condenser
215 Basin Still with Black DyeMuddy Water
22 Wick Stills
221 Single-wick Stills
222 Multi-wick Stills
223 Wick versus Basin Stills
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvii
224 Combined Wick-Basin Stills
23 Other Stills Configurations
231 Vertical Microporous Evaporator Still
232 Cascade Solar Still
233 Still Integrated with Greenhouse
3 Externally Heated (Active) Solar Stills
31 Introduction
32 Stills Coupled to a Solar Collector
321 Direct and Indirect Heating
322 Use of Dye and Cover Cooling
323 Other Solar Heaters
33 Stills Coupled with Solar Concentrator
34 The Use of Waste Heat in Solar Stills
4 Other Types of Solar Distillation Systems
41 Water Recovery from Air
Multi-Effect Solar Stills 197
HES Fath Al-Jubail 31951 Saudi Arabia
1 Why Multi Effect
2 Double Effect Basin Stills
21 Double Basins Stills
22 Double Effect Tilted Stills
23 Purging Vapor to a Second Effect
3 Multi-Effect Multi-Wick Stills
4 Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
41 Introduction
42 Mass Diffusion
43 Comparison between Diffusion and Basin Stills
44 Description of Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
45 Analysis and Performance Considerations
5 Other Distillation Systems
51 Stacked Tray Stills
52 Multi-Effect Humidification-Dehumidification
Materials for Construction of Solar Stills 218
TA Lawand and J Ayoub Brace Research Institute Canada
1 Introduction
2 General Specifications of Solar Stills
3 Transparent Cover
4 Basin Liner
5 Solar Still Frame
6 Sealants
7 Insulation
8 Auxiliaries - Piping Pumping and Reservoirs
Reverse Osmosis by Solar Energy 225
W Bucher DLR German Aerospace Research Establishment Cologne Germany
1 Introduction
2 Basic Parameters and Energy Demand for Osmosis
21 Physical Properties of Hyperfiltration
22 Energy required for the RO Process
3 Solar Power Conversion Systems
31 Solar Conversion Principles
32 Technical Data of Solar Energy Conversion Methods
33 RO Plant Operation Utilizing Variable Energy Sources
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxviii
4 Reverse Osmosis System Configuration and Operation Aspects
41 Process Design of RO Desalination Systems
42 Procedural Steps and Data for Water Treatment and Energy Consumption
43 Components of RO -Desalination
431 Membranes and Modules
432 High Pressure Pumps
433 Pressure Regulating Devices
5 Solar Powered Desalination Units
51 Specific Figures or RO Systems
52 Solar Power Concepts for RO Desalination
53 Operational Experience with Solar driven RO Systems
6 Costs
61 Specific Cost Figures for the Plant Components
62 Water Delivery Cost
Availability of Solar Radiation and Its Estimation 265
VG Belessiotis Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems National Center for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun and the Radiation Emitted
21 The Physics of the Sun
22 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
3 The Extraterrestrial Radiation
31 What is the Solar Constant
32 Variations of the Extraterrestrial Radiation
33 The Black-body Emittance and Absorptance
34 Blackbody Absorbers - Application to Desalination
4 The Co-ordinate Systems The Basic Solar Angles
41 The Earth-Sun Relationships
42 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Sky
43 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Celestial Sphere
44 Earth-Sun Geometric Relationship
45 Time and its Units - Day Length
46 Terrestrial Solar Radiation
461 Estimation of Radiation Availability
462 Average Radiation Values - Clearness Index
463 Clear Sky Radiation
464 Sky Radiation
47 Atmospheric Factors Affecting Radiation
5 Computation of Insolation at the Earths Surface
51 Insolation Data
52 Measurement of Solar Radiation
53 Models for Solar Radiation
54 Where the Models Apply
55 Tilted Surfaces - Absorptance of Solar Radiation
551 Fixed Tilted Surfaces
552 Tracking Surfaces
6 Applications of Solar Radiation
7 Impact of Solar Energy to the Environment
Economics of Small Solar-Assisted Multiple-Effect Seawater Distillation Plants 296
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Configurations
3 Design and Sizing Considerations
31 Thermal Energy Requirement
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxix
32 Pumping Requirements
33 Collector Performance
34 Sizing Thermal Collector Area
35 Sizing the PV System
351 Sizing the PV Array
4 Economic Ground Rules and Water Cost Optimization
41 Capital Equipment Cost
42 Operating Costs
43 Optimum Cost of Water for each Plant Configuration
5 Results
6 Conclusion
A Solar-Assisted Sea Water Multiple Effect Distillation Plant 15 Years of Operating
Performance (1985-1999) 316
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Basic Design Concept
21 General Plant Description
22 Design Specifications
23 Evaporator Heat Transfer Coefficient
24 Tube Dimensions Heat Transfer Areas and Materials
3 Performance during Commissioning Tests
31 The MES Evaporator
32 The Solar Collector Field
33 The Heat Accumulator
34 Total Plant Performance
4 Performance History
41 The MES Evaporator
42 The Solar Collector Field
43 The Heat Accumulator
431 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
4311 The heat balance method
4312 The direct temperature measurement method
4313 Thermal stratification ratio
44 Total Plant Performance
5 Major Maintenance Activities
51 Equipment Failure and Replacement
52 Acid Cleanings and Silt Removal from Evaporator
6 Evaluation of Water Cost
61 Capital Costs
62 Operation and Maintenance Costs
7 Conclusions
Mathematical Simulation of a Solar Desalination Plant 341
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Description
3 System Operating Conditions
31 Solar Heat Collecting Subsystem
32 Evaporator Subsystem
4 Mathematical Modeling of System Components
41 Solar radiation model
42 Ambient temperature model
43 Solar collector subsystem
431 Effect of shade on solar radiation
432 Effect of dust on transmissivity of glass tubes
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxx
433 Control of heat collecting operation
434 Heat collection by solar collectors
435 Heat loss from piping
4351 Piping specifications
4352 Standard pipe lengths
4353 Heat loss from piping during operation of heat collecting pump
4354 Heat loss from piping while the heat collecting pump is shutdown
4355 Correction of piping heat loss
44 Heat accumulator subsystem
441 Temperature distribution
442 MES evaporator subsystem
5 The Simulation Program
51 Program structure
52 Input and output data
6 Results
7 Conclusions
Index 379
About EOLSS 385
VOLUME VI
Modeling and Design of Solar Energy Systems Including Solar Economics 1
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 F-Chart Method
11 Performance and Design of Liquid-Based Solar Heating Systems
111 Storage Capacity Correction
112 Collector Flow Rate Correction
113 Load Heat Exchanger Size Correction
12 Performance and Design of Air-Based Solar Heating Systems
121 Pebble Bed Storage Size Correction
122 Air Flow Rate Correction
13 Performance and Design of Solar Service Water Systems
14 Thermosiphon Solar Water Heating Systems
15 General Remarks
2 Modeling and Simulation of Solar Energy Systems
21 Simple System Models
211 Pipe Losses
22 F-Chart Program
23 Trnsys Simulation Program
24 Limitations of Simulations
3 Solar Economic Analysis
31 Life Cycle Costing
32 Life Cycle Analysis Method
33 Payback Time
331 Not Discounted Fuel Savings
332 Discounted Fuel Savings
34 Alternative Method
341 System Optimization Using Economic Analysis
35 Uncertainties in Economic Analysis
Solar Energy Power Generation and Desalination Systems 47
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 Global Energy Problems and the Role of Renewables
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxi
11 Energy demand
12 Energy environmental problems and sustainable development
13 Water demand and consumption
14 Water and energy
15 Desalination and energy
16 Renewable energy technologies
2 Solar Collectors
21 Parabolic trough collectors
22 Fresnel collectors
23 Parabolic dish reflector
24 Heliostat field collector
3 Power Generation and Industrial Process Heat Systems
31 Parabolic trough collector systems
32 Power tower systems
33 Dish systems
34 Solar ponds
341 Heat extraction and applications
35 Industrial process heat systems
36 Solar industrial steam generation systems
4 Desalination Processes
41 Direct collection systems
42 Indirect collection systems
421 The multi-stage flash process
422 The multiple-effect distillation process
423 The vapor-compression process
424 Reverse osmosis
425 Electrodialysis
Solar Updraft Power Plant Technology Basic Concepts and Structural Design 94
Francesca Lupi University of Florence Florence Italy
Claudio Borri University of Florence Florence Italy
Wilfried B Kraumltzig Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
Hans-Juumlrgen Niemann Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
1 Solar Updraft Power Technology Introduction and Working Principles
2 History of the Solar Updraft Power Technology
21 Solar Tower Prototype in Manzanares (Spain)
3 Evaluation of Plant Efficiency
31 The Collector
32 The Chimney
33 The Turbines
34 Electric Power Generated by Supps
4 The Collector
5 Actions on Solar Updraft Towers
6 Wind Loading on Solar Updraft Towers
61 Wind Flow Structure in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer at High Altitudes
611 Boundary Layer Meteorology
612 The Ekman Spiral
613 Theoretical Considerations on the Mean Wind and Turbulence in the Ekman Layer
62 Modeling of the Wind Load on Solar Towers
621 Mean Wind Load
622 Response to Wind Turbulence
623 Fluctuating Wind Load
624 Equivalent Static Wind Pressures
625 Vortex Excitation
626 Other Effects The Effect of the Efflux
63 Wind Load on the Collector Roof
7 Structural Behavior of Solar Updraft Towers
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxii
71 Structural Elements of Solar Tower Shells
72 Some Typical Response Characteristics of Solar Tower Shells Vibration and Instability
Behavior
73 Non-Linear Tower Response
8 Structural Optimization of Solar Updraft Towers
81 The Role of the Stiffening Rings in the Structural Design of Solar Towers
82 Strategies of Optimization
9 Technology of Construction
Renewable Energy Potential in The Arab Region 162
Mohammed Mostafa El-Khayat General Manager of Planning New and Renewable Energy Authority
NREA Cairo Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Research Problem and Objectives
111 Research Problem
12 Research Objectives
2 Energy Demand
3 The Current Situation of Renewable Energy
31 Hydropower
32 Wind Energy
33 Solar Energy
34 Biomass and Geothermal Energy
4 Strategies
5 Institutional and Regulatory Framework
6 Main Policies and Incentives
7 RE Policies and Incentives Profiles
71 Algeria
72 Egypt
73 Jordan
74 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
75 Lebanon
76 Libya
77 Morocco
78 Palestine
79 Sudan
710 Syria
711 Tunisia
712 United Arab Emirates
713 Yemen
8 Financing Schemes and Investment Opportunities
9 Motivations and Barriers of Renewable Energy
10 Renewable Energy Initiatives
101 Arabian Initiatives
102 DESERTEC
11 Potential of Renewable Energy in the Region
12 The proposed mechanisms to enhance and accelerate the rate of using RE applications
13 The situation of localizing RE technologies
14 RE and climate change in Arab countries
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
198
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiii
22 Humidifying with Cooling and Dehumidifying Processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in HD Desalination Process
25 Overview on Some Desalination HD Projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process Description
32 The Condenser in the SWGH
321 Different Condenser Layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the Condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of Condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot Plant
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH Project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot Plant
522 Performances of the Pilot Plant
53 The SWGH Project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot Plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Evolution of Photovoltaic Materials for Renewable Energy Development 262
Abdelilah Slaoui InESS ndash CNRS ndash University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
Jef Poortmans IMEC Leuven Belgium
Marko Topic University of Ljubljana Faculty of Elec Eng Ljubljana Slovenia
Gavin Conibeer ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence UNSW Sydney Australia
1 General Introduction
2 Photovoltaic Materials and Technologies State of the Art
21 Crystalline Silicon
22 Thin Films
221 Amorphous Silicon
222 Nanocrystalline and Microcrystalline Silicon
223 Polycrystalline Silicon
224 Copper Indium Selenide Its alloys and Related Chalcopyrites
225 Cadmium Telluride
226 Materials for Photochemical Solar Cells
227 Materials for Organic Solar Cells
3 Next Generation Solar Cells
31 Introduction
32 Multiple energy level approaches
33 Multiple Exciton Generation solar cells
34 Intermediate Band (IB) cells
35 Hot carrier cells
4 Conclusions and Perspectives
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiv
Wind and Solar Renewable Energy Potential Resources Estimation 302
Philippe Drobinski Institut Pierre Simon LaplaceLaboratoire de Meacuteteacuteorologie Dynamique CNRSEcole
Polytechnique Palaiseau France
1 Renewable Wind and Solar Energies The Context
11 An Economical and Environmental Necessity
12 Energy Definitions and Units
2 Basic Knowledge in Geophysics for Energy Resource Evaluation
21 Earth Energy Budget and Atmospheric Motion
22 Near Surface Wind
23 Impacts of Clouds and Aerosols on Surface Solar Radiation
3 Wind Energy Resource
31 Wind Energy A Brief History
32 Wind Energy Resources Evaluation
33 Wind Energy Installed Capacity in the World
4 Solar Energy Resources
41 Solar Energy An Introduction
42 Worldwide Solar Heat
5 Methods for Wind and Solar Energy Resources Forecast
Index 353
About EOLSS 361
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xiii
322 Natural Circulation Systems
323 Forced Circulation Systems
324 Materials Used in Solar Water Heaters
325 Advantages and Disadvantages
33 Solar Space Heating
331 Active Systems
332 Passive Systems
333 Solar District Heating
34 Solar Thermal Power Generation
341 Introduction
342 Parabolic Trough Systems
343 Power Towers
344 Parabolic Dish
35 Solar Drying
351 Introduction
352 Types of Solar Drier
353 Advantages of Solar Drying
4 Solar Photovoltaic Conversion
41 Solar Cells and Modules
42 Other Components of PV Systems
43 PV Applications
5 Other Solar Technologies
51 Solar Photochemical Conversion
52 Space Solar Power
521 Introduction
522 The SSP Concept
523 Promise and Problems
524 Future Prospects
6 Solar Energy Storage
61 Solar Thermal Energy Storage
611 Sensible Heat Storage
612 Latent Heat Storage
613 Chemical Energy Storage
614 Solar Electrical Energy Storage
7 Environmental Impacts of Solar Energy
71 General Impacts
72 Solar Thermal Systems
73 PV Systems
74 Health and Environmental Aspects
75 Energy Payback and CO2 Abatement
76 Other implications
761 Batteries
762 Operation and Decommissioning
8 The Way Forward
81 General
82 Solar Thermal Systems
83 PV Systems
9 Concluding Remarks
Solar Drying - A Technology for Sustainable Agriculture and Food Production 112
RJ Fuller Principal Fellow IDTC Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of
Melbourne Australia
1 Introduction
2 Drying Fundamentals
3 Sun vs Solar Drying
4 Types of Solar Dryer
41 Direct Mode
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xiv
42 Indirect Mode
43 Mixed Mode
44 Further Classifications
441 Natural Convection
442 Forced Convection
45 Other Differences
451 Supplementary Energy
452 Air Flow Direction
453 Heat Transfer Fluid
454 Thermal Storage
5 Solar Dryers in Practice
51 Direct mode natural convection dryers
52 Direct Mode Forced Convection Dryers
53 Indirect Mode Forced Convection Dryers
6 Performance Evaluation of Solar Dryers
61 Overall System Drying Efficiency
62 Pick-up Efficiency
63 Solar Collection Efficiency
64 Performance of Solar Dryers
65 Comparative Testing
7 Designing Solar Drying Systems
71 Rules-of-Thumb
72 Sizing Equations
73 Chart Methods
74 Simulation Techniques
8 Non-technical Factors
81 Economics
82 Practical Issues
83 Technology Transfer
84 Developing Country Issues
85 Industrialized Country Issues
9 Prospects and Future Developments
91 Technical Developments
92 Costs
93 Design
94 External Factors
10 Conclusions
A Short Historical Review of Renewable Energy 136
E Delyannis NCSR Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems ldquoDemokritosrdquo Aghia Paraskevi
Greece
A El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority (WEA) Abu-Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
11 The History of Renewable Energy Achievements
12 The Set-up of this Historical Review
2 The Renewable Energies in the Antiquity
21 From Legends to the First Written Documents
3 The Power of the Sun
31 The Dawn of the History
32 The Capture of the Suns Radiation
321 Antiquity to Middle Age The Philosophers
322 Renaissance to the 20th Century The Founders
323 The 20th Century The Engineers
324 The Present Times The Technologists
4 The Development of the Solar Distillation
41 From Philosophy to Practice
42 The First Large Applications
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xv
43 The Last 50 Years
5 Solar Driven Desalination
51 General Considerations
52 The Solar Driven Distillation Plants
53 Freezing Plants
54 Electrodialysis Plants
55 Solar Powered Reverse Osmosis Plants
6 The Energy of the Mother Gaia
7 The Power of Aeolos
71 The Aeolian Gods
72 The Harvest of the Winds Energy
73 The Raise and the Fall of Windmills
74 Wind Turbine Generation
8 The Power of the Moving Water
81 Hydraulic Power
9 The Impulsive Power of Poseidon
91 The Power of the Waves
92 The Tides and their Energy
93 The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) System
Renewable Energy Resources 186
V Belessiotis and E Delyannis NCSR Demokritos Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems
Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun as an Energy Source
21 The Availability of Solar Energy
22 Application of Solar Energy to Desalination
3 The Geothermal Energy
31 Introduction
32 The Geothermal Resources System
321 Hydrothermal Reservoirs
322 The Geopressurized Reservoirs
323 The Hot Dry Rocks
33 The Available Resources
34 The Geographic Distribution of Reservoirs
35 The Geothermal Brines
36 Application of Geothermal Resources
4 The Hydraulic Energy
41 Introduction
42 The Available Hydropower Resources
43 Limit of Hydropower Output
5 Wind Energy Resources
51 The Origin of Wind
52 The Distribution of Wind Forces
53 Wind Speed Distribution
54 The Utilization of the Wind Energy
6 Biomass as an Energy Source
61 Introduction
62 The Origin of Biomass
63 The Alternate Biomass Products
64 Biomass Residues
641 The Crop Residues
642 Fuel Wood
643 Sugar Crops
644 Livestock Manure
65 Refuse and Municipal Sewage
66 Plantation Biomass
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xvi
7 Thermal Energy from Biomass
71 Introduction
72 The Energy Conversion Methods
73 Environmental Impacts of Biomass Energy Sources
8 The Ocean Systems Energy Resources
81 Introduction
82 The Energy of the Waves
821 The Origin of the Waves
822 Distribution of Wave Resources
83 The Tidal Power as Energy Source
831 The Generation of Tides
832 The Tidal Potential
84 The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) Source
841 The Trapping of the OTEC Energy
Desalination with Renewable Energy - A Review 227
Ali M El-Nashar 22 Ahmed Gharbo St Apt 703 Zizinia Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Commercial Desalination Processes and Their Energy Consumption
21 Description of the Commercial Desalination Processes
211 Distillation Processes
212 Membrane Processes
22 Technical and Economic Characteristics of Commercial Desalination Processes
3 Available Renewable Energy Sources
31 Solar Energy
32 Wind Energy
33 Geothermal Energy
34 Other Renewable Energy Sources
4 Devices for Transforming Renewable Energy into Useful Energy for Desalination
41 Solar Collectors
42 Solar Ponds
43 Photovoltaic Cells
44 Wind Turbines
5 Coupling of Desalination Processes and Renewable Energy
51 Direct and Indirect Coupling of Solar Energy and Desalination
511 Direct coupling (Solar still technology)
512 Indirect Coupling
52 Desalination Systems Driven by Solar Thermal Energy
521 Solar Thermal Collectors-MSF Desalination
522 Solar Thermal Collectors-MED Desalination
53 Desalination Systems Driven by Wind Energy
531 Wind-MVC Systems
532 Wind-RO Systems
54 Desalination Systems Driven by Solar Photovoltaics (PV)
55 Hybrid Desalination Systems
6 Current Status
7 Selection Criteria among Different RE Desalination Technologies
8 Performance of Selected RE Desalination Projects
81 Solar Stills
82 Wind-Energy Driven RO Desalination Technology
83 PV-Powered Seawater RO System
84 Abu Dhabi Solar MED Desalination Plant
9 Economics of RE Desalination
91 Financial Analysis
92 Cost of Water from RES Desalination Plants
10 Conclusion
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xvii
Renewable Energy and Desalination Systems 301
Asghar Husain International Center for Water and Energy Systems (ICWES) Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
11 Need for Desalination
2 What Is Sustainability
3 Review of Desalination Technologies
31 Thermal-Based Processes
32 Membrane ndash Based Technologies
33 Renewable Energies
4 Desalination Using Solar Energy
41 Direct Utilization of Solar Radiation in the Solar Still
42 Solar Collectors
43 Solar Concentrating System
44 Solar Ponds
45 Photovoltaic Cells
46 Storage of Solar Energy
5 Desalination Using Other Renewable Energies
51 Wind Energy
52 Geothermal Energy
53 Wave Energy
54 Tidal Energy
55 Ocean Temperature Difference or Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
56 Hydraulic Energy
57 Biomass as Energy Source
6 Concluding Remarks
Why Use Renewable Energy for Desalination 342
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 The Need of Desalination for Economic Development in Remote Arid Areas
3 The Need of Energy for Desalination
4 The Availability of Renewable Energy
5 The Economic and Social Benefits of Using Renewable Energy for Desalination
6 Examples of Arid Remote Regions where Renewable Energy for Desalination can have a High
Economic Potential
61 The Southern and Eastern Mediterranean Regions
62 The Mediterranean Islands
63 The Arab Gulf Region
7 Conclusions
Thermal Energy Storage 356
Hassan E S Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Solar Energy Storage
12 Thermal Energy Storage
13 Thermal Storage Efficiency
14 Thermal Insulation
2 Sensible Heat Storage
21 Introduction
22 Low Temperature Sensible Heat Storage
221 Storage in Liquids
23 Intermediate and High Temperature Sensible Heat Storage
231 Storage in Fluids
232 Storage in Solids
233 Storage in Fluid-Solid Media
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xviii
24 Concluding Remarks
3 Latent Heat (Phase Change) Storage
31 Introduction
32 Low Temperature Latent Heat Storage
321 Phase Change Materials
322 Storage Systems Problems
33 Intermediate and High Temperature Latent Heat Storage
34 Concluding Remarks
35 Heat of Vaporization
4 Combined Sensible and Latent Heat Storage
5 Closing Remarks
6 Some Recent Developments
61 Sensible Heat Storage
62 Latent Heat Storage
621 Heat Transfer with Thermal Energy Storage
622 Storage System Performance
623 Solar Collector Integrated with Storage System
Electrical Energy Storage 387
J Garche Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research Baden-Wuumlrttemberg Germany
A Jossen Energy Storage and Energy Conversion Division Ulm Germany
1 Introduction
2 Systems with Internal Storage
21 Demands on the Battery
22 Lead-Acid Battery
221 Electrochemical Reactions
222 Operation values
223 Types of Lead-Acid Batteries
2231 Differentiation by electrodes
2232 Batteries with positive plates protected against active mass shedding
2233 Differentiation by container technology
224 Main Problems while Operation of Lead-Acid Batteries
2241 Charging and Overdischarge
2242 Deep Discharge
2243 Sulfation
225 Other Battery Systems
2251 Nickel-Cadmium Battery
2252 New Battery Systems
3 Systems with External Storage
31 Gas-Accumulator
32 Redox-Flow-Systems
4 Storage Sizing
Tidal Energy 406
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Consideration
5 Prospects
Index 416
About EOLSS 421
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xix
VOLUME IV
Desalination Using Tidal Energy 1
Abdalla S Hanafi Cairo University Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Tides
21 Spring and Neap Tides
3 Tidal Power Plants
31 Barrage
32 Locks and Gates
33 Power House
34 Basins
35 Storage
36 Economical Considerations
37 Tidal Sites
4 Tidal Desalination Technologies
41 Tidal-Vapor Compression Desalination
42 Tidal-Reverse Osmosis
421 Overall Analysis of the Reverse Osmosis Modules
43 Tidal - Electrodialysis (ED)
431 Electrodialysis DC Power
44 Tidal Freezing-Melting (FM)
441 Freezing-Melting System Analysis
5 Economic Comparisons with Wind and Solar Energy
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
15
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
22 Humidifying with cooling and dehumidifying processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in Desalination HD Process
25 Overview on Some desalination HD projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process description
32 The condenser in the SWGH
321 Different condenser layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot plant
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xx
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot plant
522 Performances of the SWGH
53 Case Study 3 The SWGH project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Wave Energy 81
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Considerations
5 Prospects
Wind Energy 97
B Sorensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Worldwide Distribution of Wind Energy Resources
11 Physical Potential Wind Maps
12 Practical Potential for Wind Turbines
13 Restrictions due to Competing Land Use
14 Off-Shore Potential
15 Methods for Determining Local Potential Atlas Technique
16 Overall Assessment of Potential
2 Wind Turbine Technology
21 Current Status and Prospects for the Future
22 Basic Theory Wind Turbine Types and Efficiencies
23 Prospects for Further Development
24 Current Penetration of Wind Power Utilization
25 National Plans and Future Prospects
26 Plant Lifetime and Reliability
27 Impacts on Requirements for Transmission and Back-Up
28 Energy Storage and Demand Management
3 Economic Social and Environmental Impacts of Wind Energy Utilization
31 Current Cost and Cost Trends
32 Employment Generation
33 Energy Balance
34 Noise
35 Aspects of Decentralized Energy Supply
36 Life-Cycle Estimate of Externalities Including Construction and Decommissioning Impacts
4 Evaluation of Greenhouse Warming Mitigation Potential of Wind Power
41 Assessment of Marginal Life-Cycle Impacts Including Greenhouse Warming
42 Elements of Non-Marginal Analysis of Energy Systems with Large Wind Power Share
43 Relationship between Demand Development and the Valuations of Wind Energy
44 Concluding Remarks
Availability of Wind Energy and Its Estimation 139
Richard Morris Richard Morris Associates Glasgow United Kingdom
1 The Sun as the Wind Driver
2 The Nature of Wind
3 Wind Power Statistics
4 Estimating Wind Power
5 Siting for Wind Energy
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxi
The Use of Geothermal Energy in Desalination 155
BW Tleimat Water Reuse Technology Alamo California USA
ADK Laird (deceased) Professor Emeritus and Director Emeritus Sea Water Conversion Laboratory
University of California Berkeley California USA
1 Introduction
2 Historical Perspective
3 Heat Transfer from Geothermal Reservoirs
4 Geothermal Energy Utilization
5 Electricity Generation
6 Water Production from Geothermal Sources
7 Idealized Liquid-dominated Reservoirs
8 Water and Power Generation Effects of Some System Parameters
9 Multiple-effect and Multistage Distillation Processes
10 Energy-budget Management
11 Processes for Decentralized Desalination
12 Water-budget Management
13 Solids-budget Management
Solar Photovoltaic Energy Conversion 181
G Schumm Zentrum fuer Sonnenenergie und Wasserstoff-Forschung Baden Wuerttemberg Stuttgart
Germany
1 The General Photovoltaic System
2 Non-Concentrating PV Systems
3 Tracking and Concentrating PV Systems
Flat-Plate Collectors 191
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Solar Collector Applications
3 Definitions
31 Solar Collectors
311 Solar Thermal Collector
312 Flat-Plate Collector
32 Construction Elements of a Solar Collector
321 Absorber Plate or Selective Surface
322 The Transparent Cover
323 The Collector Insulation
324 The Heat Transfer Medium
33 The Surface Areas
331 The Surface Area of the Absorber Plate
332 The Transparent Cover Surface
333 Total Surface Area
34 Operational Characteristics of the Collector
341 Collector efficiency (η)
342 Thermal Capacity of the Collector (C)
343 Pressure Drop (Δp)
344 Stagnant Conditions
345 Incidence Angle Coefficient (kθ)
35 The Characteristic Parameters of the Collector
351 The cover reflectance (ρc)
353 Cover Absorptance (αc)
352 Cover Transmittance (τc)
354 Coefficient of cover Emissivity (εc)
355 Coefficient of Absorber Emissivity
356 Selective Surface
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxii
357 Selective Coat
358 Collector Efficiency Factor (Fprime) 359 Collector Flow Factor (FPrime) 3510 Collector Heat Removal Factor (FR)
3511 Collector Heat Loss Coefficient (UL)
4 Main Collector Components
41 The Solar Radiation Absorber
42 The Transparent Cover
43 Thermal Insulation
44 The Casing of the Collector
45 The Supporting of the Collector
5 The Solar Absorbers
51 Types of Solar Absorbers
511 Absorbers of Common Paint
512 Selective coat Absorbers
52 Forms of Absorbers and Tubes
521 General considerations
522 Sandwich Type Absorber
523 Roll Bond Tube Absorber
524 Soldered Type Absorbers
525 Absorbers with Ω Type Fins
6 Characteristics of Flat-Plate Collectors
61 General considerations
62 Installation Configuration of a Collector System
63 Orientation and Slope of the Collector
7 Dynamic Operational Characteristics of a Collector
71 The Incident Angle Coefficient
72 The Thermal Capacity of the Collector C
73 The Heat Removal Factor FR
8 The Thermal Characteristics of a Collector
81 Determination of the Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL
82 Determination of Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL for in Series Interconnection
83 Equivalent Thermal Loss between Tubes and Collector
84 The Influence of Wind Velocity
9 Shading of the Collectors
10 Basic Calculation Methods
101 Cover Reflectance
102 Cover Transmittance
103 The Transmittance-Absorptance Product
104 Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
105 Multi-Cover Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
11 The Heat Transfer Loss Coefficients
111 Loss Coefficient Uc
112 Loss Coefficient Ub
113 Loss Coefficient Us
114 The Collector Efficiency Factor Fprime 115 Collector flow factor FPrime Large Active Solar Systems Load 220
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and other Energy Systems National Centre for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Estimation of Thermal Load
21 Estimation of the Required Heat Qload
22 Estimation of the Required Heat for the Water Qw
23 Estimation of the Heat Loss in Distribution Pipes Qp
24 Estimation of Heat Loss in the Storage Tank Qt
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiii
Large Active Solar Systems Typical Economic Analysis 225
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Cost of a Solar Hot Water System
21 Initial Capital Cost
22 Operational Costs
221 Cost of Fuel
222 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
223 Cost of Maintenance
224 Cost for Loans
225 Costs for Insurance
226 Miscellaneous Expenses
3 Cost of Conventional Hot Water System
31 Operational Costs
311 Cost of Fuel
312 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
313 Cost of Maintenance
4 Inflation
5 Rate of Interest
6 Methods of Life Cycle Cost
61 General
62 Present and Future Costs
63 Yearly Instalment
64 Yearly Expenses
7 Methodology
8 Present Value Factor
9 Comparison Methodology
Integration of Solar Pond with Water Desalination 240
U Fisher J Weinberg and B Doron Ormat Industries Ltd Yavne Israel
1 Introduction
2 Historical Background
3 The Solar Pond
31 Structure
32 Heat Absorption and Storage
33 Main Demands when Building a Pond
331 Surface Area
332 Surface Water Make-up
333 Concentrated Brine Supply
34 How to Build a Solar Pond
341 Geometry or Shape
342 Lining
343 Construction Materials in the Pond
344 Initial Filling and Build-up of Gradient
35 How to Control
36 Heat Losses (Ground Diffusion Evaporation)
361 Top Losses
362 Bottom Heat Losses
37 Disturbances
371 Algae
372 Corrosion
373 Wind
38 Heat Extraction
39 Fuel Assisted Solar Ponds
310 Maintenance
3101 Clarity
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiv
3102 Cleaning of Wind Breakers
3103 Blow Down
3104 Make-up
3105 Leakages
311 Practical Size of a Single Pond
312 Investment in Solar Ponds
313 OampM Costs
4 Desalination Processes Coupled to the Solar Pond
41 Economic Aspects of Coupling Desalination Plants to Solar Ponds
411 Desalination Processes
412 The Choice and Proportion of Producing Heat and Power in the Solar Pond
4121 The Solar Pond Yield
4122 Desalination Plant Performance
4123 The Impact of Daily and Seasonal Fluctuations
4124 Economic Considerations and Evaluations
42 Experience with SP-Desalination Systems
43 Conclusions
Evacuated Tube Collectors 276
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Current Designs of Evacuated Tube Collectors
3 Thermal Analysis
4 Analysis of Flat Plate Evacuated Tube Collector
5 Analysis of Concentric-Tube Collector
6 Performance of Evacuated Tube Collectors
7 Case Study (Collector Field at the Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant)
71 Description of collector field
72 Performance of collector field
73 Economics
Parabolic Trough Collectors 299
Wolfgang Meinecke Deutsches Zentrum fuumlr Luft-und Raumfahrt eV (DLR German Aerospace Center)
Solar Energy Technology Division Koumlln Germany
1 Introduction
2 Brief History of Trough Development
3 State of the Art of Trough Applications
31 Conventional Thermal Water Desalination Applications
32 Solar Thermal Water Desalination Applications
33 Solar Electric Power Generation
34 Solar Process Heat Generation
35 Process Hot Water (Project Examples)
36 Process Steam (Project Examples)
37 Process Steam for Water Desalination (Project Examples)
38 Process Hot Air
4 Trough Technologies
41 LS 3 Trough Collector System
411 LS 3 Parabolic Reflector
412 Steel Support Structure
413 Absorber Element
414 Tracking System and Field Control System
415 Heat Transfer Fluid System
416 Steam Generator
417 Balance of Plant Technologies
418 Energy Storage System
42 IST Trough Collector System
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxv
421 IST Parabolic Reflector
422 Support Structure
423 Absorber Element
424 Tracking System and Field Control System
425 Heat Transfer Fluid System
426 Heat Exchanger
427 Balance of Plant Technology
428 Energy Storage
5 Prospects and Potential
51 Solar Electric Power Generation
52 Solar Process Heat Generation
53 Solar Thermal Water Desalination
6 Cost and Economic Aspects
61 Collector Investment Costs
611 LS 3 Collector Costs
612 IST Collector Costs
62 Other Economic Parameters
621 Fossil Fuel Prices
622 Solar Energy Yield
623 Solar Share
624 Plant Power Size
625 Capacity Factor
626 OampM Costs
627 Non-Technical Parameters
63 Costs of Solar Water Desalination
7 Conclusions
Index 363
About EOLSS 369
VOLUME V
Central Receivers 1
MM Elsayed Mechanical Engineering Department Kuwait University Safat Kuwait
1 Introduction
2 Heliostats Types and Design Shapes
3 Heliostat Angles
4 Heliostat Field Heliostat Layout
5 Heliostat Field Cosine Effect
6 Heliostat Field Preliminary Sizing of the Field
7 Heliostat Field Usefulness Efficiency
8 Reflected Solar Radiation
9 The Effective Sunshape
10 Principal Images and Relation between Receiver and Image Planes
11 Models to Predict the Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Image Plane
111 Incoming Ray Formulation
112 The Mirror Plane Formulation
113 Solar Disk Formulation
114 The Pinhole View
12 Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Receiver Surface Using the Separation of
VariableSuperposition Technique
121 Concept
122 Calculation of φ 123 Validation of Model Using Measurements
13 Receivers Types and Losses
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
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14 Preliminary Sizing of the Receiver
15 Overall System Optimization
Configuration Theoretical Analysis and Performance of Simple Solar Stills 98
A Kumar Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources Solar Energy Center New Delhi India
1 Introduction
2 Configuration of Simple Solar Stills
21 Basic Principle
22 Classification
23 Single Basin Solar Stills
24 Inclined Solar Stills
241 Basin Type Solar Stills
242 Wick Type Solar Stills
25 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
26 Solar Earth Water Stills
27 Plastic Solar Stills
271 Life Raft Solar Still
272 Circular Solar Still
273 Extruded Plastic Solar Still
274 Concentric Tube Solar Still
28 A Typical Solar Distillation Plant
3 Theoretical Analysis of Simple Solar Stills
31 Heat and Mass Transfer in Solar Stills
311 Inside the Solar Still
312 Outside the Solar Still
32 Solar Radiation Balance
321 Transmission through Top Cover
322 Absorption in the Top Cover
33 Energy Balance Equations
34 Solution Procedure
4 Performance of Solar Stills
41 Single Basin Solar Stills
42 Inclined Solar Stills
43 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
44 Solar Earth Water Stills
45 Plastic Solar Stills
46 Case Studies
461 Australia
462 Greek Islands
463 India
47 Suggested Practices for Installing Solar Stills
Development in Simple Solar Stills 169
Hassan ES Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Modified Simple (Passive) Stills
21 Basin Still
211 Single Slope versus Double Slope Basin Stills
212 Basin Still with Cover Cooling
213 Basin Still with Treated Cover Surface
214 Basin Still with Additional Condenser
215 Basin Still with Black DyeMuddy Water
22 Wick Stills
221 Single-wick Stills
222 Multi-wick Stills
223 Wick versus Basin Stills
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvii
224 Combined Wick-Basin Stills
23 Other Stills Configurations
231 Vertical Microporous Evaporator Still
232 Cascade Solar Still
233 Still Integrated with Greenhouse
3 Externally Heated (Active) Solar Stills
31 Introduction
32 Stills Coupled to a Solar Collector
321 Direct and Indirect Heating
322 Use of Dye and Cover Cooling
323 Other Solar Heaters
33 Stills Coupled with Solar Concentrator
34 The Use of Waste Heat in Solar Stills
4 Other Types of Solar Distillation Systems
41 Water Recovery from Air
Multi-Effect Solar Stills 197
HES Fath Al-Jubail 31951 Saudi Arabia
1 Why Multi Effect
2 Double Effect Basin Stills
21 Double Basins Stills
22 Double Effect Tilted Stills
23 Purging Vapor to a Second Effect
3 Multi-Effect Multi-Wick Stills
4 Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
41 Introduction
42 Mass Diffusion
43 Comparison between Diffusion and Basin Stills
44 Description of Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
45 Analysis and Performance Considerations
5 Other Distillation Systems
51 Stacked Tray Stills
52 Multi-Effect Humidification-Dehumidification
Materials for Construction of Solar Stills 218
TA Lawand and J Ayoub Brace Research Institute Canada
1 Introduction
2 General Specifications of Solar Stills
3 Transparent Cover
4 Basin Liner
5 Solar Still Frame
6 Sealants
7 Insulation
8 Auxiliaries - Piping Pumping and Reservoirs
Reverse Osmosis by Solar Energy 225
W Bucher DLR German Aerospace Research Establishment Cologne Germany
1 Introduction
2 Basic Parameters and Energy Demand for Osmosis
21 Physical Properties of Hyperfiltration
22 Energy required for the RO Process
3 Solar Power Conversion Systems
31 Solar Conversion Principles
32 Technical Data of Solar Energy Conversion Methods
33 RO Plant Operation Utilizing Variable Energy Sources
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxviii
4 Reverse Osmosis System Configuration and Operation Aspects
41 Process Design of RO Desalination Systems
42 Procedural Steps and Data for Water Treatment and Energy Consumption
43 Components of RO -Desalination
431 Membranes and Modules
432 High Pressure Pumps
433 Pressure Regulating Devices
5 Solar Powered Desalination Units
51 Specific Figures or RO Systems
52 Solar Power Concepts for RO Desalination
53 Operational Experience with Solar driven RO Systems
6 Costs
61 Specific Cost Figures for the Plant Components
62 Water Delivery Cost
Availability of Solar Radiation and Its Estimation 265
VG Belessiotis Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems National Center for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun and the Radiation Emitted
21 The Physics of the Sun
22 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
3 The Extraterrestrial Radiation
31 What is the Solar Constant
32 Variations of the Extraterrestrial Radiation
33 The Black-body Emittance and Absorptance
34 Blackbody Absorbers - Application to Desalination
4 The Co-ordinate Systems The Basic Solar Angles
41 The Earth-Sun Relationships
42 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Sky
43 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Celestial Sphere
44 Earth-Sun Geometric Relationship
45 Time and its Units - Day Length
46 Terrestrial Solar Radiation
461 Estimation of Radiation Availability
462 Average Radiation Values - Clearness Index
463 Clear Sky Radiation
464 Sky Radiation
47 Atmospheric Factors Affecting Radiation
5 Computation of Insolation at the Earths Surface
51 Insolation Data
52 Measurement of Solar Radiation
53 Models for Solar Radiation
54 Where the Models Apply
55 Tilted Surfaces - Absorptance of Solar Radiation
551 Fixed Tilted Surfaces
552 Tracking Surfaces
6 Applications of Solar Radiation
7 Impact of Solar Energy to the Environment
Economics of Small Solar-Assisted Multiple-Effect Seawater Distillation Plants 296
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Configurations
3 Design and Sizing Considerations
31 Thermal Energy Requirement
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxix
32 Pumping Requirements
33 Collector Performance
34 Sizing Thermal Collector Area
35 Sizing the PV System
351 Sizing the PV Array
4 Economic Ground Rules and Water Cost Optimization
41 Capital Equipment Cost
42 Operating Costs
43 Optimum Cost of Water for each Plant Configuration
5 Results
6 Conclusion
A Solar-Assisted Sea Water Multiple Effect Distillation Plant 15 Years of Operating
Performance (1985-1999) 316
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Basic Design Concept
21 General Plant Description
22 Design Specifications
23 Evaporator Heat Transfer Coefficient
24 Tube Dimensions Heat Transfer Areas and Materials
3 Performance during Commissioning Tests
31 The MES Evaporator
32 The Solar Collector Field
33 The Heat Accumulator
34 Total Plant Performance
4 Performance History
41 The MES Evaporator
42 The Solar Collector Field
43 The Heat Accumulator
431 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
4311 The heat balance method
4312 The direct temperature measurement method
4313 Thermal stratification ratio
44 Total Plant Performance
5 Major Maintenance Activities
51 Equipment Failure and Replacement
52 Acid Cleanings and Silt Removal from Evaporator
6 Evaluation of Water Cost
61 Capital Costs
62 Operation and Maintenance Costs
7 Conclusions
Mathematical Simulation of a Solar Desalination Plant 341
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Description
3 System Operating Conditions
31 Solar Heat Collecting Subsystem
32 Evaporator Subsystem
4 Mathematical Modeling of System Components
41 Solar radiation model
42 Ambient temperature model
43 Solar collector subsystem
431 Effect of shade on solar radiation
432 Effect of dust on transmissivity of glass tubes
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxx
433 Control of heat collecting operation
434 Heat collection by solar collectors
435 Heat loss from piping
4351 Piping specifications
4352 Standard pipe lengths
4353 Heat loss from piping during operation of heat collecting pump
4354 Heat loss from piping while the heat collecting pump is shutdown
4355 Correction of piping heat loss
44 Heat accumulator subsystem
441 Temperature distribution
442 MES evaporator subsystem
5 The Simulation Program
51 Program structure
52 Input and output data
6 Results
7 Conclusions
Index 379
About EOLSS 385
VOLUME VI
Modeling and Design of Solar Energy Systems Including Solar Economics 1
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 F-Chart Method
11 Performance and Design of Liquid-Based Solar Heating Systems
111 Storage Capacity Correction
112 Collector Flow Rate Correction
113 Load Heat Exchanger Size Correction
12 Performance and Design of Air-Based Solar Heating Systems
121 Pebble Bed Storage Size Correction
122 Air Flow Rate Correction
13 Performance and Design of Solar Service Water Systems
14 Thermosiphon Solar Water Heating Systems
15 General Remarks
2 Modeling and Simulation of Solar Energy Systems
21 Simple System Models
211 Pipe Losses
22 F-Chart Program
23 Trnsys Simulation Program
24 Limitations of Simulations
3 Solar Economic Analysis
31 Life Cycle Costing
32 Life Cycle Analysis Method
33 Payback Time
331 Not Discounted Fuel Savings
332 Discounted Fuel Savings
34 Alternative Method
341 System Optimization Using Economic Analysis
35 Uncertainties in Economic Analysis
Solar Energy Power Generation and Desalination Systems 47
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 Global Energy Problems and the Role of Renewables
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxi
11 Energy demand
12 Energy environmental problems and sustainable development
13 Water demand and consumption
14 Water and energy
15 Desalination and energy
16 Renewable energy technologies
2 Solar Collectors
21 Parabolic trough collectors
22 Fresnel collectors
23 Parabolic dish reflector
24 Heliostat field collector
3 Power Generation and Industrial Process Heat Systems
31 Parabolic trough collector systems
32 Power tower systems
33 Dish systems
34 Solar ponds
341 Heat extraction and applications
35 Industrial process heat systems
36 Solar industrial steam generation systems
4 Desalination Processes
41 Direct collection systems
42 Indirect collection systems
421 The multi-stage flash process
422 The multiple-effect distillation process
423 The vapor-compression process
424 Reverse osmosis
425 Electrodialysis
Solar Updraft Power Plant Technology Basic Concepts and Structural Design 94
Francesca Lupi University of Florence Florence Italy
Claudio Borri University of Florence Florence Italy
Wilfried B Kraumltzig Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
Hans-Juumlrgen Niemann Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
1 Solar Updraft Power Technology Introduction and Working Principles
2 History of the Solar Updraft Power Technology
21 Solar Tower Prototype in Manzanares (Spain)
3 Evaluation of Plant Efficiency
31 The Collector
32 The Chimney
33 The Turbines
34 Electric Power Generated by Supps
4 The Collector
5 Actions on Solar Updraft Towers
6 Wind Loading on Solar Updraft Towers
61 Wind Flow Structure in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer at High Altitudes
611 Boundary Layer Meteorology
612 The Ekman Spiral
613 Theoretical Considerations on the Mean Wind and Turbulence in the Ekman Layer
62 Modeling of the Wind Load on Solar Towers
621 Mean Wind Load
622 Response to Wind Turbulence
623 Fluctuating Wind Load
624 Equivalent Static Wind Pressures
625 Vortex Excitation
626 Other Effects The Effect of the Efflux
63 Wind Load on the Collector Roof
7 Structural Behavior of Solar Updraft Towers
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxii
71 Structural Elements of Solar Tower Shells
72 Some Typical Response Characteristics of Solar Tower Shells Vibration and Instability
Behavior
73 Non-Linear Tower Response
8 Structural Optimization of Solar Updraft Towers
81 The Role of the Stiffening Rings in the Structural Design of Solar Towers
82 Strategies of Optimization
9 Technology of Construction
Renewable Energy Potential in The Arab Region 162
Mohammed Mostafa El-Khayat General Manager of Planning New and Renewable Energy Authority
NREA Cairo Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Research Problem and Objectives
111 Research Problem
12 Research Objectives
2 Energy Demand
3 The Current Situation of Renewable Energy
31 Hydropower
32 Wind Energy
33 Solar Energy
34 Biomass and Geothermal Energy
4 Strategies
5 Institutional and Regulatory Framework
6 Main Policies and Incentives
7 RE Policies and Incentives Profiles
71 Algeria
72 Egypt
73 Jordan
74 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
75 Lebanon
76 Libya
77 Morocco
78 Palestine
79 Sudan
710 Syria
711 Tunisia
712 United Arab Emirates
713 Yemen
8 Financing Schemes and Investment Opportunities
9 Motivations and Barriers of Renewable Energy
10 Renewable Energy Initiatives
101 Arabian Initiatives
102 DESERTEC
11 Potential of Renewable Energy in the Region
12 The proposed mechanisms to enhance and accelerate the rate of using RE applications
13 The situation of localizing RE technologies
14 RE and climate change in Arab countries
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
198
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiii
22 Humidifying with Cooling and Dehumidifying Processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in HD Desalination Process
25 Overview on Some Desalination HD Projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process Description
32 The Condenser in the SWGH
321 Different Condenser Layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the Condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of Condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot Plant
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH Project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot Plant
522 Performances of the Pilot Plant
53 The SWGH Project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot Plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Evolution of Photovoltaic Materials for Renewable Energy Development 262
Abdelilah Slaoui InESS ndash CNRS ndash University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
Jef Poortmans IMEC Leuven Belgium
Marko Topic University of Ljubljana Faculty of Elec Eng Ljubljana Slovenia
Gavin Conibeer ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence UNSW Sydney Australia
1 General Introduction
2 Photovoltaic Materials and Technologies State of the Art
21 Crystalline Silicon
22 Thin Films
221 Amorphous Silicon
222 Nanocrystalline and Microcrystalline Silicon
223 Polycrystalline Silicon
224 Copper Indium Selenide Its alloys and Related Chalcopyrites
225 Cadmium Telluride
226 Materials for Photochemical Solar Cells
227 Materials for Organic Solar Cells
3 Next Generation Solar Cells
31 Introduction
32 Multiple energy level approaches
33 Multiple Exciton Generation solar cells
34 Intermediate Band (IB) cells
35 Hot carrier cells
4 Conclusions and Perspectives
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiv
Wind and Solar Renewable Energy Potential Resources Estimation 302
Philippe Drobinski Institut Pierre Simon LaplaceLaboratoire de Meacuteteacuteorologie Dynamique CNRSEcole
Polytechnique Palaiseau France
1 Renewable Wind and Solar Energies The Context
11 An Economical and Environmental Necessity
12 Energy Definitions and Units
2 Basic Knowledge in Geophysics for Energy Resource Evaluation
21 Earth Energy Budget and Atmospheric Motion
22 Near Surface Wind
23 Impacts of Clouds and Aerosols on Surface Solar Radiation
3 Wind Energy Resource
31 Wind Energy A Brief History
32 Wind Energy Resources Evaluation
33 Wind Energy Installed Capacity in the World
4 Solar Energy Resources
41 Solar Energy An Introduction
42 Worldwide Solar Heat
5 Methods for Wind and Solar Energy Resources Forecast
Index 353
About EOLSS 361
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xiv
42 Indirect Mode
43 Mixed Mode
44 Further Classifications
441 Natural Convection
442 Forced Convection
45 Other Differences
451 Supplementary Energy
452 Air Flow Direction
453 Heat Transfer Fluid
454 Thermal Storage
5 Solar Dryers in Practice
51 Direct mode natural convection dryers
52 Direct Mode Forced Convection Dryers
53 Indirect Mode Forced Convection Dryers
6 Performance Evaluation of Solar Dryers
61 Overall System Drying Efficiency
62 Pick-up Efficiency
63 Solar Collection Efficiency
64 Performance of Solar Dryers
65 Comparative Testing
7 Designing Solar Drying Systems
71 Rules-of-Thumb
72 Sizing Equations
73 Chart Methods
74 Simulation Techniques
8 Non-technical Factors
81 Economics
82 Practical Issues
83 Technology Transfer
84 Developing Country Issues
85 Industrialized Country Issues
9 Prospects and Future Developments
91 Technical Developments
92 Costs
93 Design
94 External Factors
10 Conclusions
A Short Historical Review of Renewable Energy 136
E Delyannis NCSR Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems ldquoDemokritosrdquo Aghia Paraskevi
Greece
A El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority (WEA) Abu-Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
11 The History of Renewable Energy Achievements
12 The Set-up of this Historical Review
2 The Renewable Energies in the Antiquity
21 From Legends to the First Written Documents
3 The Power of the Sun
31 The Dawn of the History
32 The Capture of the Suns Radiation
321 Antiquity to Middle Age The Philosophers
322 Renaissance to the 20th Century The Founders
323 The 20th Century The Engineers
324 The Present Times The Technologists
4 The Development of the Solar Distillation
41 From Philosophy to Practice
42 The First Large Applications
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xv
43 The Last 50 Years
5 Solar Driven Desalination
51 General Considerations
52 The Solar Driven Distillation Plants
53 Freezing Plants
54 Electrodialysis Plants
55 Solar Powered Reverse Osmosis Plants
6 The Energy of the Mother Gaia
7 The Power of Aeolos
71 The Aeolian Gods
72 The Harvest of the Winds Energy
73 The Raise and the Fall of Windmills
74 Wind Turbine Generation
8 The Power of the Moving Water
81 Hydraulic Power
9 The Impulsive Power of Poseidon
91 The Power of the Waves
92 The Tides and their Energy
93 The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) System
Renewable Energy Resources 186
V Belessiotis and E Delyannis NCSR Demokritos Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems
Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun as an Energy Source
21 The Availability of Solar Energy
22 Application of Solar Energy to Desalination
3 The Geothermal Energy
31 Introduction
32 The Geothermal Resources System
321 Hydrothermal Reservoirs
322 The Geopressurized Reservoirs
323 The Hot Dry Rocks
33 The Available Resources
34 The Geographic Distribution of Reservoirs
35 The Geothermal Brines
36 Application of Geothermal Resources
4 The Hydraulic Energy
41 Introduction
42 The Available Hydropower Resources
43 Limit of Hydropower Output
5 Wind Energy Resources
51 The Origin of Wind
52 The Distribution of Wind Forces
53 Wind Speed Distribution
54 The Utilization of the Wind Energy
6 Biomass as an Energy Source
61 Introduction
62 The Origin of Biomass
63 The Alternate Biomass Products
64 Biomass Residues
641 The Crop Residues
642 Fuel Wood
643 Sugar Crops
644 Livestock Manure
65 Refuse and Municipal Sewage
66 Plantation Biomass
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xvi
7 Thermal Energy from Biomass
71 Introduction
72 The Energy Conversion Methods
73 Environmental Impacts of Biomass Energy Sources
8 The Ocean Systems Energy Resources
81 Introduction
82 The Energy of the Waves
821 The Origin of the Waves
822 Distribution of Wave Resources
83 The Tidal Power as Energy Source
831 The Generation of Tides
832 The Tidal Potential
84 The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) Source
841 The Trapping of the OTEC Energy
Desalination with Renewable Energy - A Review 227
Ali M El-Nashar 22 Ahmed Gharbo St Apt 703 Zizinia Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Commercial Desalination Processes and Their Energy Consumption
21 Description of the Commercial Desalination Processes
211 Distillation Processes
212 Membrane Processes
22 Technical and Economic Characteristics of Commercial Desalination Processes
3 Available Renewable Energy Sources
31 Solar Energy
32 Wind Energy
33 Geothermal Energy
34 Other Renewable Energy Sources
4 Devices for Transforming Renewable Energy into Useful Energy for Desalination
41 Solar Collectors
42 Solar Ponds
43 Photovoltaic Cells
44 Wind Turbines
5 Coupling of Desalination Processes and Renewable Energy
51 Direct and Indirect Coupling of Solar Energy and Desalination
511 Direct coupling (Solar still technology)
512 Indirect Coupling
52 Desalination Systems Driven by Solar Thermal Energy
521 Solar Thermal Collectors-MSF Desalination
522 Solar Thermal Collectors-MED Desalination
53 Desalination Systems Driven by Wind Energy
531 Wind-MVC Systems
532 Wind-RO Systems
54 Desalination Systems Driven by Solar Photovoltaics (PV)
55 Hybrid Desalination Systems
6 Current Status
7 Selection Criteria among Different RE Desalination Technologies
8 Performance of Selected RE Desalination Projects
81 Solar Stills
82 Wind-Energy Driven RO Desalination Technology
83 PV-Powered Seawater RO System
84 Abu Dhabi Solar MED Desalination Plant
9 Economics of RE Desalination
91 Financial Analysis
92 Cost of Water from RES Desalination Plants
10 Conclusion
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xvii
Renewable Energy and Desalination Systems 301
Asghar Husain International Center for Water and Energy Systems (ICWES) Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
11 Need for Desalination
2 What Is Sustainability
3 Review of Desalination Technologies
31 Thermal-Based Processes
32 Membrane ndash Based Technologies
33 Renewable Energies
4 Desalination Using Solar Energy
41 Direct Utilization of Solar Radiation in the Solar Still
42 Solar Collectors
43 Solar Concentrating System
44 Solar Ponds
45 Photovoltaic Cells
46 Storage of Solar Energy
5 Desalination Using Other Renewable Energies
51 Wind Energy
52 Geothermal Energy
53 Wave Energy
54 Tidal Energy
55 Ocean Temperature Difference or Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
56 Hydraulic Energy
57 Biomass as Energy Source
6 Concluding Remarks
Why Use Renewable Energy for Desalination 342
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 The Need of Desalination for Economic Development in Remote Arid Areas
3 The Need of Energy for Desalination
4 The Availability of Renewable Energy
5 The Economic and Social Benefits of Using Renewable Energy for Desalination
6 Examples of Arid Remote Regions where Renewable Energy for Desalination can have a High
Economic Potential
61 The Southern and Eastern Mediterranean Regions
62 The Mediterranean Islands
63 The Arab Gulf Region
7 Conclusions
Thermal Energy Storage 356
Hassan E S Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Solar Energy Storage
12 Thermal Energy Storage
13 Thermal Storage Efficiency
14 Thermal Insulation
2 Sensible Heat Storage
21 Introduction
22 Low Temperature Sensible Heat Storage
221 Storage in Liquids
23 Intermediate and High Temperature Sensible Heat Storage
231 Storage in Fluids
232 Storage in Solids
233 Storage in Fluid-Solid Media
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xviii
24 Concluding Remarks
3 Latent Heat (Phase Change) Storage
31 Introduction
32 Low Temperature Latent Heat Storage
321 Phase Change Materials
322 Storage Systems Problems
33 Intermediate and High Temperature Latent Heat Storage
34 Concluding Remarks
35 Heat of Vaporization
4 Combined Sensible and Latent Heat Storage
5 Closing Remarks
6 Some Recent Developments
61 Sensible Heat Storage
62 Latent Heat Storage
621 Heat Transfer with Thermal Energy Storage
622 Storage System Performance
623 Solar Collector Integrated with Storage System
Electrical Energy Storage 387
J Garche Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research Baden-Wuumlrttemberg Germany
A Jossen Energy Storage and Energy Conversion Division Ulm Germany
1 Introduction
2 Systems with Internal Storage
21 Demands on the Battery
22 Lead-Acid Battery
221 Electrochemical Reactions
222 Operation values
223 Types of Lead-Acid Batteries
2231 Differentiation by electrodes
2232 Batteries with positive plates protected against active mass shedding
2233 Differentiation by container technology
224 Main Problems while Operation of Lead-Acid Batteries
2241 Charging and Overdischarge
2242 Deep Discharge
2243 Sulfation
225 Other Battery Systems
2251 Nickel-Cadmium Battery
2252 New Battery Systems
3 Systems with External Storage
31 Gas-Accumulator
32 Redox-Flow-Systems
4 Storage Sizing
Tidal Energy 406
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Consideration
5 Prospects
Index 416
About EOLSS 421
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xix
VOLUME IV
Desalination Using Tidal Energy 1
Abdalla S Hanafi Cairo University Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Tides
21 Spring and Neap Tides
3 Tidal Power Plants
31 Barrage
32 Locks and Gates
33 Power House
34 Basins
35 Storage
36 Economical Considerations
37 Tidal Sites
4 Tidal Desalination Technologies
41 Tidal-Vapor Compression Desalination
42 Tidal-Reverse Osmosis
421 Overall Analysis of the Reverse Osmosis Modules
43 Tidal - Electrodialysis (ED)
431 Electrodialysis DC Power
44 Tidal Freezing-Melting (FM)
441 Freezing-Melting System Analysis
5 Economic Comparisons with Wind and Solar Energy
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
15
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
22 Humidifying with cooling and dehumidifying processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in Desalination HD Process
25 Overview on Some desalination HD projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process description
32 The condenser in the SWGH
321 Different condenser layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot plant
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xx
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot plant
522 Performances of the SWGH
53 Case Study 3 The SWGH project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Wave Energy 81
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Considerations
5 Prospects
Wind Energy 97
B Sorensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Worldwide Distribution of Wind Energy Resources
11 Physical Potential Wind Maps
12 Practical Potential for Wind Turbines
13 Restrictions due to Competing Land Use
14 Off-Shore Potential
15 Methods for Determining Local Potential Atlas Technique
16 Overall Assessment of Potential
2 Wind Turbine Technology
21 Current Status and Prospects for the Future
22 Basic Theory Wind Turbine Types and Efficiencies
23 Prospects for Further Development
24 Current Penetration of Wind Power Utilization
25 National Plans and Future Prospects
26 Plant Lifetime and Reliability
27 Impacts on Requirements for Transmission and Back-Up
28 Energy Storage and Demand Management
3 Economic Social and Environmental Impacts of Wind Energy Utilization
31 Current Cost and Cost Trends
32 Employment Generation
33 Energy Balance
34 Noise
35 Aspects of Decentralized Energy Supply
36 Life-Cycle Estimate of Externalities Including Construction and Decommissioning Impacts
4 Evaluation of Greenhouse Warming Mitigation Potential of Wind Power
41 Assessment of Marginal Life-Cycle Impacts Including Greenhouse Warming
42 Elements of Non-Marginal Analysis of Energy Systems with Large Wind Power Share
43 Relationship between Demand Development and the Valuations of Wind Energy
44 Concluding Remarks
Availability of Wind Energy and Its Estimation 139
Richard Morris Richard Morris Associates Glasgow United Kingdom
1 The Sun as the Wind Driver
2 The Nature of Wind
3 Wind Power Statistics
4 Estimating Wind Power
5 Siting for Wind Energy
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxi
The Use of Geothermal Energy in Desalination 155
BW Tleimat Water Reuse Technology Alamo California USA
ADK Laird (deceased) Professor Emeritus and Director Emeritus Sea Water Conversion Laboratory
University of California Berkeley California USA
1 Introduction
2 Historical Perspective
3 Heat Transfer from Geothermal Reservoirs
4 Geothermal Energy Utilization
5 Electricity Generation
6 Water Production from Geothermal Sources
7 Idealized Liquid-dominated Reservoirs
8 Water and Power Generation Effects of Some System Parameters
9 Multiple-effect and Multistage Distillation Processes
10 Energy-budget Management
11 Processes for Decentralized Desalination
12 Water-budget Management
13 Solids-budget Management
Solar Photovoltaic Energy Conversion 181
G Schumm Zentrum fuer Sonnenenergie und Wasserstoff-Forschung Baden Wuerttemberg Stuttgart
Germany
1 The General Photovoltaic System
2 Non-Concentrating PV Systems
3 Tracking and Concentrating PV Systems
Flat-Plate Collectors 191
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Solar Collector Applications
3 Definitions
31 Solar Collectors
311 Solar Thermal Collector
312 Flat-Plate Collector
32 Construction Elements of a Solar Collector
321 Absorber Plate or Selective Surface
322 The Transparent Cover
323 The Collector Insulation
324 The Heat Transfer Medium
33 The Surface Areas
331 The Surface Area of the Absorber Plate
332 The Transparent Cover Surface
333 Total Surface Area
34 Operational Characteristics of the Collector
341 Collector efficiency (η)
342 Thermal Capacity of the Collector (C)
343 Pressure Drop (Δp)
344 Stagnant Conditions
345 Incidence Angle Coefficient (kθ)
35 The Characteristic Parameters of the Collector
351 The cover reflectance (ρc)
353 Cover Absorptance (αc)
352 Cover Transmittance (τc)
354 Coefficient of cover Emissivity (εc)
355 Coefficient of Absorber Emissivity
356 Selective Surface
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxii
357 Selective Coat
358 Collector Efficiency Factor (Fprime) 359 Collector Flow Factor (FPrime) 3510 Collector Heat Removal Factor (FR)
3511 Collector Heat Loss Coefficient (UL)
4 Main Collector Components
41 The Solar Radiation Absorber
42 The Transparent Cover
43 Thermal Insulation
44 The Casing of the Collector
45 The Supporting of the Collector
5 The Solar Absorbers
51 Types of Solar Absorbers
511 Absorbers of Common Paint
512 Selective coat Absorbers
52 Forms of Absorbers and Tubes
521 General considerations
522 Sandwich Type Absorber
523 Roll Bond Tube Absorber
524 Soldered Type Absorbers
525 Absorbers with Ω Type Fins
6 Characteristics of Flat-Plate Collectors
61 General considerations
62 Installation Configuration of a Collector System
63 Orientation and Slope of the Collector
7 Dynamic Operational Characteristics of a Collector
71 The Incident Angle Coefficient
72 The Thermal Capacity of the Collector C
73 The Heat Removal Factor FR
8 The Thermal Characteristics of a Collector
81 Determination of the Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL
82 Determination of Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL for in Series Interconnection
83 Equivalent Thermal Loss between Tubes and Collector
84 The Influence of Wind Velocity
9 Shading of the Collectors
10 Basic Calculation Methods
101 Cover Reflectance
102 Cover Transmittance
103 The Transmittance-Absorptance Product
104 Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
105 Multi-Cover Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
11 The Heat Transfer Loss Coefficients
111 Loss Coefficient Uc
112 Loss Coefficient Ub
113 Loss Coefficient Us
114 The Collector Efficiency Factor Fprime 115 Collector flow factor FPrime Large Active Solar Systems Load 220
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and other Energy Systems National Centre for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Estimation of Thermal Load
21 Estimation of the Required Heat Qload
22 Estimation of the Required Heat for the Water Qw
23 Estimation of the Heat Loss in Distribution Pipes Qp
24 Estimation of Heat Loss in the Storage Tank Qt
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiii
Large Active Solar Systems Typical Economic Analysis 225
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Cost of a Solar Hot Water System
21 Initial Capital Cost
22 Operational Costs
221 Cost of Fuel
222 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
223 Cost of Maintenance
224 Cost for Loans
225 Costs for Insurance
226 Miscellaneous Expenses
3 Cost of Conventional Hot Water System
31 Operational Costs
311 Cost of Fuel
312 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
313 Cost of Maintenance
4 Inflation
5 Rate of Interest
6 Methods of Life Cycle Cost
61 General
62 Present and Future Costs
63 Yearly Instalment
64 Yearly Expenses
7 Methodology
8 Present Value Factor
9 Comparison Methodology
Integration of Solar Pond with Water Desalination 240
U Fisher J Weinberg and B Doron Ormat Industries Ltd Yavne Israel
1 Introduction
2 Historical Background
3 The Solar Pond
31 Structure
32 Heat Absorption and Storage
33 Main Demands when Building a Pond
331 Surface Area
332 Surface Water Make-up
333 Concentrated Brine Supply
34 How to Build a Solar Pond
341 Geometry or Shape
342 Lining
343 Construction Materials in the Pond
344 Initial Filling and Build-up of Gradient
35 How to Control
36 Heat Losses (Ground Diffusion Evaporation)
361 Top Losses
362 Bottom Heat Losses
37 Disturbances
371 Algae
372 Corrosion
373 Wind
38 Heat Extraction
39 Fuel Assisted Solar Ponds
310 Maintenance
3101 Clarity
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiv
3102 Cleaning of Wind Breakers
3103 Blow Down
3104 Make-up
3105 Leakages
311 Practical Size of a Single Pond
312 Investment in Solar Ponds
313 OampM Costs
4 Desalination Processes Coupled to the Solar Pond
41 Economic Aspects of Coupling Desalination Plants to Solar Ponds
411 Desalination Processes
412 The Choice and Proportion of Producing Heat and Power in the Solar Pond
4121 The Solar Pond Yield
4122 Desalination Plant Performance
4123 The Impact of Daily and Seasonal Fluctuations
4124 Economic Considerations and Evaluations
42 Experience with SP-Desalination Systems
43 Conclusions
Evacuated Tube Collectors 276
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Current Designs of Evacuated Tube Collectors
3 Thermal Analysis
4 Analysis of Flat Plate Evacuated Tube Collector
5 Analysis of Concentric-Tube Collector
6 Performance of Evacuated Tube Collectors
7 Case Study (Collector Field at the Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant)
71 Description of collector field
72 Performance of collector field
73 Economics
Parabolic Trough Collectors 299
Wolfgang Meinecke Deutsches Zentrum fuumlr Luft-und Raumfahrt eV (DLR German Aerospace Center)
Solar Energy Technology Division Koumlln Germany
1 Introduction
2 Brief History of Trough Development
3 State of the Art of Trough Applications
31 Conventional Thermal Water Desalination Applications
32 Solar Thermal Water Desalination Applications
33 Solar Electric Power Generation
34 Solar Process Heat Generation
35 Process Hot Water (Project Examples)
36 Process Steam (Project Examples)
37 Process Steam for Water Desalination (Project Examples)
38 Process Hot Air
4 Trough Technologies
41 LS 3 Trough Collector System
411 LS 3 Parabolic Reflector
412 Steel Support Structure
413 Absorber Element
414 Tracking System and Field Control System
415 Heat Transfer Fluid System
416 Steam Generator
417 Balance of Plant Technologies
418 Energy Storage System
42 IST Trough Collector System
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxv
421 IST Parabolic Reflector
422 Support Structure
423 Absorber Element
424 Tracking System and Field Control System
425 Heat Transfer Fluid System
426 Heat Exchanger
427 Balance of Plant Technology
428 Energy Storage
5 Prospects and Potential
51 Solar Electric Power Generation
52 Solar Process Heat Generation
53 Solar Thermal Water Desalination
6 Cost and Economic Aspects
61 Collector Investment Costs
611 LS 3 Collector Costs
612 IST Collector Costs
62 Other Economic Parameters
621 Fossil Fuel Prices
622 Solar Energy Yield
623 Solar Share
624 Plant Power Size
625 Capacity Factor
626 OampM Costs
627 Non-Technical Parameters
63 Costs of Solar Water Desalination
7 Conclusions
Index 363
About EOLSS 369
VOLUME V
Central Receivers 1
MM Elsayed Mechanical Engineering Department Kuwait University Safat Kuwait
1 Introduction
2 Heliostats Types and Design Shapes
3 Heliostat Angles
4 Heliostat Field Heliostat Layout
5 Heliostat Field Cosine Effect
6 Heliostat Field Preliminary Sizing of the Field
7 Heliostat Field Usefulness Efficiency
8 Reflected Solar Radiation
9 The Effective Sunshape
10 Principal Images and Relation between Receiver and Image Planes
11 Models to Predict the Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Image Plane
111 Incoming Ray Formulation
112 The Mirror Plane Formulation
113 Solar Disk Formulation
114 The Pinhole View
12 Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Receiver Surface Using the Separation of
VariableSuperposition Technique
121 Concept
122 Calculation of φ 123 Validation of Model Using Measurements
13 Receivers Types and Losses
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvi
14 Preliminary Sizing of the Receiver
15 Overall System Optimization
Configuration Theoretical Analysis and Performance of Simple Solar Stills 98
A Kumar Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources Solar Energy Center New Delhi India
1 Introduction
2 Configuration of Simple Solar Stills
21 Basic Principle
22 Classification
23 Single Basin Solar Stills
24 Inclined Solar Stills
241 Basin Type Solar Stills
242 Wick Type Solar Stills
25 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
26 Solar Earth Water Stills
27 Plastic Solar Stills
271 Life Raft Solar Still
272 Circular Solar Still
273 Extruded Plastic Solar Still
274 Concentric Tube Solar Still
28 A Typical Solar Distillation Plant
3 Theoretical Analysis of Simple Solar Stills
31 Heat and Mass Transfer in Solar Stills
311 Inside the Solar Still
312 Outside the Solar Still
32 Solar Radiation Balance
321 Transmission through Top Cover
322 Absorption in the Top Cover
33 Energy Balance Equations
34 Solution Procedure
4 Performance of Solar Stills
41 Single Basin Solar Stills
42 Inclined Solar Stills
43 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
44 Solar Earth Water Stills
45 Plastic Solar Stills
46 Case Studies
461 Australia
462 Greek Islands
463 India
47 Suggested Practices for Installing Solar Stills
Development in Simple Solar Stills 169
Hassan ES Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Modified Simple (Passive) Stills
21 Basin Still
211 Single Slope versus Double Slope Basin Stills
212 Basin Still with Cover Cooling
213 Basin Still with Treated Cover Surface
214 Basin Still with Additional Condenser
215 Basin Still with Black DyeMuddy Water
22 Wick Stills
221 Single-wick Stills
222 Multi-wick Stills
223 Wick versus Basin Stills
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvii
224 Combined Wick-Basin Stills
23 Other Stills Configurations
231 Vertical Microporous Evaporator Still
232 Cascade Solar Still
233 Still Integrated with Greenhouse
3 Externally Heated (Active) Solar Stills
31 Introduction
32 Stills Coupled to a Solar Collector
321 Direct and Indirect Heating
322 Use of Dye and Cover Cooling
323 Other Solar Heaters
33 Stills Coupled with Solar Concentrator
34 The Use of Waste Heat in Solar Stills
4 Other Types of Solar Distillation Systems
41 Water Recovery from Air
Multi-Effect Solar Stills 197
HES Fath Al-Jubail 31951 Saudi Arabia
1 Why Multi Effect
2 Double Effect Basin Stills
21 Double Basins Stills
22 Double Effect Tilted Stills
23 Purging Vapor to a Second Effect
3 Multi-Effect Multi-Wick Stills
4 Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
41 Introduction
42 Mass Diffusion
43 Comparison between Diffusion and Basin Stills
44 Description of Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
45 Analysis and Performance Considerations
5 Other Distillation Systems
51 Stacked Tray Stills
52 Multi-Effect Humidification-Dehumidification
Materials for Construction of Solar Stills 218
TA Lawand and J Ayoub Brace Research Institute Canada
1 Introduction
2 General Specifications of Solar Stills
3 Transparent Cover
4 Basin Liner
5 Solar Still Frame
6 Sealants
7 Insulation
8 Auxiliaries - Piping Pumping and Reservoirs
Reverse Osmosis by Solar Energy 225
W Bucher DLR German Aerospace Research Establishment Cologne Germany
1 Introduction
2 Basic Parameters and Energy Demand for Osmosis
21 Physical Properties of Hyperfiltration
22 Energy required for the RO Process
3 Solar Power Conversion Systems
31 Solar Conversion Principles
32 Technical Data of Solar Energy Conversion Methods
33 RO Plant Operation Utilizing Variable Energy Sources
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxviii
4 Reverse Osmosis System Configuration and Operation Aspects
41 Process Design of RO Desalination Systems
42 Procedural Steps and Data for Water Treatment and Energy Consumption
43 Components of RO -Desalination
431 Membranes and Modules
432 High Pressure Pumps
433 Pressure Regulating Devices
5 Solar Powered Desalination Units
51 Specific Figures or RO Systems
52 Solar Power Concepts for RO Desalination
53 Operational Experience with Solar driven RO Systems
6 Costs
61 Specific Cost Figures for the Plant Components
62 Water Delivery Cost
Availability of Solar Radiation and Its Estimation 265
VG Belessiotis Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems National Center for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun and the Radiation Emitted
21 The Physics of the Sun
22 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
3 The Extraterrestrial Radiation
31 What is the Solar Constant
32 Variations of the Extraterrestrial Radiation
33 The Black-body Emittance and Absorptance
34 Blackbody Absorbers - Application to Desalination
4 The Co-ordinate Systems The Basic Solar Angles
41 The Earth-Sun Relationships
42 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Sky
43 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Celestial Sphere
44 Earth-Sun Geometric Relationship
45 Time and its Units - Day Length
46 Terrestrial Solar Radiation
461 Estimation of Radiation Availability
462 Average Radiation Values - Clearness Index
463 Clear Sky Radiation
464 Sky Radiation
47 Atmospheric Factors Affecting Radiation
5 Computation of Insolation at the Earths Surface
51 Insolation Data
52 Measurement of Solar Radiation
53 Models for Solar Radiation
54 Where the Models Apply
55 Tilted Surfaces - Absorptance of Solar Radiation
551 Fixed Tilted Surfaces
552 Tracking Surfaces
6 Applications of Solar Radiation
7 Impact of Solar Energy to the Environment
Economics of Small Solar-Assisted Multiple-Effect Seawater Distillation Plants 296
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Configurations
3 Design and Sizing Considerations
31 Thermal Energy Requirement
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxix
32 Pumping Requirements
33 Collector Performance
34 Sizing Thermal Collector Area
35 Sizing the PV System
351 Sizing the PV Array
4 Economic Ground Rules and Water Cost Optimization
41 Capital Equipment Cost
42 Operating Costs
43 Optimum Cost of Water for each Plant Configuration
5 Results
6 Conclusion
A Solar-Assisted Sea Water Multiple Effect Distillation Plant 15 Years of Operating
Performance (1985-1999) 316
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Basic Design Concept
21 General Plant Description
22 Design Specifications
23 Evaporator Heat Transfer Coefficient
24 Tube Dimensions Heat Transfer Areas and Materials
3 Performance during Commissioning Tests
31 The MES Evaporator
32 The Solar Collector Field
33 The Heat Accumulator
34 Total Plant Performance
4 Performance History
41 The MES Evaporator
42 The Solar Collector Field
43 The Heat Accumulator
431 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
4311 The heat balance method
4312 The direct temperature measurement method
4313 Thermal stratification ratio
44 Total Plant Performance
5 Major Maintenance Activities
51 Equipment Failure and Replacement
52 Acid Cleanings and Silt Removal from Evaporator
6 Evaluation of Water Cost
61 Capital Costs
62 Operation and Maintenance Costs
7 Conclusions
Mathematical Simulation of a Solar Desalination Plant 341
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Description
3 System Operating Conditions
31 Solar Heat Collecting Subsystem
32 Evaporator Subsystem
4 Mathematical Modeling of System Components
41 Solar radiation model
42 Ambient temperature model
43 Solar collector subsystem
431 Effect of shade on solar radiation
432 Effect of dust on transmissivity of glass tubes
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxx
433 Control of heat collecting operation
434 Heat collection by solar collectors
435 Heat loss from piping
4351 Piping specifications
4352 Standard pipe lengths
4353 Heat loss from piping during operation of heat collecting pump
4354 Heat loss from piping while the heat collecting pump is shutdown
4355 Correction of piping heat loss
44 Heat accumulator subsystem
441 Temperature distribution
442 MES evaporator subsystem
5 The Simulation Program
51 Program structure
52 Input and output data
6 Results
7 Conclusions
Index 379
About EOLSS 385
VOLUME VI
Modeling and Design of Solar Energy Systems Including Solar Economics 1
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 F-Chart Method
11 Performance and Design of Liquid-Based Solar Heating Systems
111 Storage Capacity Correction
112 Collector Flow Rate Correction
113 Load Heat Exchanger Size Correction
12 Performance and Design of Air-Based Solar Heating Systems
121 Pebble Bed Storage Size Correction
122 Air Flow Rate Correction
13 Performance and Design of Solar Service Water Systems
14 Thermosiphon Solar Water Heating Systems
15 General Remarks
2 Modeling and Simulation of Solar Energy Systems
21 Simple System Models
211 Pipe Losses
22 F-Chart Program
23 Trnsys Simulation Program
24 Limitations of Simulations
3 Solar Economic Analysis
31 Life Cycle Costing
32 Life Cycle Analysis Method
33 Payback Time
331 Not Discounted Fuel Savings
332 Discounted Fuel Savings
34 Alternative Method
341 System Optimization Using Economic Analysis
35 Uncertainties in Economic Analysis
Solar Energy Power Generation and Desalination Systems 47
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 Global Energy Problems and the Role of Renewables
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxi
11 Energy demand
12 Energy environmental problems and sustainable development
13 Water demand and consumption
14 Water and energy
15 Desalination and energy
16 Renewable energy technologies
2 Solar Collectors
21 Parabolic trough collectors
22 Fresnel collectors
23 Parabolic dish reflector
24 Heliostat field collector
3 Power Generation and Industrial Process Heat Systems
31 Parabolic trough collector systems
32 Power tower systems
33 Dish systems
34 Solar ponds
341 Heat extraction and applications
35 Industrial process heat systems
36 Solar industrial steam generation systems
4 Desalination Processes
41 Direct collection systems
42 Indirect collection systems
421 The multi-stage flash process
422 The multiple-effect distillation process
423 The vapor-compression process
424 Reverse osmosis
425 Electrodialysis
Solar Updraft Power Plant Technology Basic Concepts and Structural Design 94
Francesca Lupi University of Florence Florence Italy
Claudio Borri University of Florence Florence Italy
Wilfried B Kraumltzig Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
Hans-Juumlrgen Niemann Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
1 Solar Updraft Power Technology Introduction and Working Principles
2 History of the Solar Updraft Power Technology
21 Solar Tower Prototype in Manzanares (Spain)
3 Evaluation of Plant Efficiency
31 The Collector
32 The Chimney
33 The Turbines
34 Electric Power Generated by Supps
4 The Collector
5 Actions on Solar Updraft Towers
6 Wind Loading on Solar Updraft Towers
61 Wind Flow Structure in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer at High Altitudes
611 Boundary Layer Meteorology
612 The Ekman Spiral
613 Theoretical Considerations on the Mean Wind and Turbulence in the Ekman Layer
62 Modeling of the Wind Load on Solar Towers
621 Mean Wind Load
622 Response to Wind Turbulence
623 Fluctuating Wind Load
624 Equivalent Static Wind Pressures
625 Vortex Excitation
626 Other Effects The Effect of the Efflux
63 Wind Load on the Collector Roof
7 Structural Behavior of Solar Updraft Towers
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxii
71 Structural Elements of Solar Tower Shells
72 Some Typical Response Characteristics of Solar Tower Shells Vibration and Instability
Behavior
73 Non-Linear Tower Response
8 Structural Optimization of Solar Updraft Towers
81 The Role of the Stiffening Rings in the Structural Design of Solar Towers
82 Strategies of Optimization
9 Technology of Construction
Renewable Energy Potential in The Arab Region 162
Mohammed Mostafa El-Khayat General Manager of Planning New and Renewable Energy Authority
NREA Cairo Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Research Problem and Objectives
111 Research Problem
12 Research Objectives
2 Energy Demand
3 The Current Situation of Renewable Energy
31 Hydropower
32 Wind Energy
33 Solar Energy
34 Biomass and Geothermal Energy
4 Strategies
5 Institutional and Regulatory Framework
6 Main Policies and Incentives
7 RE Policies and Incentives Profiles
71 Algeria
72 Egypt
73 Jordan
74 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
75 Lebanon
76 Libya
77 Morocco
78 Palestine
79 Sudan
710 Syria
711 Tunisia
712 United Arab Emirates
713 Yemen
8 Financing Schemes and Investment Opportunities
9 Motivations and Barriers of Renewable Energy
10 Renewable Energy Initiatives
101 Arabian Initiatives
102 DESERTEC
11 Potential of Renewable Energy in the Region
12 The proposed mechanisms to enhance and accelerate the rate of using RE applications
13 The situation of localizing RE technologies
14 RE and climate change in Arab countries
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
198
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiii
22 Humidifying with Cooling and Dehumidifying Processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in HD Desalination Process
25 Overview on Some Desalination HD Projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process Description
32 The Condenser in the SWGH
321 Different Condenser Layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the Condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of Condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot Plant
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH Project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot Plant
522 Performances of the Pilot Plant
53 The SWGH Project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot Plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Evolution of Photovoltaic Materials for Renewable Energy Development 262
Abdelilah Slaoui InESS ndash CNRS ndash University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
Jef Poortmans IMEC Leuven Belgium
Marko Topic University of Ljubljana Faculty of Elec Eng Ljubljana Slovenia
Gavin Conibeer ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence UNSW Sydney Australia
1 General Introduction
2 Photovoltaic Materials and Technologies State of the Art
21 Crystalline Silicon
22 Thin Films
221 Amorphous Silicon
222 Nanocrystalline and Microcrystalline Silicon
223 Polycrystalline Silicon
224 Copper Indium Selenide Its alloys and Related Chalcopyrites
225 Cadmium Telluride
226 Materials for Photochemical Solar Cells
227 Materials for Organic Solar Cells
3 Next Generation Solar Cells
31 Introduction
32 Multiple energy level approaches
33 Multiple Exciton Generation solar cells
34 Intermediate Band (IB) cells
35 Hot carrier cells
4 Conclusions and Perspectives
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiv
Wind and Solar Renewable Energy Potential Resources Estimation 302
Philippe Drobinski Institut Pierre Simon LaplaceLaboratoire de Meacuteteacuteorologie Dynamique CNRSEcole
Polytechnique Palaiseau France
1 Renewable Wind and Solar Energies The Context
11 An Economical and Environmental Necessity
12 Energy Definitions and Units
2 Basic Knowledge in Geophysics for Energy Resource Evaluation
21 Earth Energy Budget and Atmospheric Motion
22 Near Surface Wind
23 Impacts of Clouds and Aerosols on Surface Solar Radiation
3 Wind Energy Resource
31 Wind Energy A Brief History
32 Wind Energy Resources Evaluation
33 Wind Energy Installed Capacity in the World
4 Solar Energy Resources
41 Solar Energy An Introduction
42 Worldwide Solar Heat
5 Methods for Wind and Solar Energy Resources Forecast
Index 353
About EOLSS 361
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xv
43 The Last 50 Years
5 Solar Driven Desalination
51 General Considerations
52 The Solar Driven Distillation Plants
53 Freezing Plants
54 Electrodialysis Plants
55 Solar Powered Reverse Osmosis Plants
6 The Energy of the Mother Gaia
7 The Power of Aeolos
71 The Aeolian Gods
72 The Harvest of the Winds Energy
73 The Raise and the Fall of Windmills
74 Wind Turbine Generation
8 The Power of the Moving Water
81 Hydraulic Power
9 The Impulsive Power of Poseidon
91 The Power of the Waves
92 The Tides and their Energy
93 The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) System
Renewable Energy Resources 186
V Belessiotis and E Delyannis NCSR Demokritos Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems
Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun as an Energy Source
21 The Availability of Solar Energy
22 Application of Solar Energy to Desalination
3 The Geothermal Energy
31 Introduction
32 The Geothermal Resources System
321 Hydrothermal Reservoirs
322 The Geopressurized Reservoirs
323 The Hot Dry Rocks
33 The Available Resources
34 The Geographic Distribution of Reservoirs
35 The Geothermal Brines
36 Application of Geothermal Resources
4 The Hydraulic Energy
41 Introduction
42 The Available Hydropower Resources
43 Limit of Hydropower Output
5 Wind Energy Resources
51 The Origin of Wind
52 The Distribution of Wind Forces
53 Wind Speed Distribution
54 The Utilization of the Wind Energy
6 Biomass as an Energy Source
61 Introduction
62 The Origin of Biomass
63 The Alternate Biomass Products
64 Biomass Residues
641 The Crop Residues
642 Fuel Wood
643 Sugar Crops
644 Livestock Manure
65 Refuse and Municipal Sewage
66 Plantation Biomass
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xvi
7 Thermal Energy from Biomass
71 Introduction
72 The Energy Conversion Methods
73 Environmental Impacts of Biomass Energy Sources
8 The Ocean Systems Energy Resources
81 Introduction
82 The Energy of the Waves
821 The Origin of the Waves
822 Distribution of Wave Resources
83 The Tidal Power as Energy Source
831 The Generation of Tides
832 The Tidal Potential
84 The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) Source
841 The Trapping of the OTEC Energy
Desalination with Renewable Energy - A Review 227
Ali M El-Nashar 22 Ahmed Gharbo St Apt 703 Zizinia Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Commercial Desalination Processes and Their Energy Consumption
21 Description of the Commercial Desalination Processes
211 Distillation Processes
212 Membrane Processes
22 Technical and Economic Characteristics of Commercial Desalination Processes
3 Available Renewable Energy Sources
31 Solar Energy
32 Wind Energy
33 Geothermal Energy
34 Other Renewable Energy Sources
4 Devices for Transforming Renewable Energy into Useful Energy for Desalination
41 Solar Collectors
42 Solar Ponds
43 Photovoltaic Cells
44 Wind Turbines
5 Coupling of Desalination Processes and Renewable Energy
51 Direct and Indirect Coupling of Solar Energy and Desalination
511 Direct coupling (Solar still technology)
512 Indirect Coupling
52 Desalination Systems Driven by Solar Thermal Energy
521 Solar Thermal Collectors-MSF Desalination
522 Solar Thermal Collectors-MED Desalination
53 Desalination Systems Driven by Wind Energy
531 Wind-MVC Systems
532 Wind-RO Systems
54 Desalination Systems Driven by Solar Photovoltaics (PV)
55 Hybrid Desalination Systems
6 Current Status
7 Selection Criteria among Different RE Desalination Technologies
8 Performance of Selected RE Desalination Projects
81 Solar Stills
82 Wind-Energy Driven RO Desalination Technology
83 PV-Powered Seawater RO System
84 Abu Dhabi Solar MED Desalination Plant
9 Economics of RE Desalination
91 Financial Analysis
92 Cost of Water from RES Desalination Plants
10 Conclusion
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xvii
Renewable Energy and Desalination Systems 301
Asghar Husain International Center for Water and Energy Systems (ICWES) Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
11 Need for Desalination
2 What Is Sustainability
3 Review of Desalination Technologies
31 Thermal-Based Processes
32 Membrane ndash Based Technologies
33 Renewable Energies
4 Desalination Using Solar Energy
41 Direct Utilization of Solar Radiation in the Solar Still
42 Solar Collectors
43 Solar Concentrating System
44 Solar Ponds
45 Photovoltaic Cells
46 Storage of Solar Energy
5 Desalination Using Other Renewable Energies
51 Wind Energy
52 Geothermal Energy
53 Wave Energy
54 Tidal Energy
55 Ocean Temperature Difference or Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
56 Hydraulic Energy
57 Biomass as Energy Source
6 Concluding Remarks
Why Use Renewable Energy for Desalination 342
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 The Need of Desalination for Economic Development in Remote Arid Areas
3 The Need of Energy for Desalination
4 The Availability of Renewable Energy
5 The Economic and Social Benefits of Using Renewable Energy for Desalination
6 Examples of Arid Remote Regions where Renewable Energy for Desalination can have a High
Economic Potential
61 The Southern and Eastern Mediterranean Regions
62 The Mediterranean Islands
63 The Arab Gulf Region
7 Conclusions
Thermal Energy Storage 356
Hassan E S Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Solar Energy Storage
12 Thermal Energy Storage
13 Thermal Storage Efficiency
14 Thermal Insulation
2 Sensible Heat Storage
21 Introduction
22 Low Temperature Sensible Heat Storage
221 Storage in Liquids
23 Intermediate and High Temperature Sensible Heat Storage
231 Storage in Fluids
232 Storage in Solids
233 Storage in Fluid-Solid Media
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xviii
24 Concluding Remarks
3 Latent Heat (Phase Change) Storage
31 Introduction
32 Low Temperature Latent Heat Storage
321 Phase Change Materials
322 Storage Systems Problems
33 Intermediate and High Temperature Latent Heat Storage
34 Concluding Remarks
35 Heat of Vaporization
4 Combined Sensible and Latent Heat Storage
5 Closing Remarks
6 Some Recent Developments
61 Sensible Heat Storage
62 Latent Heat Storage
621 Heat Transfer with Thermal Energy Storage
622 Storage System Performance
623 Solar Collector Integrated with Storage System
Electrical Energy Storage 387
J Garche Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research Baden-Wuumlrttemberg Germany
A Jossen Energy Storage and Energy Conversion Division Ulm Germany
1 Introduction
2 Systems with Internal Storage
21 Demands on the Battery
22 Lead-Acid Battery
221 Electrochemical Reactions
222 Operation values
223 Types of Lead-Acid Batteries
2231 Differentiation by electrodes
2232 Batteries with positive plates protected against active mass shedding
2233 Differentiation by container technology
224 Main Problems while Operation of Lead-Acid Batteries
2241 Charging and Overdischarge
2242 Deep Discharge
2243 Sulfation
225 Other Battery Systems
2251 Nickel-Cadmium Battery
2252 New Battery Systems
3 Systems with External Storage
31 Gas-Accumulator
32 Redox-Flow-Systems
4 Storage Sizing
Tidal Energy 406
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Consideration
5 Prospects
Index 416
About EOLSS 421
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xix
VOLUME IV
Desalination Using Tidal Energy 1
Abdalla S Hanafi Cairo University Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Tides
21 Spring and Neap Tides
3 Tidal Power Plants
31 Barrage
32 Locks and Gates
33 Power House
34 Basins
35 Storage
36 Economical Considerations
37 Tidal Sites
4 Tidal Desalination Technologies
41 Tidal-Vapor Compression Desalination
42 Tidal-Reverse Osmosis
421 Overall Analysis of the Reverse Osmosis Modules
43 Tidal - Electrodialysis (ED)
431 Electrodialysis DC Power
44 Tidal Freezing-Melting (FM)
441 Freezing-Melting System Analysis
5 Economic Comparisons with Wind and Solar Energy
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
15
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
22 Humidifying with cooling and dehumidifying processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in Desalination HD Process
25 Overview on Some desalination HD projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process description
32 The condenser in the SWGH
321 Different condenser layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot plant
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xx
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot plant
522 Performances of the SWGH
53 Case Study 3 The SWGH project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Wave Energy 81
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Considerations
5 Prospects
Wind Energy 97
B Sorensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Worldwide Distribution of Wind Energy Resources
11 Physical Potential Wind Maps
12 Practical Potential for Wind Turbines
13 Restrictions due to Competing Land Use
14 Off-Shore Potential
15 Methods for Determining Local Potential Atlas Technique
16 Overall Assessment of Potential
2 Wind Turbine Technology
21 Current Status and Prospects for the Future
22 Basic Theory Wind Turbine Types and Efficiencies
23 Prospects for Further Development
24 Current Penetration of Wind Power Utilization
25 National Plans and Future Prospects
26 Plant Lifetime and Reliability
27 Impacts on Requirements for Transmission and Back-Up
28 Energy Storage and Demand Management
3 Economic Social and Environmental Impacts of Wind Energy Utilization
31 Current Cost and Cost Trends
32 Employment Generation
33 Energy Balance
34 Noise
35 Aspects of Decentralized Energy Supply
36 Life-Cycle Estimate of Externalities Including Construction and Decommissioning Impacts
4 Evaluation of Greenhouse Warming Mitigation Potential of Wind Power
41 Assessment of Marginal Life-Cycle Impacts Including Greenhouse Warming
42 Elements of Non-Marginal Analysis of Energy Systems with Large Wind Power Share
43 Relationship between Demand Development and the Valuations of Wind Energy
44 Concluding Remarks
Availability of Wind Energy and Its Estimation 139
Richard Morris Richard Morris Associates Glasgow United Kingdom
1 The Sun as the Wind Driver
2 The Nature of Wind
3 Wind Power Statistics
4 Estimating Wind Power
5 Siting for Wind Energy
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxi
The Use of Geothermal Energy in Desalination 155
BW Tleimat Water Reuse Technology Alamo California USA
ADK Laird (deceased) Professor Emeritus and Director Emeritus Sea Water Conversion Laboratory
University of California Berkeley California USA
1 Introduction
2 Historical Perspective
3 Heat Transfer from Geothermal Reservoirs
4 Geothermal Energy Utilization
5 Electricity Generation
6 Water Production from Geothermal Sources
7 Idealized Liquid-dominated Reservoirs
8 Water and Power Generation Effects of Some System Parameters
9 Multiple-effect and Multistage Distillation Processes
10 Energy-budget Management
11 Processes for Decentralized Desalination
12 Water-budget Management
13 Solids-budget Management
Solar Photovoltaic Energy Conversion 181
G Schumm Zentrum fuer Sonnenenergie und Wasserstoff-Forschung Baden Wuerttemberg Stuttgart
Germany
1 The General Photovoltaic System
2 Non-Concentrating PV Systems
3 Tracking and Concentrating PV Systems
Flat-Plate Collectors 191
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Solar Collector Applications
3 Definitions
31 Solar Collectors
311 Solar Thermal Collector
312 Flat-Plate Collector
32 Construction Elements of a Solar Collector
321 Absorber Plate or Selective Surface
322 The Transparent Cover
323 The Collector Insulation
324 The Heat Transfer Medium
33 The Surface Areas
331 The Surface Area of the Absorber Plate
332 The Transparent Cover Surface
333 Total Surface Area
34 Operational Characteristics of the Collector
341 Collector efficiency (η)
342 Thermal Capacity of the Collector (C)
343 Pressure Drop (Δp)
344 Stagnant Conditions
345 Incidence Angle Coefficient (kθ)
35 The Characteristic Parameters of the Collector
351 The cover reflectance (ρc)
353 Cover Absorptance (αc)
352 Cover Transmittance (τc)
354 Coefficient of cover Emissivity (εc)
355 Coefficient of Absorber Emissivity
356 Selective Surface
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxii
357 Selective Coat
358 Collector Efficiency Factor (Fprime) 359 Collector Flow Factor (FPrime) 3510 Collector Heat Removal Factor (FR)
3511 Collector Heat Loss Coefficient (UL)
4 Main Collector Components
41 The Solar Radiation Absorber
42 The Transparent Cover
43 Thermal Insulation
44 The Casing of the Collector
45 The Supporting of the Collector
5 The Solar Absorbers
51 Types of Solar Absorbers
511 Absorbers of Common Paint
512 Selective coat Absorbers
52 Forms of Absorbers and Tubes
521 General considerations
522 Sandwich Type Absorber
523 Roll Bond Tube Absorber
524 Soldered Type Absorbers
525 Absorbers with Ω Type Fins
6 Characteristics of Flat-Plate Collectors
61 General considerations
62 Installation Configuration of a Collector System
63 Orientation and Slope of the Collector
7 Dynamic Operational Characteristics of a Collector
71 The Incident Angle Coefficient
72 The Thermal Capacity of the Collector C
73 The Heat Removal Factor FR
8 The Thermal Characteristics of a Collector
81 Determination of the Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL
82 Determination of Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL for in Series Interconnection
83 Equivalent Thermal Loss between Tubes and Collector
84 The Influence of Wind Velocity
9 Shading of the Collectors
10 Basic Calculation Methods
101 Cover Reflectance
102 Cover Transmittance
103 The Transmittance-Absorptance Product
104 Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
105 Multi-Cover Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
11 The Heat Transfer Loss Coefficients
111 Loss Coefficient Uc
112 Loss Coefficient Ub
113 Loss Coefficient Us
114 The Collector Efficiency Factor Fprime 115 Collector flow factor FPrime Large Active Solar Systems Load 220
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and other Energy Systems National Centre for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Estimation of Thermal Load
21 Estimation of the Required Heat Qload
22 Estimation of the Required Heat for the Water Qw
23 Estimation of the Heat Loss in Distribution Pipes Qp
24 Estimation of Heat Loss in the Storage Tank Qt
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
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Large Active Solar Systems Typical Economic Analysis 225
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Cost of a Solar Hot Water System
21 Initial Capital Cost
22 Operational Costs
221 Cost of Fuel
222 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
223 Cost of Maintenance
224 Cost for Loans
225 Costs for Insurance
226 Miscellaneous Expenses
3 Cost of Conventional Hot Water System
31 Operational Costs
311 Cost of Fuel
312 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
313 Cost of Maintenance
4 Inflation
5 Rate of Interest
6 Methods of Life Cycle Cost
61 General
62 Present and Future Costs
63 Yearly Instalment
64 Yearly Expenses
7 Methodology
8 Present Value Factor
9 Comparison Methodology
Integration of Solar Pond with Water Desalination 240
U Fisher J Weinberg and B Doron Ormat Industries Ltd Yavne Israel
1 Introduction
2 Historical Background
3 The Solar Pond
31 Structure
32 Heat Absorption and Storage
33 Main Demands when Building a Pond
331 Surface Area
332 Surface Water Make-up
333 Concentrated Brine Supply
34 How to Build a Solar Pond
341 Geometry or Shape
342 Lining
343 Construction Materials in the Pond
344 Initial Filling and Build-up of Gradient
35 How to Control
36 Heat Losses (Ground Diffusion Evaporation)
361 Top Losses
362 Bottom Heat Losses
37 Disturbances
371 Algae
372 Corrosion
373 Wind
38 Heat Extraction
39 Fuel Assisted Solar Ponds
310 Maintenance
3101 Clarity
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiv
3102 Cleaning of Wind Breakers
3103 Blow Down
3104 Make-up
3105 Leakages
311 Practical Size of a Single Pond
312 Investment in Solar Ponds
313 OampM Costs
4 Desalination Processes Coupled to the Solar Pond
41 Economic Aspects of Coupling Desalination Plants to Solar Ponds
411 Desalination Processes
412 The Choice and Proportion of Producing Heat and Power in the Solar Pond
4121 The Solar Pond Yield
4122 Desalination Plant Performance
4123 The Impact of Daily and Seasonal Fluctuations
4124 Economic Considerations and Evaluations
42 Experience with SP-Desalination Systems
43 Conclusions
Evacuated Tube Collectors 276
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Current Designs of Evacuated Tube Collectors
3 Thermal Analysis
4 Analysis of Flat Plate Evacuated Tube Collector
5 Analysis of Concentric-Tube Collector
6 Performance of Evacuated Tube Collectors
7 Case Study (Collector Field at the Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant)
71 Description of collector field
72 Performance of collector field
73 Economics
Parabolic Trough Collectors 299
Wolfgang Meinecke Deutsches Zentrum fuumlr Luft-und Raumfahrt eV (DLR German Aerospace Center)
Solar Energy Technology Division Koumlln Germany
1 Introduction
2 Brief History of Trough Development
3 State of the Art of Trough Applications
31 Conventional Thermal Water Desalination Applications
32 Solar Thermal Water Desalination Applications
33 Solar Electric Power Generation
34 Solar Process Heat Generation
35 Process Hot Water (Project Examples)
36 Process Steam (Project Examples)
37 Process Steam for Water Desalination (Project Examples)
38 Process Hot Air
4 Trough Technologies
41 LS 3 Trough Collector System
411 LS 3 Parabolic Reflector
412 Steel Support Structure
413 Absorber Element
414 Tracking System and Field Control System
415 Heat Transfer Fluid System
416 Steam Generator
417 Balance of Plant Technologies
418 Energy Storage System
42 IST Trough Collector System
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxv
421 IST Parabolic Reflector
422 Support Structure
423 Absorber Element
424 Tracking System and Field Control System
425 Heat Transfer Fluid System
426 Heat Exchanger
427 Balance of Plant Technology
428 Energy Storage
5 Prospects and Potential
51 Solar Electric Power Generation
52 Solar Process Heat Generation
53 Solar Thermal Water Desalination
6 Cost and Economic Aspects
61 Collector Investment Costs
611 LS 3 Collector Costs
612 IST Collector Costs
62 Other Economic Parameters
621 Fossil Fuel Prices
622 Solar Energy Yield
623 Solar Share
624 Plant Power Size
625 Capacity Factor
626 OampM Costs
627 Non-Technical Parameters
63 Costs of Solar Water Desalination
7 Conclusions
Index 363
About EOLSS 369
VOLUME V
Central Receivers 1
MM Elsayed Mechanical Engineering Department Kuwait University Safat Kuwait
1 Introduction
2 Heliostats Types and Design Shapes
3 Heliostat Angles
4 Heliostat Field Heliostat Layout
5 Heliostat Field Cosine Effect
6 Heliostat Field Preliminary Sizing of the Field
7 Heliostat Field Usefulness Efficiency
8 Reflected Solar Radiation
9 The Effective Sunshape
10 Principal Images and Relation between Receiver and Image Planes
11 Models to Predict the Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Image Plane
111 Incoming Ray Formulation
112 The Mirror Plane Formulation
113 Solar Disk Formulation
114 The Pinhole View
12 Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Receiver Surface Using the Separation of
VariableSuperposition Technique
121 Concept
122 Calculation of φ 123 Validation of Model Using Measurements
13 Receivers Types and Losses
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvi
14 Preliminary Sizing of the Receiver
15 Overall System Optimization
Configuration Theoretical Analysis and Performance of Simple Solar Stills 98
A Kumar Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources Solar Energy Center New Delhi India
1 Introduction
2 Configuration of Simple Solar Stills
21 Basic Principle
22 Classification
23 Single Basin Solar Stills
24 Inclined Solar Stills
241 Basin Type Solar Stills
242 Wick Type Solar Stills
25 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
26 Solar Earth Water Stills
27 Plastic Solar Stills
271 Life Raft Solar Still
272 Circular Solar Still
273 Extruded Plastic Solar Still
274 Concentric Tube Solar Still
28 A Typical Solar Distillation Plant
3 Theoretical Analysis of Simple Solar Stills
31 Heat and Mass Transfer in Solar Stills
311 Inside the Solar Still
312 Outside the Solar Still
32 Solar Radiation Balance
321 Transmission through Top Cover
322 Absorption in the Top Cover
33 Energy Balance Equations
34 Solution Procedure
4 Performance of Solar Stills
41 Single Basin Solar Stills
42 Inclined Solar Stills
43 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
44 Solar Earth Water Stills
45 Plastic Solar Stills
46 Case Studies
461 Australia
462 Greek Islands
463 India
47 Suggested Practices for Installing Solar Stills
Development in Simple Solar Stills 169
Hassan ES Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Modified Simple (Passive) Stills
21 Basin Still
211 Single Slope versus Double Slope Basin Stills
212 Basin Still with Cover Cooling
213 Basin Still with Treated Cover Surface
214 Basin Still with Additional Condenser
215 Basin Still with Black DyeMuddy Water
22 Wick Stills
221 Single-wick Stills
222 Multi-wick Stills
223 Wick versus Basin Stills
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvii
224 Combined Wick-Basin Stills
23 Other Stills Configurations
231 Vertical Microporous Evaporator Still
232 Cascade Solar Still
233 Still Integrated with Greenhouse
3 Externally Heated (Active) Solar Stills
31 Introduction
32 Stills Coupled to a Solar Collector
321 Direct and Indirect Heating
322 Use of Dye and Cover Cooling
323 Other Solar Heaters
33 Stills Coupled with Solar Concentrator
34 The Use of Waste Heat in Solar Stills
4 Other Types of Solar Distillation Systems
41 Water Recovery from Air
Multi-Effect Solar Stills 197
HES Fath Al-Jubail 31951 Saudi Arabia
1 Why Multi Effect
2 Double Effect Basin Stills
21 Double Basins Stills
22 Double Effect Tilted Stills
23 Purging Vapor to a Second Effect
3 Multi-Effect Multi-Wick Stills
4 Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
41 Introduction
42 Mass Diffusion
43 Comparison between Diffusion and Basin Stills
44 Description of Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
45 Analysis and Performance Considerations
5 Other Distillation Systems
51 Stacked Tray Stills
52 Multi-Effect Humidification-Dehumidification
Materials for Construction of Solar Stills 218
TA Lawand and J Ayoub Brace Research Institute Canada
1 Introduction
2 General Specifications of Solar Stills
3 Transparent Cover
4 Basin Liner
5 Solar Still Frame
6 Sealants
7 Insulation
8 Auxiliaries - Piping Pumping and Reservoirs
Reverse Osmosis by Solar Energy 225
W Bucher DLR German Aerospace Research Establishment Cologne Germany
1 Introduction
2 Basic Parameters and Energy Demand for Osmosis
21 Physical Properties of Hyperfiltration
22 Energy required for the RO Process
3 Solar Power Conversion Systems
31 Solar Conversion Principles
32 Technical Data of Solar Energy Conversion Methods
33 RO Plant Operation Utilizing Variable Energy Sources
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxviii
4 Reverse Osmosis System Configuration and Operation Aspects
41 Process Design of RO Desalination Systems
42 Procedural Steps and Data for Water Treatment and Energy Consumption
43 Components of RO -Desalination
431 Membranes and Modules
432 High Pressure Pumps
433 Pressure Regulating Devices
5 Solar Powered Desalination Units
51 Specific Figures or RO Systems
52 Solar Power Concepts for RO Desalination
53 Operational Experience with Solar driven RO Systems
6 Costs
61 Specific Cost Figures for the Plant Components
62 Water Delivery Cost
Availability of Solar Radiation and Its Estimation 265
VG Belessiotis Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems National Center for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun and the Radiation Emitted
21 The Physics of the Sun
22 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
3 The Extraterrestrial Radiation
31 What is the Solar Constant
32 Variations of the Extraterrestrial Radiation
33 The Black-body Emittance and Absorptance
34 Blackbody Absorbers - Application to Desalination
4 The Co-ordinate Systems The Basic Solar Angles
41 The Earth-Sun Relationships
42 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Sky
43 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Celestial Sphere
44 Earth-Sun Geometric Relationship
45 Time and its Units - Day Length
46 Terrestrial Solar Radiation
461 Estimation of Radiation Availability
462 Average Radiation Values - Clearness Index
463 Clear Sky Radiation
464 Sky Radiation
47 Atmospheric Factors Affecting Radiation
5 Computation of Insolation at the Earths Surface
51 Insolation Data
52 Measurement of Solar Radiation
53 Models for Solar Radiation
54 Where the Models Apply
55 Tilted Surfaces - Absorptance of Solar Radiation
551 Fixed Tilted Surfaces
552 Tracking Surfaces
6 Applications of Solar Radiation
7 Impact of Solar Energy to the Environment
Economics of Small Solar-Assisted Multiple-Effect Seawater Distillation Plants 296
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Configurations
3 Design and Sizing Considerations
31 Thermal Energy Requirement
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxix
32 Pumping Requirements
33 Collector Performance
34 Sizing Thermal Collector Area
35 Sizing the PV System
351 Sizing the PV Array
4 Economic Ground Rules and Water Cost Optimization
41 Capital Equipment Cost
42 Operating Costs
43 Optimum Cost of Water for each Plant Configuration
5 Results
6 Conclusion
A Solar-Assisted Sea Water Multiple Effect Distillation Plant 15 Years of Operating
Performance (1985-1999) 316
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Basic Design Concept
21 General Plant Description
22 Design Specifications
23 Evaporator Heat Transfer Coefficient
24 Tube Dimensions Heat Transfer Areas and Materials
3 Performance during Commissioning Tests
31 The MES Evaporator
32 The Solar Collector Field
33 The Heat Accumulator
34 Total Plant Performance
4 Performance History
41 The MES Evaporator
42 The Solar Collector Field
43 The Heat Accumulator
431 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
4311 The heat balance method
4312 The direct temperature measurement method
4313 Thermal stratification ratio
44 Total Plant Performance
5 Major Maintenance Activities
51 Equipment Failure and Replacement
52 Acid Cleanings and Silt Removal from Evaporator
6 Evaluation of Water Cost
61 Capital Costs
62 Operation and Maintenance Costs
7 Conclusions
Mathematical Simulation of a Solar Desalination Plant 341
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Description
3 System Operating Conditions
31 Solar Heat Collecting Subsystem
32 Evaporator Subsystem
4 Mathematical Modeling of System Components
41 Solar radiation model
42 Ambient temperature model
43 Solar collector subsystem
431 Effect of shade on solar radiation
432 Effect of dust on transmissivity of glass tubes
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxx
433 Control of heat collecting operation
434 Heat collection by solar collectors
435 Heat loss from piping
4351 Piping specifications
4352 Standard pipe lengths
4353 Heat loss from piping during operation of heat collecting pump
4354 Heat loss from piping while the heat collecting pump is shutdown
4355 Correction of piping heat loss
44 Heat accumulator subsystem
441 Temperature distribution
442 MES evaporator subsystem
5 The Simulation Program
51 Program structure
52 Input and output data
6 Results
7 Conclusions
Index 379
About EOLSS 385
VOLUME VI
Modeling and Design of Solar Energy Systems Including Solar Economics 1
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 F-Chart Method
11 Performance and Design of Liquid-Based Solar Heating Systems
111 Storage Capacity Correction
112 Collector Flow Rate Correction
113 Load Heat Exchanger Size Correction
12 Performance and Design of Air-Based Solar Heating Systems
121 Pebble Bed Storage Size Correction
122 Air Flow Rate Correction
13 Performance and Design of Solar Service Water Systems
14 Thermosiphon Solar Water Heating Systems
15 General Remarks
2 Modeling and Simulation of Solar Energy Systems
21 Simple System Models
211 Pipe Losses
22 F-Chart Program
23 Trnsys Simulation Program
24 Limitations of Simulations
3 Solar Economic Analysis
31 Life Cycle Costing
32 Life Cycle Analysis Method
33 Payback Time
331 Not Discounted Fuel Savings
332 Discounted Fuel Savings
34 Alternative Method
341 System Optimization Using Economic Analysis
35 Uncertainties in Economic Analysis
Solar Energy Power Generation and Desalination Systems 47
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 Global Energy Problems and the Role of Renewables
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxi
11 Energy demand
12 Energy environmental problems and sustainable development
13 Water demand and consumption
14 Water and energy
15 Desalination and energy
16 Renewable energy technologies
2 Solar Collectors
21 Parabolic trough collectors
22 Fresnel collectors
23 Parabolic dish reflector
24 Heliostat field collector
3 Power Generation and Industrial Process Heat Systems
31 Parabolic trough collector systems
32 Power tower systems
33 Dish systems
34 Solar ponds
341 Heat extraction and applications
35 Industrial process heat systems
36 Solar industrial steam generation systems
4 Desalination Processes
41 Direct collection systems
42 Indirect collection systems
421 The multi-stage flash process
422 The multiple-effect distillation process
423 The vapor-compression process
424 Reverse osmosis
425 Electrodialysis
Solar Updraft Power Plant Technology Basic Concepts and Structural Design 94
Francesca Lupi University of Florence Florence Italy
Claudio Borri University of Florence Florence Italy
Wilfried B Kraumltzig Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
Hans-Juumlrgen Niemann Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
1 Solar Updraft Power Technology Introduction and Working Principles
2 History of the Solar Updraft Power Technology
21 Solar Tower Prototype in Manzanares (Spain)
3 Evaluation of Plant Efficiency
31 The Collector
32 The Chimney
33 The Turbines
34 Electric Power Generated by Supps
4 The Collector
5 Actions on Solar Updraft Towers
6 Wind Loading on Solar Updraft Towers
61 Wind Flow Structure in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer at High Altitudes
611 Boundary Layer Meteorology
612 The Ekman Spiral
613 Theoretical Considerations on the Mean Wind and Turbulence in the Ekman Layer
62 Modeling of the Wind Load on Solar Towers
621 Mean Wind Load
622 Response to Wind Turbulence
623 Fluctuating Wind Load
624 Equivalent Static Wind Pressures
625 Vortex Excitation
626 Other Effects The Effect of the Efflux
63 Wind Load on the Collector Roof
7 Structural Behavior of Solar Updraft Towers
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxii
71 Structural Elements of Solar Tower Shells
72 Some Typical Response Characteristics of Solar Tower Shells Vibration and Instability
Behavior
73 Non-Linear Tower Response
8 Structural Optimization of Solar Updraft Towers
81 The Role of the Stiffening Rings in the Structural Design of Solar Towers
82 Strategies of Optimization
9 Technology of Construction
Renewable Energy Potential in The Arab Region 162
Mohammed Mostafa El-Khayat General Manager of Planning New and Renewable Energy Authority
NREA Cairo Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Research Problem and Objectives
111 Research Problem
12 Research Objectives
2 Energy Demand
3 The Current Situation of Renewable Energy
31 Hydropower
32 Wind Energy
33 Solar Energy
34 Biomass and Geothermal Energy
4 Strategies
5 Institutional and Regulatory Framework
6 Main Policies and Incentives
7 RE Policies and Incentives Profiles
71 Algeria
72 Egypt
73 Jordan
74 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
75 Lebanon
76 Libya
77 Morocco
78 Palestine
79 Sudan
710 Syria
711 Tunisia
712 United Arab Emirates
713 Yemen
8 Financing Schemes and Investment Opportunities
9 Motivations and Barriers of Renewable Energy
10 Renewable Energy Initiatives
101 Arabian Initiatives
102 DESERTEC
11 Potential of Renewable Energy in the Region
12 The proposed mechanisms to enhance and accelerate the rate of using RE applications
13 The situation of localizing RE technologies
14 RE and climate change in Arab countries
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
198
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiii
22 Humidifying with Cooling and Dehumidifying Processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in HD Desalination Process
25 Overview on Some Desalination HD Projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process Description
32 The Condenser in the SWGH
321 Different Condenser Layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the Condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of Condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot Plant
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH Project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot Plant
522 Performances of the Pilot Plant
53 The SWGH Project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot Plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Evolution of Photovoltaic Materials for Renewable Energy Development 262
Abdelilah Slaoui InESS ndash CNRS ndash University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
Jef Poortmans IMEC Leuven Belgium
Marko Topic University of Ljubljana Faculty of Elec Eng Ljubljana Slovenia
Gavin Conibeer ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence UNSW Sydney Australia
1 General Introduction
2 Photovoltaic Materials and Technologies State of the Art
21 Crystalline Silicon
22 Thin Films
221 Amorphous Silicon
222 Nanocrystalline and Microcrystalline Silicon
223 Polycrystalline Silicon
224 Copper Indium Selenide Its alloys and Related Chalcopyrites
225 Cadmium Telluride
226 Materials for Photochemical Solar Cells
227 Materials for Organic Solar Cells
3 Next Generation Solar Cells
31 Introduction
32 Multiple energy level approaches
33 Multiple Exciton Generation solar cells
34 Intermediate Band (IB) cells
35 Hot carrier cells
4 Conclusions and Perspectives
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiv
Wind and Solar Renewable Energy Potential Resources Estimation 302
Philippe Drobinski Institut Pierre Simon LaplaceLaboratoire de Meacuteteacuteorologie Dynamique CNRSEcole
Polytechnique Palaiseau France
1 Renewable Wind and Solar Energies The Context
11 An Economical and Environmental Necessity
12 Energy Definitions and Units
2 Basic Knowledge in Geophysics for Energy Resource Evaluation
21 Earth Energy Budget and Atmospheric Motion
22 Near Surface Wind
23 Impacts of Clouds and Aerosols on Surface Solar Radiation
3 Wind Energy Resource
31 Wind Energy A Brief History
32 Wind Energy Resources Evaluation
33 Wind Energy Installed Capacity in the World
4 Solar Energy Resources
41 Solar Energy An Introduction
42 Worldwide Solar Heat
5 Methods for Wind and Solar Energy Resources Forecast
Index 353
About EOLSS 361
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xvi
7 Thermal Energy from Biomass
71 Introduction
72 The Energy Conversion Methods
73 Environmental Impacts of Biomass Energy Sources
8 The Ocean Systems Energy Resources
81 Introduction
82 The Energy of the Waves
821 The Origin of the Waves
822 Distribution of Wave Resources
83 The Tidal Power as Energy Source
831 The Generation of Tides
832 The Tidal Potential
84 The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) Source
841 The Trapping of the OTEC Energy
Desalination with Renewable Energy - A Review 227
Ali M El-Nashar 22 Ahmed Gharbo St Apt 703 Zizinia Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Commercial Desalination Processes and Their Energy Consumption
21 Description of the Commercial Desalination Processes
211 Distillation Processes
212 Membrane Processes
22 Technical and Economic Characteristics of Commercial Desalination Processes
3 Available Renewable Energy Sources
31 Solar Energy
32 Wind Energy
33 Geothermal Energy
34 Other Renewable Energy Sources
4 Devices for Transforming Renewable Energy into Useful Energy for Desalination
41 Solar Collectors
42 Solar Ponds
43 Photovoltaic Cells
44 Wind Turbines
5 Coupling of Desalination Processes and Renewable Energy
51 Direct and Indirect Coupling of Solar Energy and Desalination
511 Direct coupling (Solar still technology)
512 Indirect Coupling
52 Desalination Systems Driven by Solar Thermal Energy
521 Solar Thermal Collectors-MSF Desalination
522 Solar Thermal Collectors-MED Desalination
53 Desalination Systems Driven by Wind Energy
531 Wind-MVC Systems
532 Wind-RO Systems
54 Desalination Systems Driven by Solar Photovoltaics (PV)
55 Hybrid Desalination Systems
6 Current Status
7 Selection Criteria among Different RE Desalination Technologies
8 Performance of Selected RE Desalination Projects
81 Solar Stills
82 Wind-Energy Driven RO Desalination Technology
83 PV-Powered Seawater RO System
84 Abu Dhabi Solar MED Desalination Plant
9 Economics of RE Desalination
91 Financial Analysis
92 Cost of Water from RES Desalination Plants
10 Conclusion
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xvii
Renewable Energy and Desalination Systems 301
Asghar Husain International Center for Water and Energy Systems (ICWES) Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
11 Need for Desalination
2 What Is Sustainability
3 Review of Desalination Technologies
31 Thermal-Based Processes
32 Membrane ndash Based Technologies
33 Renewable Energies
4 Desalination Using Solar Energy
41 Direct Utilization of Solar Radiation in the Solar Still
42 Solar Collectors
43 Solar Concentrating System
44 Solar Ponds
45 Photovoltaic Cells
46 Storage of Solar Energy
5 Desalination Using Other Renewable Energies
51 Wind Energy
52 Geothermal Energy
53 Wave Energy
54 Tidal Energy
55 Ocean Temperature Difference or Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
56 Hydraulic Energy
57 Biomass as Energy Source
6 Concluding Remarks
Why Use Renewable Energy for Desalination 342
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 The Need of Desalination for Economic Development in Remote Arid Areas
3 The Need of Energy for Desalination
4 The Availability of Renewable Energy
5 The Economic and Social Benefits of Using Renewable Energy for Desalination
6 Examples of Arid Remote Regions where Renewable Energy for Desalination can have a High
Economic Potential
61 The Southern and Eastern Mediterranean Regions
62 The Mediterranean Islands
63 The Arab Gulf Region
7 Conclusions
Thermal Energy Storage 356
Hassan E S Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Solar Energy Storage
12 Thermal Energy Storage
13 Thermal Storage Efficiency
14 Thermal Insulation
2 Sensible Heat Storage
21 Introduction
22 Low Temperature Sensible Heat Storage
221 Storage in Liquids
23 Intermediate and High Temperature Sensible Heat Storage
231 Storage in Fluids
232 Storage in Solids
233 Storage in Fluid-Solid Media
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xviii
24 Concluding Remarks
3 Latent Heat (Phase Change) Storage
31 Introduction
32 Low Temperature Latent Heat Storage
321 Phase Change Materials
322 Storage Systems Problems
33 Intermediate and High Temperature Latent Heat Storage
34 Concluding Remarks
35 Heat of Vaporization
4 Combined Sensible and Latent Heat Storage
5 Closing Remarks
6 Some Recent Developments
61 Sensible Heat Storage
62 Latent Heat Storage
621 Heat Transfer with Thermal Energy Storage
622 Storage System Performance
623 Solar Collector Integrated with Storage System
Electrical Energy Storage 387
J Garche Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research Baden-Wuumlrttemberg Germany
A Jossen Energy Storage and Energy Conversion Division Ulm Germany
1 Introduction
2 Systems with Internal Storage
21 Demands on the Battery
22 Lead-Acid Battery
221 Electrochemical Reactions
222 Operation values
223 Types of Lead-Acid Batteries
2231 Differentiation by electrodes
2232 Batteries with positive plates protected against active mass shedding
2233 Differentiation by container technology
224 Main Problems while Operation of Lead-Acid Batteries
2241 Charging and Overdischarge
2242 Deep Discharge
2243 Sulfation
225 Other Battery Systems
2251 Nickel-Cadmium Battery
2252 New Battery Systems
3 Systems with External Storage
31 Gas-Accumulator
32 Redox-Flow-Systems
4 Storage Sizing
Tidal Energy 406
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Consideration
5 Prospects
Index 416
About EOLSS 421
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xix
VOLUME IV
Desalination Using Tidal Energy 1
Abdalla S Hanafi Cairo University Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Tides
21 Spring and Neap Tides
3 Tidal Power Plants
31 Barrage
32 Locks and Gates
33 Power House
34 Basins
35 Storage
36 Economical Considerations
37 Tidal Sites
4 Tidal Desalination Technologies
41 Tidal-Vapor Compression Desalination
42 Tidal-Reverse Osmosis
421 Overall Analysis of the Reverse Osmosis Modules
43 Tidal - Electrodialysis (ED)
431 Electrodialysis DC Power
44 Tidal Freezing-Melting (FM)
441 Freezing-Melting System Analysis
5 Economic Comparisons with Wind and Solar Energy
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
15
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
22 Humidifying with cooling and dehumidifying processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in Desalination HD Process
25 Overview on Some desalination HD projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process description
32 The condenser in the SWGH
321 Different condenser layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot plant
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xx
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot plant
522 Performances of the SWGH
53 Case Study 3 The SWGH project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Wave Energy 81
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Considerations
5 Prospects
Wind Energy 97
B Sorensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Worldwide Distribution of Wind Energy Resources
11 Physical Potential Wind Maps
12 Practical Potential for Wind Turbines
13 Restrictions due to Competing Land Use
14 Off-Shore Potential
15 Methods for Determining Local Potential Atlas Technique
16 Overall Assessment of Potential
2 Wind Turbine Technology
21 Current Status and Prospects for the Future
22 Basic Theory Wind Turbine Types and Efficiencies
23 Prospects for Further Development
24 Current Penetration of Wind Power Utilization
25 National Plans and Future Prospects
26 Plant Lifetime and Reliability
27 Impacts on Requirements for Transmission and Back-Up
28 Energy Storage and Demand Management
3 Economic Social and Environmental Impacts of Wind Energy Utilization
31 Current Cost and Cost Trends
32 Employment Generation
33 Energy Balance
34 Noise
35 Aspects of Decentralized Energy Supply
36 Life-Cycle Estimate of Externalities Including Construction and Decommissioning Impacts
4 Evaluation of Greenhouse Warming Mitigation Potential of Wind Power
41 Assessment of Marginal Life-Cycle Impacts Including Greenhouse Warming
42 Elements of Non-Marginal Analysis of Energy Systems with Large Wind Power Share
43 Relationship between Demand Development and the Valuations of Wind Energy
44 Concluding Remarks
Availability of Wind Energy and Its Estimation 139
Richard Morris Richard Morris Associates Glasgow United Kingdom
1 The Sun as the Wind Driver
2 The Nature of Wind
3 Wind Power Statistics
4 Estimating Wind Power
5 Siting for Wind Energy
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxi
The Use of Geothermal Energy in Desalination 155
BW Tleimat Water Reuse Technology Alamo California USA
ADK Laird (deceased) Professor Emeritus and Director Emeritus Sea Water Conversion Laboratory
University of California Berkeley California USA
1 Introduction
2 Historical Perspective
3 Heat Transfer from Geothermal Reservoirs
4 Geothermal Energy Utilization
5 Electricity Generation
6 Water Production from Geothermal Sources
7 Idealized Liquid-dominated Reservoirs
8 Water and Power Generation Effects of Some System Parameters
9 Multiple-effect and Multistage Distillation Processes
10 Energy-budget Management
11 Processes for Decentralized Desalination
12 Water-budget Management
13 Solids-budget Management
Solar Photovoltaic Energy Conversion 181
G Schumm Zentrum fuer Sonnenenergie und Wasserstoff-Forschung Baden Wuerttemberg Stuttgart
Germany
1 The General Photovoltaic System
2 Non-Concentrating PV Systems
3 Tracking and Concentrating PV Systems
Flat-Plate Collectors 191
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Solar Collector Applications
3 Definitions
31 Solar Collectors
311 Solar Thermal Collector
312 Flat-Plate Collector
32 Construction Elements of a Solar Collector
321 Absorber Plate or Selective Surface
322 The Transparent Cover
323 The Collector Insulation
324 The Heat Transfer Medium
33 The Surface Areas
331 The Surface Area of the Absorber Plate
332 The Transparent Cover Surface
333 Total Surface Area
34 Operational Characteristics of the Collector
341 Collector efficiency (η)
342 Thermal Capacity of the Collector (C)
343 Pressure Drop (Δp)
344 Stagnant Conditions
345 Incidence Angle Coefficient (kθ)
35 The Characteristic Parameters of the Collector
351 The cover reflectance (ρc)
353 Cover Absorptance (αc)
352 Cover Transmittance (τc)
354 Coefficient of cover Emissivity (εc)
355 Coefficient of Absorber Emissivity
356 Selective Surface
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357 Selective Coat
358 Collector Efficiency Factor (Fprime) 359 Collector Flow Factor (FPrime) 3510 Collector Heat Removal Factor (FR)
3511 Collector Heat Loss Coefficient (UL)
4 Main Collector Components
41 The Solar Radiation Absorber
42 The Transparent Cover
43 Thermal Insulation
44 The Casing of the Collector
45 The Supporting of the Collector
5 The Solar Absorbers
51 Types of Solar Absorbers
511 Absorbers of Common Paint
512 Selective coat Absorbers
52 Forms of Absorbers and Tubes
521 General considerations
522 Sandwich Type Absorber
523 Roll Bond Tube Absorber
524 Soldered Type Absorbers
525 Absorbers with Ω Type Fins
6 Characteristics of Flat-Plate Collectors
61 General considerations
62 Installation Configuration of a Collector System
63 Orientation and Slope of the Collector
7 Dynamic Operational Characteristics of a Collector
71 The Incident Angle Coefficient
72 The Thermal Capacity of the Collector C
73 The Heat Removal Factor FR
8 The Thermal Characteristics of a Collector
81 Determination of the Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL
82 Determination of Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL for in Series Interconnection
83 Equivalent Thermal Loss between Tubes and Collector
84 The Influence of Wind Velocity
9 Shading of the Collectors
10 Basic Calculation Methods
101 Cover Reflectance
102 Cover Transmittance
103 The Transmittance-Absorptance Product
104 Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
105 Multi-Cover Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
11 The Heat Transfer Loss Coefficients
111 Loss Coefficient Uc
112 Loss Coefficient Ub
113 Loss Coefficient Us
114 The Collector Efficiency Factor Fprime 115 Collector flow factor FPrime Large Active Solar Systems Load 220
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and other Energy Systems National Centre for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Estimation of Thermal Load
21 Estimation of the Required Heat Qload
22 Estimation of the Required Heat for the Water Qw
23 Estimation of the Heat Loss in Distribution Pipes Qp
24 Estimation of Heat Loss in the Storage Tank Qt
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Large Active Solar Systems Typical Economic Analysis 225
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Cost of a Solar Hot Water System
21 Initial Capital Cost
22 Operational Costs
221 Cost of Fuel
222 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
223 Cost of Maintenance
224 Cost for Loans
225 Costs for Insurance
226 Miscellaneous Expenses
3 Cost of Conventional Hot Water System
31 Operational Costs
311 Cost of Fuel
312 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
313 Cost of Maintenance
4 Inflation
5 Rate of Interest
6 Methods of Life Cycle Cost
61 General
62 Present and Future Costs
63 Yearly Instalment
64 Yearly Expenses
7 Methodology
8 Present Value Factor
9 Comparison Methodology
Integration of Solar Pond with Water Desalination 240
U Fisher J Weinberg and B Doron Ormat Industries Ltd Yavne Israel
1 Introduction
2 Historical Background
3 The Solar Pond
31 Structure
32 Heat Absorption and Storage
33 Main Demands when Building a Pond
331 Surface Area
332 Surface Water Make-up
333 Concentrated Brine Supply
34 How to Build a Solar Pond
341 Geometry or Shape
342 Lining
343 Construction Materials in the Pond
344 Initial Filling and Build-up of Gradient
35 How to Control
36 Heat Losses (Ground Diffusion Evaporation)
361 Top Losses
362 Bottom Heat Losses
37 Disturbances
371 Algae
372 Corrosion
373 Wind
38 Heat Extraction
39 Fuel Assisted Solar Ponds
310 Maintenance
3101 Clarity
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3102 Cleaning of Wind Breakers
3103 Blow Down
3104 Make-up
3105 Leakages
311 Practical Size of a Single Pond
312 Investment in Solar Ponds
313 OampM Costs
4 Desalination Processes Coupled to the Solar Pond
41 Economic Aspects of Coupling Desalination Plants to Solar Ponds
411 Desalination Processes
412 The Choice and Proportion of Producing Heat and Power in the Solar Pond
4121 The Solar Pond Yield
4122 Desalination Plant Performance
4123 The Impact of Daily and Seasonal Fluctuations
4124 Economic Considerations and Evaluations
42 Experience with SP-Desalination Systems
43 Conclusions
Evacuated Tube Collectors 276
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Current Designs of Evacuated Tube Collectors
3 Thermal Analysis
4 Analysis of Flat Plate Evacuated Tube Collector
5 Analysis of Concentric-Tube Collector
6 Performance of Evacuated Tube Collectors
7 Case Study (Collector Field at the Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant)
71 Description of collector field
72 Performance of collector field
73 Economics
Parabolic Trough Collectors 299
Wolfgang Meinecke Deutsches Zentrum fuumlr Luft-und Raumfahrt eV (DLR German Aerospace Center)
Solar Energy Technology Division Koumlln Germany
1 Introduction
2 Brief History of Trough Development
3 State of the Art of Trough Applications
31 Conventional Thermal Water Desalination Applications
32 Solar Thermal Water Desalination Applications
33 Solar Electric Power Generation
34 Solar Process Heat Generation
35 Process Hot Water (Project Examples)
36 Process Steam (Project Examples)
37 Process Steam for Water Desalination (Project Examples)
38 Process Hot Air
4 Trough Technologies
41 LS 3 Trough Collector System
411 LS 3 Parabolic Reflector
412 Steel Support Structure
413 Absorber Element
414 Tracking System and Field Control System
415 Heat Transfer Fluid System
416 Steam Generator
417 Balance of Plant Technologies
418 Energy Storage System
42 IST Trough Collector System
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
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421 IST Parabolic Reflector
422 Support Structure
423 Absorber Element
424 Tracking System and Field Control System
425 Heat Transfer Fluid System
426 Heat Exchanger
427 Balance of Plant Technology
428 Energy Storage
5 Prospects and Potential
51 Solar Electric Power Generation
52 Solar Process Heat Generation
53 Solar Thermal Water Desalination
6 Cost and Economic Aspects
61 Collector Investment Costs
611 LS 3 Collector Costs
612 IST Collector Costs
62 Other Economic Parameters
621 Fossil Fuel Prices
622 Solar Energy Yield
623 Solar Share
624 Plant Power Size
625 Capacity Factor
626 OampM Costs
627 Non-Technical Parameters
63 Costs of Solar Water Desalination
7 Conclusions
Index 363
About EOLSS 369
VOLUME V
Central Receivers 1
MM Elsayed Mechanical Engineering Department Kuwait University Safat Kuwait
1 Introduction
2 Heliostats Types and Design Shapes
3 Heliostat Angles
4 Heliostat Field Heliostat Layout
5 Heliostat Field Cosine Effect
6 Heliostat Field Preliminary Sizing of the Field
7 Heliostat Field Usefulness Efficiency
8 Reflected Solar Radiation
9 The Effective Sunshape
10 Principal Images and Relation between Receiver and Image Planes
11 Models to Predict the Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Image Plane
111 Incoming Ray Formulation
112 The Mirror Plane Formulation
113 Solar Disk Formulation
114 The Pinhole View
12 Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Receiver Surface Using the Separation of
VariableSuperposition Technique
121 Concept
122 Calculation of φ 123 Validation of Model Using Measurements
13 Receivers Types and Losses
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14 Preliminary Sizing of the Receiver
15 Overall System Optimization
Configuration Theoretical Analysis and Performance of Simple Solar Stills 98
A Kumar Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources Solar Energy Center New Delhi India
1 Introduction
2 Configuration of Simple Solar Stills
21 Basic Principle
22 Classification
23 Single Basin Solar Stills
24 Inclined Solar Stills
241 Basin Type Solar Stills
242 Wick Type Solar Stills
25 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
26 Solar Earth Water Stills
27 Plastic Solar Stills
271 Life Raft Solar Still
272 Circular Solar Still
273 Extruded Plastic Solar Still
274 Concentric Tube Solar Still
28 A Typical Solar Distillation Plant
3 Theoretical Analysis of Simple Solar Stills
31 Heat and Mass Transfer in Solar Stills
311 Inside the Solar Still
312 Outside the Solar Still
32 Solar Radiation Balance
321 Transmission through Top Cover
322 Absorption in the Top Cover
33 Energy Balance Equations
34 Solution Procedure
4 Performance of Solar Stills
41 Single Basin Solar Stills
42 Inclined Solar Stills
43 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
44 Solar Earth Water Stills
45 Plastic Solar Stills
46 Case Studies
461 Australia
462 Greek Islands
463 India
47 Suggested Practices for Installing Solar Stills
Development in Simple Solar Stills 169
Hassan ES Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Modified Simple (Passive) Stills
21 Basin Still
211 Single Slope versus Double Slope Basin Stills
212 Basin Still with Cover Cooling
213 Basin Still with Treated Cover Surface
214 Basin Still with Additional Condenser
215 Basin Still with Black DyeMuddy Water
22 Wick Stills
221 Single-wick Stills
222 Multi-wick Stills
223 Wick versus Basin Stills
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224 Combined Wick-Basin Stills
23 Other Stills Configurations
231 Vertical Microporous Evaporator Still
232 Cascade Solar Still
233 Still Integrated with Greenhouse
3 Externally Heated (Active) Solar Stills
31 Introduction
32 Stills Coupled to a Solar Collector
321 Direct and Indirect Heating
322 Use of Dye and Cover Cooling
323 Other Solar Heaters
33 Stills Coupled with Solar Concentrator
34 The Use of Waste Heat in Solar Stills
4 Other Types of Solar Distillation Systems
41 Water Recovery from Air
Multi-Effect Solar Stills 197
HES Fath Al-Jubail 31951 Saudi Arabia
1 Why Multi Effect
2 Double Effect Basin Stills
21 Double Basins Stills
22 Double Effect Tilted Stills
23 Purging Vapor to a Second Effect
3 Multi-Effect Multi-Wick Stills
4 Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
41 Introduction
42 Mass Diffusion
43 Comparison between Diffusion and Basin Stills
44 Description of Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
45 Analysis and Performance Considerations
5 Other Distillation Systems
51 Stacked Tray Stills
52 Multi-Effect Humidification-Dehumidification
Materials for Construction of Solar Stills 218
TA Lawand and J Ayoub Brace Research Institute Canada
1 Introduction
2 General Specifications of Solar Stills
3 Transparent Cover
4 Basin Liner
5 Solar Still Frame
6 Sealants
7 Insulation
8 Auxiliaries - Piping Pumping and Reservoirs
Reverse Osmosis by Solar Energy 225
W Bucher DLR German Aerospace Research Establishment Cologne Germany
1 Introduction
2 Basic Parameters and Energy Demand for Osmosis
21 Physical Properties of Hyperfiltration
22 Energy required for the RO Process
3 Solar Power Conversion Systems
31 Solar Conversion Principles
32 Technical Data of Solar Energy Conversion Methods
33 RO Plant Operation Utilizing Variable Energy Sources
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4 Reverse Osmosis System Configuration and Operation Aspects
41 Process Design of RO Desalination Systems
42 Procedural Steps and Data for Water Treatment and Energy Consumption
43 Components of RO -Desalination
431 Membranes and Modules
432 High Pressure Pumps
433 Pressure Regulating Devices
5 Solar Powered Desalination Units
51 Specific Figures or RO Systems
52 Solar Power Concepts for RO Desalination
53 Operational Experience with Solar driven RO Systems
6 Costs
61 Specific Cost Figures for the Plant Components
62 Water Delivery Cost
Availability of Solar Radiation and Its Estimation 265
VG Belessiotis Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems National Center for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun and the Radiation Emitted
21 The Physics of the Sun
22 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
3 The Extraterrestrial Radiation
31 What is the Solar Constant
32 Variations of the Extraterrestrial Radiation
33 The Black-body Emittance and Absorptance
34 Blackbody Absorbers - Application to Desalination
4 The Co-ordinate Systems The Basic Solar Angles
41 The Earth-Sun Relationships
42 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Sky
43 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Celestial Sphere
44 Earth-Sun Geometric Relationship
45 Time and its Units - Day Length
46 Terrestrial Solar Radiation
461 Estimation of Radiation Availability
462 Average Radiation Values - Clearness Index
463 Clear Sky Radiation
464 Sky Radiation
47 Atmospheric Factors Affecting Radiation
5 Computation of Insolation at the Earths Surface
51 Insolation Data
52 Measurement of Solar Radiation
53 Models for Solar Radiation
54 Where the Models Apply
55 Tilted Surfaces - Absorptance of Solar Radiation
551 Fixed Tilted Surfaces
552 Tracking Surfaces
6 Applications of Solar Radiation
7 Impact of Solar Energy to the Environment
Economics of Small Solar-Assisted Multiple-Effect Seawater Distillation Plants 296
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Configurations
3 Design and Sizing Considerations
31 Thermal Energy Requirement
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32 Pumping Requirements
33 Collector Performance
34 Sizing Thermal Collector Area
35 Sizing the PV System
351 Sizing the PV Array
4 Economic Ground Rules and Water Cost Optimization
41 Capital Equipment Cost
42 Operating Costs
43 Optimum Cost of Water for each Plant Configuration
5 Results
6 Conclusion
A Solar-Assisted Sea Water Multiple Effect Distillation Plant 15 Years of Operating
Performance (1985-1999) 316
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Basic Design Concept
21 General Plant Description
22 Design Specifications
23 Evaporator Heat Transfer Coefficient
24 Tube Dimensions Heat Transfer Areas and Materials
3 Performance during Commissioning Tests
31 The MES Evaporator
32 The Solar Collector Field
33 The Heat Accumulator
34 Total Plant Performance
4 Performance History
41 The MES Evaporator
42 The Solar Collector Field
43 The Heat Accumulator
431 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
4311 The heat balance method
4312 The direct temperature measurement method
4313 Thermal stratification ratio
44 Total Plant Performance
5 Major Maintenance Activities
51 Equipment Failure and Replacement
52 Acid Cleanings and Silt Removal from Evaporator
6 Evaluation of Water Cost
61 Capital Costs
62 Operation and Maintenance Costs
7 Conclusions
Mathematical Simulation of a Solar Desalination Plant 341
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Description
3 System Operating Conditions
31 Solar Heat Collecting Subsystem
32 Evaporator Subsystem
4 Mathematical Modeling of System Components
41 Solar radiation model
42 Ambient temperature model
43 Solar collector subsystem
431 Effect of shade on solar radiation
432 Effect of dust on transmissivity of glass tubes
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433 Control of heat collecting operation
434 Heat collection by solar collectors
435 Heat loss from piping
4351 Piping specifications
4352 Standard pipe lengths
4353 Heat loss from piping during operation of heat collecting pump
4354 Heat loss from piping while the heat collecting pump is shutdown
4355 Correction of piping heat loss
44 Heat accumulator subsystem
441 Temperature distribution
442 MES evaporator subsystem
5 The Simulation Program
51 Program structure
52 Input and output data
6 Results
7 Conclusions
Index 379
About EOLSS 385
VOLUME VI
Modeling and Design of Solar Energy Systems Including Solar Economics 1
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 F-Chart Method
11 Performance and Design of Liquid-Based Solar Heating Systems
111 Storage Capacity Correction
112 Collector Flow Rate Correction
113 Load Heat Exchanger Size Correction
12 Performance and Design of Air-Based Solar Heating Systems
121 Pebble Bed Storage Size Correction
122 Air Flow Rate Correction
13 Performance and Design of Solar Service Water Systems
14 Thermosiphon Solar Water Heating Systems
15 General Remarks
2 Modeling and Simulation of Solar Energy Systems
21 Simple System Models
211 Pipe Losses
22 F-Chart Program
23 Trnsys Simulation Program
24 Limitations of Simulations
3 Solar Economic Analysis
31 Life Cycle Costing
32 Life Cycle Analysis Method
33 Payback Time
331 Not Discounted Fuel Savings
332 Discounted Fuel Savings
34 Alternative Method
341 System Optimization Using Economic Analysis
35 Uncertainties in Economic Analysis
Solar Energy Power Generation and Desalination Systems 47
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 Global Energy Problems and the Role of Renewables
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxi
11 Energy demand
12 Energy environmental problems and sustainable development
13 Water demand and consumption
14 Water and energy
15 Desalination and energy
16 Renewable energy technologies
2 Solar Collectors
21 Parabolic trough collectors
22 Fresnel collectors
23 Parabolic dish reflector
24 Heliostat field collector
3 Power Generation and Industrial Process Heat Systems
31 Parabolic trough collector systems
32 Power tower systems
33 Dish systems
34 Solar ponds
341 Heat extraction and applications
35 Industrial process heat systems
36 Solar industrial steam generation systems
4 Desalination Processes
41 Direct collection systems
42 Indirect collection systems
421 The multi-stage flash process
422 The multiple-effect distillation process
423 The vapor-compression process
424 Reverse osmosis
425 Electrodialysis
Solar Updraft Power Plant Technology Basic Concepts and Structural Design 94
Francesca Lupi University of Florence Florence Italy
Claudio Borri University of Florence Florence Italy
Wilfried B Kraumltzig Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
Hans-Juumlrgen Niemann Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
1 Solar Updraft Power Technology Introduction and Working Principles
2 History of the Solar Updraft Power Technology
21 Solar Tower Prototype in Manzanares (Spain)
3 Evaluation of Plant Efficiency
31 The Collector
32 The Chimney
33 The Turbines
34 Electric Power Generated by Supps
4 The Collector
5 Actions on Solar Updraft Towers
6 Wind Loading on Solar Updraft Towers
61 Wind Flow Structure in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer at High Altitudes
611 Boundary Layer Meteorology
612 The Ekman Spiral
613 Theoretical Considerations on the Mean Wind and Turbulence in the Ekman Layer
62 Modeling of the Wind Load on Solar Towers
621 Mean Wind Load
622 Response to Wind Turbulence
623 Fluctuating Wind Load
624 Equivalent Static Wind Pressures
625 Vortex Excitation
626 Other Effects The Effect of the Efflux
63 Wind Load on the Collector Roof
7 Structural Behavior of Solar Updraft Towers
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71 Structural Elements of Solar Tower Shells
72 Some Typical Response Characteristics of Solar Tower Shells Vibration and Instability
Behavior
73 Non-Linear Tower Response
8 Structural Optimization of Solar Updraft Towers
81 The Role of the Stiffening Rings in the Structural Design of Solar Towers
82 Strategies of Optimization
9 Technology of Construction
Renewable Energy Potential in The Arab Region 162
Mohammed Mostafa El-Khayat General Manager of Planning New and Renewable Energy Authority
NREA Cairo Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Research Problem and Objectives
111 Research Problem
12 Research Objectives
2 Energy Demand
3 The Current Situation of Renewable Energy
31 Hydropower
32 Wind Energy
33 Solar Energy
34 Biomass and Geothermal Energy
4 Strategies
5 Institutional and Regulatory Framework
6 Main Policies and Incentives
7 RE Policies and Incentives Profiles
71 Algeria
72 Egypt
73 Jordan
74 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
75 Lebanon
76 Libya
77 Morocco
78 Palestine
79 Sudan
710 Syria
711 Tunisia
712 United Arab Emirates
713 Yemen
8 Financing Schemes and Investment Opportunities
9 Motivations and Barriers of Renewable Energy
10 Renewable Energy Initiatives
101 Arabian Initiatives
102 DESERTEC
11 Potential of Renewable Energy in the Region
12 The proposed mechanisms to enhance and accelerate the rate of using RE applications
13 The situation of localizing RE technologies
14 RE and climate change in Arab countries
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
198
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
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22 Humidifying with Cooling and Dehumidifying Processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in HD Desalination Process
25 Overview on Some Desalination HD Projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process Description
32 The Condenser in the SWGH
321 Different Condenser Layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the Condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of Condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot Plant
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH Project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot Plant
522 Performances of the Pilot Plant
53 The SWGH Project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot Plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Evolution of Photovoltaic Materials for Renewable Energy Development 262
Abdelilah Slaoui InESS ndash CNRS ndash University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
Jef Poortmans IMEC Leuven Belgium
Marko Topic University of Ljubljana Faculty of Elec Eng Ljubljana Slovenia
Gavin Conibeer ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence UNSW Sydney Australia
1 General Introduction
2 Photovoltaic Materials and Technologies State of the Art
21 Crystalline Silicon
22 Thin Films
221 Amorphous Silicon
222 Nanocrystalline and Microcrystalline Silicon
223 Polycrystalline Silicon
224 Copper Indium Selenide Its alloys and Related Chalcopyrites
225 Cadmium Telluride
226 Materials for Photochemical Solar Cells
227 Materials for Organic Solar Cells
3 Next Generation Solar Cells
31 Introduction
32 Multiple energy level approaches
33 Multiple Exciton Generation solar cells
34 Intermediate Band (IB) cells
35 Hot carrier cells
4 Conclusions and Perspectives
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Wind and Solar Renewable Energy Potential Resources Estimation 302
Philippe Drobinski Institut Pierre Simon LaplaceLaboratoire de Meacuteteacuteorologie Dynamique CNRSEcole
Polytechnique Palaiseau France
1 Renewable Wind and Solar Energies The Context
11 An Economical and Environmental Necessity
12 Energy Definitions and Units
2 Basic Knowledge in Geophysics for Energy Resource Evaluation
21 Earth Energy Budget and Atmospheric Motion
22 Near Surface Wind
23 Impacts of Clouds and Aerosols on Surface Solar Radiation
3 Wind Energy Resource
31 Wind Energy A Brief History
32 Wind Energy Resources Evaluation
33 Wind Energy Installed Capacity in the World
4 Solar Energy Resources
41 Solar Energy An Introduction
42 Worldwide Solar Heat
5 Methods for Wind and Solar Energy Resources Forecast
Index 353
About EOLSS 361
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
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Renewable Energy and Desalination Systems 301
Asghar Husain International Center for Water and Energy Systems (ICWES) Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
11 Need for Desalination
2 What Is Sustainability
3 Review of Desalination Technologies
31 Thermal-Based Processes
32 Membrane ndash Based Technologies
33 Renewable Energies
4 Desalination Using Solar Energy
41 Direct Utilization of Solar Radiation in the Solar Still
42 Solar Collectors
43 Solar Concentrating System
44 Solar Ponds
45 Photovoltaic Cells
46 Storage of Solar Energy
5 Desalination Using Other Renewable Energies
51 Wind Energy
52 Geothermal Energy
53 Wave Energy
54 Tidal Energy
55 Ocean Temperature Difference or Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
56 Hydraulic Energy
57 Biomass as Energy Source
6 Concluding Remarks
Why Use Renewable Energy for Desalination 342
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 The Need of Desalination for Economic Development in Remote Arid Areas
3 The Need of Energy for Desalination
4 The Availability of Renewable Energy
5 The Economic and Social Benefits of Using Renewable Energy for Desalination
6 Examples of Arid Remote Regions where Renewable Energy for Desalination can have a High
Economic Potential
61 The Southern and Eastern Mediterranean Regions
62 The Mediterranean Islands
63 The Arab Gulf Region
7 Conclusions
Thermal Energy Storage 356
Hassan E S Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Solar Energy Storage
12 Thermal Energy Storage
13 Thermal Storage Efficiency
14 Thermal Insulation
2 Sensible Heat Storage
21 Introduction
22 Low Temperature Sensible Heat Storage
221 Storage in Liquids
23 Intermediate and High Temperature Sensible Heat Storage
231 Storage in Fluids
232 Storage in Solids
233 Storage in Fluid-Solid Media
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Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xviii
24 Concluding Remarks
3 Latent Heat (Phase Change) Storage
31 Introduction
32 Low Temperature Latent Heat Storage
321 Phase Change Materials
322 Storage Systems Problems
33 Intermediate and High Temperature Latent Heat Storage
34 Concluding Remarks
35 Heat of Vaporization
4 Combined Sensible and Latent Heat Storage
5 Closing Remarks
6 Some Recent Developments
61 Sensible Heat Storage
62 Latent Heat Storage
621 Heat Transfer with Thermal Energy Storage
622 Storage System Performance
623 Solar Collector Integrated with Storage System
Electrical Energy Storage 387
J Garche Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research Baden-Wuumlrttemberg Germany
A Jossen Energy Storage and Energy Conversion Division Ulm Germany
1 Introduction
2 Systems with Internal Storage
21 Demands on the Battery
22 Lead-Acid Battery
221 Electrochemical Reactions
222 Operation values
223 Types of Lead-Acid Batteries
2231 Differentiation by electrodes
2232 Batteries with positive plates protected against active mass shedding
2233 Differentiation by container technology
224 Main Problems while Operation of Lead-Acid Batteries
2241 Charging and Overdischarge
2242 Deep Discharge
2243 Sulfation
225 Other Battery Systems
2251 Nickel-Cadmium Battery
2252 New Battery Systems
3 Systems with External Storage
31 Gas-Accumulator
32 Redox-Flow-Systems
4 Storage Sizing
Tidal Energy 406
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Consideration
5 Prospects
Index 416
About EOLSS 421
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VOLUME IV
Desalination Using Tidal Energy 1
Abdalla S Hanafi Cairo University Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Tides
21 Spring and Neap Tides
3 Tidal Power Plants
31 Barrage
32 Locks and Gates
33 Power House
34 Basins
35 Storage
36 Economical Considerations
37 Tidal Sites
4 Tidal Desalination Technologies
41 Tidal-Vapor Compression Desalination
42 Tidal-Reverse Osmosis
421 Overall Analysis of the Reverse Osmosis Modules
43 Tidal - Electrodialysis (ED)
431 Electrodialysis DC Power
44 Tidal Freezing-Melting (FM)
441 Freezing-Melting System Analysis
5 Economic Comparisons with Wind and Solar Energy
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
15
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
22 Humidifying with cooling and dehumidifying processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in Desalination HD Process
25 Overview on Some desalination HD projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process description
32 The condenser in the SWGH
321 Different condenser layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot plant
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512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot plant
522 Performances of the SWGH
53 Case Study 3 The SWGH project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Wave Energy 81
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Considerations
5 Prospects
Wind Energy 97
B Sorensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Worldwide Distribution of Wind Energy Resources
11 Physical Potential Wind Maps
12 Practical Potential for Wind Turbines
13 Restrictions due to Competing Land Use
14 Off-Shore Potential
15 Methods for Determining Local Potential Atlas Technique
16 Overall Assessment of Potential
2 Wind Turbine Technology
21 Current Status and Prospects for the Future
22 Basic Theory Wind Turbine Types and Efficiencies
23 Prospects for Further Development
24 Current Penetration of Wind Power Utilization
25 National Plans and Future Prospects
26 Plant Lifetime and Reliability
27 Impacts on Requirements for Transmission and Back-Up
28 Energy Storage and Demand Management
3 Economic Social and Environmental Impacts of Wind Energy Utilization
31 Current Cost and Cost Trends
32 Employment Generation
33 Energy Balance
34 Noise
35 Aspects of Decentralized Energy Supply
36 Life-Cycle Estimate of Externalities Including Construction and Decommissioning Impacts
4 Evaluation of Greenhouse Warming Mitigation Potential of Wind Power
41 Assessment of Marginal Life-Cycle Impacts Including Greenhouse Warming
42 Elements of Non-Marginal Analysis of Energy Systems with Large Wind Power Share
43 Relationship between Demand Development and the Valuations of Wind Energy
44 Concluding Remarks
Availability of Wind Energy and Its Estimation 139
Richard Morris Richard Morris Associates Glasgow United Kingdom
1 The Sun as the Wind Driver
2 The Nature of Wind
3 Wind Power Statistics
4 Estimating Wind Power
5 Siting for Wind Energy
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Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxi
The Use of Geothermal Energy in Desalination 155
BW Tleimat Water Reuse Technology Alamo California USA
ADK Laird (deceased) Professor Emeritus and Director Emeritus Sea Water Conversion Laboratory
University of California Berkeley California USA
1 Introduction
2 Historical Perspective
3 Heat Transfer from Geothermal Reservoirs
4 Geothermal Energy Utilization
5 Electricity Generation
6 Water Production from Geothermal Sources
7 Idealized Liquid-dominated Reservoirs
8 Water and Power Generation Effects of Some System Parameters
9 Multiple-effect and Multistage Distillation Processes
10 Energy-budget Management
11 Processes for Decentralized Desalination
12 Water-budget Management
13 Solids-budget Management
Solar Photovoltaic Energy Conversion 181
G Schumm Zentrum fuer Sonnenenergie und Wasserstoff-Forschung Baden Wuerttemberg Stuttgart
Germany
1 The General Photovoltaic System
2 Non-Concentrating PV Systems
3 Tracking and Concentrating PV Systems
Flat-Plate Collectors 191
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Solar Collector Applications
3 Definitions
31 Solar Collectors
311 Solar Thermal Collector
312 Flat-Plate Collector
32 Construction Elements of a Solar Collector
321 Absorber Plate or Selective Surface
322 The Transparent Cover
323 The Collector Insulation
324 The Heat Transfer Medium
33 The Surface Areas
331 The Surface Area of the Absorber Plate
332 The Transparent Cover Surface
333 Total Surface Area
34 Operational Characteristics of the Collector
341 Collector efficiency (η)
342 Thermal Capacity of the Collector (C)
343 Pressure Drop (Δp)
344 Stagnant Conditions
345 Incidence Angle Coefficient (kθ)
35 The Characteristic Parameters of the Collector
351 The cover reflectance (ρc)
353 Cover Absorptance (αc)
352 Cover Transmittance (τc)
354 Coefficient of cover Emissivity (εc)
355 Coefficient of Absorber Emissivity
356 Selective Surface
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357 Selective Coat
358 Collector Efficiency Factor (Fprime) 359 Collector Flow Factor (FPrime) 3510 Collector Heat Removal Factor (FR)
3511 Collector Heat Loss Coefficient (UL)
4 Main Collector Components
41 The Solar Radiation Absorber
42 The Transparent Cover
43 Thermal Insulation
44 The Casing of the Collector
45 The Supporting of the Collector
5 The Solar Absorbers
51 Types of Solar Absorbers
511 Absorbers of Common Paint
512 Selective coat Absorbers
52 Forms of Absorbers and Tubes
521 General considerations
522 Sandwich Type Absorber
523 Roll Bond Tube Absorber
524 Soldered Type Absorbers
525 Absorbers with Ω Type Fins
6 Characteristics of Flat-Plate Collectors
61 General considerations
62 Installation Configuration of a Collector System
63 Orientation and Slope of the Collector
7 Dynamic Operational Characteristics of a Collector
71 The Incident Angle Coefficient
72 The Thermal Capacity of the Collector C
73 The Heat Removal Factor FR
8 The Thermal Characteristics of a Collector
81 Determination of the Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL
82 Determination of Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL for in Series Interconnection
83 Equivalent Thermal Loss between Tubes and Collector
84 The Influence of Wind Velocity
9 Shading of the Collectors
10 Basic Calculation Methods
101 Cover Reflectance
102 Cover Transmittance
103 The Transmittance-Absorptance Product
104 Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
105 Multi-Cover Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
11 The Heat Transfer Loss Coefficients
111 Loss Coefficient Uc
112 Loss Coefficient Ub
113 Loss Coefficient Us
114 The Collector Efficiency Factor Fprime 115 Collector flow factor FPrime Large Active Solar Systems Load 220
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and other Energy Systems National Centre for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Estimation of Thermal Load
21 Estimation of the Required Heat Qload
22 Estimation of the Required Heat for the Water Qw
23 Estimation of the Heat Loss in Distribution Pipes Qp
24 Estimation of Heat Loss in the Storage Tank Qt
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Large Active Solar Systems Typical Economic Analysis 225
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Cost of a Solar Hot Water System
21 Initial Capital Cost
22 Operational Costs
221 Cost of Fuel
222 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
223 Cost of Maintenance
224 Cost for Loans
225 Costs for Insurance
226 Miscellaneous Expenses
3 Cost of Conventional Hot Water System
31 Operational Costs
311 Cost of Fuel
312 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
313 Cost of Maintenance
4 Inflation
5 Rate of Interest
6 Methods of Life Cycle Cost
61 General
62 Present and Future Costs
63 Yearly Instalment
64 Yearly Expenses
7 Methodology
8 Present Value Factor
9 Comparison Methodology
Integration of Solar Pond with Water Desalination 240
U Fisher J Weinberg and B Doron Ormat Industries Ltd Yavne Israel
1 Introduction
2 Historical Background
3 The Solar Pond
31 Structure
32 Heat Absorption and Storage
33 Main Demands when Building a Pond
331 Surface Area
332 Surface Water Make-up
333 Concentrated Brine Supply
34 How to Build a Solar Pond
341 Geometry or Shape
342 Lining
343 Construction Materials in the Pond
344 Initial Filling and Build-up of Gradient
35 How to Control
36 Heat Losses (Ground Diffusion Evaporation)
361 Top Losses
362 Bottom Heat Losses
37 Disturbances
371 Algae
372 Corrosion
373 Wind
38 Heat Extraction
39 Fuel Assisted Solar Ponds
310 Maintenance
3101 Clarity
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3102 Cleaning of Wind Breakers
3103 Blow Down
3104 Make-up
3105 Leakages
311 Practical Size of a Single Pond
312 Investment in Solar Ponds
313 OampM Costs
4 Desalination Processes Coupled to the Solar Pond
41 Economic Aspects of Coupling Desalination Plants to Solar Ponds
411 Desalination Processes
412 The Choice and Proportion of Producing Heat and Power in the Solar Pond
4121 The Solar Pond Yield
4122 Desalination Plant Performance
4123 The Impact of Daily and Seasonal Fluctuations
4124 Economic Considerations and Evaluations
42 Experience with SP-Desalination Systems
43 Conclusions
Evacuated Tube Collectors 276
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Current Designs of Evacuated Tube Collectors
3 Thermal Analysis
4 Analysis of Flat Plate Evacuated Tube Collector
5 Analysis of Concentric-Tube Collector
6 Performance of Evacuated Tube Collectors
7 Case Study (Collector Field at the Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant)
71 Description of collector field
72 Performance of collector field
73 Economics
Parabolic Trough Collectors 299
Wolfgang Meinecke Deutsches Zentrum fuumlr Luft-und Raumfahrt eV (DLR German Aerospace Center)
Solar Energy Technology Division Koumlln Germany
1 Introduction
2 Brief History of Trough Development
3 State of the Art of Trough Applications
31 Conventional Thermal Water Desalination Applications
32 Solar Thermal Water Desalination Applications
33 Solar Electric Power Generation
34 Solar Process Heat Generation
35 Process Hot Water (Project Examples)
36 Process Steam (Project Examples)
37 Process Steam for Water Desalination (Project Examples)
38 Process Hot Air
4 Trough Technologies
41 LS 3 Trough Collector System
411 LS 3 Parabolic Reflector
412 Steel Support Structure
413 Absorber Element
414 Tracking System and Field Control System
415 Heat Transfer Fluid System
416 Steam Generator
417 Balance of Plant Technologies
418 Energy Storage System
42 IST Trough Collector System
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421 IST Parabolic Reflector
422 Support Structure
423 Absorber Element
424 Tracking System and Field Control System
425 Heat Transfer Fluid System
426 Heat Exchanger
427 Balance of Plant Technology
428 Energy Storage
5 Prospects and Potential
51 Solar Electric Power Generation
52 Solar Process Heat Generation
53 Solar Thermal Water Desalination
6 Cost and Economic Aspects
61 Collector Investment Costs
611 LS 3 Collector Costs
612 IST Collector Costs
62 Other Economic Parameters
621 Fossil Fuel Prices
622 Solar Energy Yield
623 Solar Share
624 Plant Power Size
625 Capacity Factor
626 OampM Costs
627 Non-Technical Parameters
63 Costs of Solar Water Desalination
7 Conclusions
Index 363
About EOLSS 369
VOLUME V
Central Receivers 1
MM Elsayed Mechanical Engineering Department Kuwait University Safat Kuwait
1 Introduction
2 Heliostats Types and Design Shapes
3 Heliostat Angles
4 Heliostat Field Heliostat Layout
5 Heliostat Field Cosine Effect
6 Heliostat Field Preliminary Sizing of the Field
7 Heliostat Field Usefulness Efficiency
8 Reflected Solar Radiation
9 The Effective Sunshape
10 Principal Images and Relation between Receiver and Image Planes
11 Models to Predict the Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Image Plane
111 Incoming Ray Formulation
112 The Mirror Plane Formulation
113 Solar Disk Formulation
114 The Pinhole View
12 Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Receiver Surface Using the Separation of
VariableSuperposition Technique
121 Concept
122 Calculation of φ 123 Validation of Model Using Measurements
13 Receivers Types and Losses
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14 Preliminary Sizing of the Receiver
15 Overall System Optimization
Configuration Theoretical Analysis and Performance of Simple Solar Stills 98
A Kumar Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources Solar Energy Center New Delhi India
1 Introduction
2 Configuration of Simple Solar Stills
21 Basic Principle
22 Classification
23 Single Basin Solar Stills
24 Inclined Solar Stills
241 Basin Type Solar Stills
242 Wick Type Solar Stills
25 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
26 Solar Earth Water Stills
27 Plastic Solar Stills
271 Life Raft Solar Still
272 Circular Solar Still
273 Extruded Plastic Solar Still
274 Concentric Tube Solar Still
28 A Typical Solar Distillation Plant
3 Theoretical Analysis of Simple Solar Stills
31 Heat and Mass Transfer in Solar Stills
311 Inside the Solar Still
312 Outside the Solar Still
32 Solar Radiation Balance
321 Transmission through Top Cover
322 Absorption in the Top Cover
33 Energy Balance Equations
34 Solution Procedure
4 Performance of Solar Stills
41 Single Basin Solar Stills
42 Inclined Solar Stills
43 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
44 Solar Earth Water Stills
45 Plastic Solar Stills
46 Case Studies
461 Australia
462 Greek Islands
463 India
47 Suggested Practices for Installing Solar Stills
Development in Simple Solar Stills 169
Hassan ES Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Modified Simple (Passive) Stills
21 Basin Still
211 Single Slope versus Double Slope Basin Stills
212 Basin Still with Cover Cooling
213 Basin Still with Treated Cover Surface
214 Basin Still with Additional Condenser
215 Basin Still with Black DyeMuddy Water
22 Wick Stills
221 Single-wick Stills
222 Multi-wick Stills
223 Wick versus Basin Stills
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224 Combined Wick-Basin Stills
23 Other Stills Configurations
231 Vertical Microporous Evaporator Still
232 Cascade Solar Still
233 Still Integrated with Greenhouse
3 Externally Heated (Active) Solar Stills
31 Introduction
32 Stills Coupled to a Solar Collector
321 Direct and Indirect Heating
322 Use of Dye and Cover Cooling
323 Other Solar Heaters
33 Stills Coupled with Solar Concentrator
34 The Use of Waste Heat in Solar Stills
4 Other Types of Solar Distillation Systems
41 Water Recovery from Air
Multi-Effect Solar Stills 197
HES Fath Al-Jubail 31951 Saudi Arabia
1 Why Multi Effect
2 Double Effect Basin Stills
21 Double Basins Stills
22 Double Effect Tilted Stills
23 Purging Vapor to a Second Effect
3 Multi-Effect Multi-Wick Stills
4 Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
41 Introduction
42 Mass Diffusion
43 Comparison between Diffusion and Basin Stills
44 Description of Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
45 Analysis and Performance Considerations
5 Other Distillation Systems
51 Stacked Tray Stills
52 Multi-Effect Humidification-Dehumidification
Materials for Construction of Solar Stills 218
TA Lawand and J Ayoub Brace Research Institute Canada
1 Introduction
2 General Specifications of Solar Stills
3 Transparent Cover
4 Basin Liner
5 Solar Still Frame
6 Sealants
7 Insulation
8 Auxiliaries - Piping Pumping and Reservoirs
Reverse Osmosis by Solar Energy 225
W Bucher DLR German Aerospace Research Establishment Cologne Germany
1 Introduction
2 Basic Parameters and Energy Demand for Osmosis
21 Physical Properties of Hyperfiltration
22 Energy required for the RO Process
3 Solar Power Conversion Systems
31 Solar Conversion Principles
32 Technical Data of Solar Energy Conversion Methods
33 RO Plant Operation Utilizing Variable Energy Sources
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4 Reverse Osmosis System Configuration and Operation Aspects
41 Process Design of RO Desalination Systems
42 Procedural Steps and Data for Water Treatment and Energy Consumption
43 Components of RO -Desalination
431 Membranes and Modules
432 High Pressure Pumps
433 Pressure Regulating Devices
5 Solar Powered Desalination Units
51 Specific Figures or RO Systems
52 Solar Power Concepts for RO Desalination
53 Operational Experience with Solar driven RO Systems
6 Costs
61 Specific Cost Figures for the Plant Components
62 Water Delivery Cost
Availability of Solar Radiation and Its Estimation 265
VG Belessiotis Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems National Center for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun and the Radiation Emitted
21 The Physics of the Sun
22 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
3 The Extraterrestrial Radiation
31 What is the Solar Constant
32 Variations of the Extraterrestrial Radiation
33 The Black-body Emittance and Absorptance
34 Blackbody Absorbers - Application to Desalination
4 The Co-ordinate Systems The Basic Solar Angles
41 The Earth-Sun Relationships
42 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Sky
43 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Celestial Sphere
44 Earth-Sun Geometric Relationship
45 Time and its Units - Day Length
46 Terrestrial Solar Radiation
461 Estimation of Radiation Availability
462 Average Radiation Values - Clearness Index
463 Clear Sky Radiation
464 Sky Radiation
47 Atmospheric Factors Affecting Radiation
5 Computation of Insolation at the Earths Surface
51 Insolation Data
52 Measurement of Solar Radiation
53 Models for Solar Radiation
54 Where the Models Apply
55 Tilted Surfaces - Absorptance of Solar Radiation
551 Fixed Tilted Surfaces
552 Tracking Surfaces
6 Applications of Solar Radiation
7 Impact of Solar Energy to the Environment
Economics of Small Solar-Assisted Multiple-Effect Seawater Distillation Plants 296
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Configurations
3 Design and Sizing Considerations
31 Thermal Energy Requirement
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Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxix
32 Pumping Requirements
33 Collector Performance
34 Sizing Thermal Collector Area
35 Sizing the PV System
351 Sizing the PV Array
4 Economic Ground Rules and Water Cost Optimization
41 Capital Equipment Cost
42 Operating Costs
43 Optimum Cost of Water for each Plant Configuration
5 Results
6 Conclusion
A Solar-Assisted Sea Water Multiple Effect Distillation Plant 15 Years of Operating
Performance (1985-1999) 316
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Basic Design Concept
21 General Plant Description
22 Design Specifications
23 Evaporator Heat Transfer Coefficient
24 Tube Dimensions Heat Transfer Areas and Materials
3 Performance during Commissioning Tests
31 The MES Evaporator
32 The Solar Collector Field
33 The Heat Accumulator
34 Total Plant Performance
4 Performance History
41 The MES Evaporator
42 The Solar Collector Field
43 The Heat Accumulator
431 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
4311 The heat balance method
4312 The direct temperature measurement method
4313 Thermal stratification ratio
44 Total Plant Performance
5 Major Maintenance Activities
51 Equipment Failure and Replacement
52 Acid Cleanings and Silt Removal from Evaporator
6 Evaluation of Water Cost
61 Capital Costs
62 Operation and Maintenance Costs
7 Conclusions
Mathematical Simulation of a Solar Desalination Plant 341
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Description
3 System Operating Conditions
31 Solar Heat Collecting Subsystem
32 Evaporator Subsystem
4 Mathematical Modeling of System Components
41 Solar radiation model
42 Ambient temperature model
43 Solar collector subsystem
431 Effect of shade on solar radiation
432 Effect of dust on transmissivity of glass tubes
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Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxx
433 Control of heat collecting operation
434 Heat collection by solar collectors
435 Heat loss from piping
4351 Piping specifications
4352 Standard pipe lengths
4353 Heat loss from piping during operation of heat collecting pump
4354 Heat loss from piping while the heat collecting pump is shutdown
4355 Correction of piping heat loss
44 Heat accumulator subsystem
441 Temperature distribution
442 MES evaporator subsystem
5 The Simulation Program
51 Program structure
52 Input and output data
6 Results
7 Conclusions
Index 379
About EOLSS 385
VOLUME VI
Modeling and Design of Solar Energy Systems Including Solar Economics 1
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 F-Chart Method
11 Performance and Design of Liquid-Based Solar Heating Systems
111 Storage Capacity Correction
112 Collector Flow Rate Correction
113 Load Heat Exchanger Size Correction
12 Performance and Design of Air-Based Solar Heating Systems
121 Pebble Bed Storage Size Correction
122 Air Flow Rate Correction
13 Performance and Design of Solar Service Water Systems
14 Thermosiphon Solar Water Heating Systems
15 General Remarks
2 Modeling and Simulation of Solar Energy Systems
21 Simple System Models
211 Pipe Losses
22 F-Chart Program
23 Trnsys Simulation Program
24 Limitations of Simulations
3 Solar Economic Analysis
31 Life Cycle Costing
32 Life Cycle Analysis Method
33 Payback Time
331 Not Discounted Fuel Savings
332 Discounted Fuel Savings
34 Alternative Method
341 System Optimization Using Economic Analysis
35 Uncertainties in Economic Analysis
Solar Energy Power Generation and Desalination Systems 47
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 Global Energy Problems and the Role of Renewables
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxi
11 Energy demand
12 Energy environmental problems and sustainable development
13 Water demand and consumption
14 Water and energy
15 Desalination and energy
16 Renewable energy technologies
2 Solar Collectors
21 Parabolic trough collectors
22 Fresnel collectors
23 Parabolic dish reflector
24 Heliostat field collector
3 Power Generation and Industrial Process Heat Systems
31 Parabolic trough collector systems
32 Power tower systems
33 Dish systems
34 Solar ponds
341 Heat extraction and applications
35 Industrial process heat systems
36 Solar industrial steam generation systems
4 Desalination Processes
41 Direct collection systems
42 Indirect collection systems
421 The multi-stage flash process
422 The multiple-effect distillation process
423 The vapor-compression process
424 Reverse osmosis
425 Electrodialysis
Solar Updraft Power Plant Technology Basic Concepts and Structural Design 94
Francesca Lupi University of Florence Florence Italy
Claudio Borri University of Florence Florence Italy
Wilfried B Kraumltzig Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
Hans-Juumlrgen Niemann Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
1 Solar Updraft Power Technology Introduction and Working Principles
2 History of the Solar Updraft Power Technology
21 Solar Tower Prototype in Manzanares (Spain)
3 Evaluation of Plant Efficiency
31 The Collector
32 The Chimney
33 The Turbines
34 Electric Power Generated by Supps
4 The Collector
5 Actions on Solar Updraft Towers
6 Wind Loading on Solar Updraft Towers
61 Wind Flow Structure in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer at High Altitudes
611 Boundary Layer Meteorology
612 The Ekman Spiral
613 Theoretical Considerations on the Mean Wind and Turbulence in the Ekman Layer
62 Modeling of the Wind Load on Solar Towers
621 Mean Wind Load
622 Response to Wind Turbulence
623 Fluctuating Wind Load
624 Equivalent Static Wind Pressures
625 Vortex Excitation
626 Other Effects The Effect of the Efflux
63 Wind Load on the Collector Roof
7 Structural Behavior of Solar Updraft Towers
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71 Structural Elements of Solar Tower Shells
72 Some Typical Response Characteristics of Solar Tower Shells Vibration and Instability
Behavior
73 Non-Linear Tower Response
8 Structural Optimization of Solar Updraft Towers
81 The Role of the Stiffening Rings in the Structural Design of Solar Towers
82 Strategies of Optimization
9 Technology of Construction
Renewable Energy Potential in The Arab Region 162
Mohammed Mostafa El-Khayat General Manager of Planning New and Renewable Energy Authority
NREA Cairo Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Research Problem and Objectives
111 Research Problem
12 Research Objectives
2 Energy Demand
3 The Current Situation of Renewable Energy
31 Hydropower
32 Wind Energy
33 Solar Energy
34 Biomass and Geothermal Energy
4 Strategies
5 Institutional and Regulatory Framework
6 Main Policies and Incentives
7 RE Policies and Incentives Profiles
71 Algeria
72 Egypt
73 Jordan
74 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
75 Lebanon
76 Libya
77 Morocco
78 Palestine
79 Sudan
710 Syria
711 Tunisia
712 United Arab Emirates
713 Yemen
8 Financing Schemes and Investment Opportunities
9 Motivations and Barriers of Renewable Energy
10 Renewable Energy Initiatives
101 Arabian Initiatives
102 DESERTEC
11 Potential of Renewable Energy in the Region
12 The proposed mechanisms to enhance and accelerate the rate of using RE applications
13 The situation of localizing RE technologies
14 RE and climate change in Arab countries
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
198
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
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Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiii
22 Humidifying with Cooling and Dehumidifying Processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in HD Desalination Process
25 Overview on Some Desalination HD Projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process Description
32 The Condenser in the SWGH
321 Different Condenser Layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the Condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of Condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot Plant
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH Project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot Plant
522 Performances of the Pilot Plant
53 The SWGH Project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot Plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Evolution of Photovoltaic Materials for Renewable Energy Development 262
Abdelilah Slaoui InESS ndash CNRS ndash University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
Jef Poortmans IMEC Leuven Belgium
Marko Topic University of Ljubljana Faculty of Elec Eng Ljubljana Slovenia
Gavin Conibeer ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence UNSW Sydney Australia
1 General Introduction
2 Photovoltaic Materials and Technologies State of the Art
21 Crystalline Silicon
22 Thin Films
221 Amorphous Silicon
222 Nanocrystalline and Microcrystalline Silicon
223 Polycrystalline Silicon
224 Copper Indium Selenide Its alloys and Related Chalcopyrites
225 Cadmium Telluride
226 Materials for Photochemical Solar Cells
227 Materials for Organic Solar Cells
3 Next Generation Solar Cells
31 Introduction
32 Multiple energy level approaches
33 Multiple Exciton Generation solar cells
34 Intermediate Band (IB) cells
35 Hot carrier cells
4 Conclusions and Perspectives
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiv
Wind and Solar Renewable Energy Potential Resources Estimation 302
Philippe Drobinski Institut Pierre Simon LaplaceLaboratoire de Meacuteteacuteorologie Dynamique CNRSEcole
Polytechnique Palaiseau France
1 Renewable Wind and Solar Energies The Context
11 An Economical and Environmental Necessity
12 Energy Definitions and Units
2 Basic Knowledge in Geophysics for Energy Resource Evaluation
21 Earth Energy Budget and Atmospheric Motion
22 Near Surface Wind
23 Impacts of Clouds and Aerosols on Surface Solar Radiation
3 Wind Energy Resource
31 Wind Energy A Brief History
32 Wind Energy Resources Evaluation
33 Wind Energy Installed Capacity in the World
4 Solar Energy Resources
41 Solar Energy An Introduction
42 Worldwide Solar Heat
5 Methods for Wind and Solar Energy Resources Forecast
Index 353
About EOLSS 361
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xviii
24 Concluding Remarks
3 Latent Heat (Phase Change) Storage
31 Introduction
32 Low Temperature Latent Heat Storage
321 Phase Change Materials
322 Storage Systems Problems
33 Intermediate and High Temperature Latent Heat Storage
34 Concluding Remarks
35 Heat of Vaporization
4 Combined Sensible and Latent Heat Storage
5 Closing Remarks
6 Some Recent Developments
61 Sensible Heat Storage
62 Latent Heat Storage
621 Heat Transfer with Thermal Energy Storage
622 Storage System Performance
623 Solar Collector Integrated with Storage System
Electrical Energy Storage 387
J Garche Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research Baden-Wuumlrttemberg Germany
A Jossen Energy Storage and Energy Conversion Division Ulm Germany
1 Introduction
2 Systems with Internal Storage
21 Demands on the Battery
22 Lead-Acid Battery
221 Electrochemical Reactions
222 Operation values
223 Types of Lead-Acid Batteries
2231 Differentiation by electrodes
2232 Batteries with positive plates protected against active mass shedding
2233 Differentiation by container technology
224 Main Problems while Operation of Lead-Acid Batteries
2241 Charging and Overdischarge
2242 Deep Discharge
2243 Sulfation
225 Other Battery Systems
2251 Nickel-Cadmium Battery
2252 New Battery Systems
3 Systems with External Storage
31 Gas-Accumulator
32 Redox-Flow-Systems
4 Storage Sizing
Tidal Energy 406
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Consideration
5 Prospects
Index 416
About EOLSS 421
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xix
VOLUME IV
Desalination Using Tidal Energy 1
Abdalla S Hanafi Cairo University Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Tides
21 Spring and Neap Tides
3 Tidal Power Plants
31 Barrage
32 Locks and Gates
33 Power House
34 Basins
35 Storage
36 Economical Considerations
37 Tidal Sites
4 Tidal Desalination Technologies
41 Tidal-Vapor Compression Desalination
42 Tidal-Reverse Osmosis
421 Overall Analysis of the Reverse Osmosis Modules
43 Tidal - Electrodialysis (ED)
431 Electrodialysis DC Power
44 Tidal Freezing-Melting (FM)
441 Freezing-Melting System Analysis
5 Economic Comparisons with Wind and Solar Energy
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
15
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
22 Humidifying with cooling and dehumidifying processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in Desalination HD Process
25 Overview on Some desalination HD projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process description
32 The condenser in the SWGH
321 Different condenser layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot plant
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xx
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot plant
522 Performances of the SWGH
53 Case Study 3 The SWGH project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Wave Energy 81
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Considerations
5 Prospects
Wind Energy 97
B Sorensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Worldwide Distribution of Wind Energy Resources
11 Physical Potential Wind Maps
12 Practical Potential for Wind Turbines
13 Restrictions due to Competing Land Use
14 Off-Shore Potential
15 Methods for Determining Local Potential Atlas Technique
16 Overall Assessment of Potential
2 Wind Turbine Technology
21 Current Status and Prospects for the Future
22 Basic Theory Wind Turbine Types and Efficiencies
23 Prospects for Further Development
24 Current Penetration of Wind Power Utilization
25 National Plans and Future Prospects
26 Plant Lifetime and Reliability
27 Impacts on Requirements for Transmission and Back-Up
28 Energy Storage and Demand Management
3 Economic Social and Environmental Impacts of Wind Energy Utilization
31 Current Cost and Cost Trends
32 Employment Generation
33 Energy Balance
34 Noise
35 Aspects of Decentralized Energy Supply
36 Life-Cycle Estimate of Externalities Including Construction and Decommissioning Impacts
4 Evaluation of Greenhouse Warming Mitigation Potential of Wind Power
41 Assessment of Marginal Life-Cycle Impacts Including Greenhouse Warming
42 Elements of Non-Marginal Analysis of Energy Systems with Large Wind Power Share
43 Relationship between Demand Development and the Valuations of Wind Energy
44 Concluding Remarks
Availability of Wind Energy and Its Estimation 139
Richard Morris Richard Morris Associates Glasgow United Kingdom
1 The Sun as the Wind Driver
2 The Nature of Wind
3 Wind Power Statistics
4 Estimating Wind Power
5 Siting for Wind Energy
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxi
The Use of Geothermal Energy in Desalination 155
BW Tleimat Water Reuse Technology Alamo California USA
ADK Laird (deceased) Professor Emeritus and Director Emeritus Sea Water Conversion Laboratory
University of California Berkeley California USA
1 Introduction
2 Historical Perspective
3 Heat Transfer from Geothermal Reservoirs
4 Geothermal Energy Utilization
5 Electricity Generation
6 Water Production from Geothermal Sources
7 Idealized Liquid-dominated Reservoirs
8 Water and Power Generation Effects of Some System Parameters
9 Multiple-effect and Multistage Distillation Processes
10 Energy-budget Management
11 Processes for Decentralized Desalination
12 Water-budget Management
13 Solids-budget Management
Solar Photovoltaic Energy Conversion 181
G Schumm Zentrum fuer Sonnenenergie und Wasserstoff-Forschung Baden Wuerttemberg Stuttgart
Germany
1 The General Photovoltaic System
2 Non-Concentrating PV Systems
3 Tracking and Concentrating PV Systems
Flat-Plate Collectors 191
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Solar Collector Applications
3 Definitions
31 Solar Collectors
311 Solar Thermal Collector
312 Flat-Plate Collector
32 Construction Elements of a Solar Collector
321 Absorber Plate or Selective Surface
322 The Transparent Cover
323 The Collector Insulation
324 The Heat Transfer Medium
33 The Surface Areas
331 The Surface Area of the Absorber Plate
332 The Transparent Cover Surface
333 Total Surface Area
34 Operational Characteristics of the Collector
341 Collector efficiency (η)
342 Thermal Capacity of the Collector (C)
343 Pressure Drop (Δp)
344 Stagnant Conditions
345 Incidence Angle Coefficient (kθ)
35 The Characteristic Parameters of the Collector
351 The cover reflectance (ρc)
353 Cover Absorptance (αc)
352 Cover Transmittance (τc)
354 Coefficient of cover Emissivity (εc)
355 Coefficient of Absorber Emissivity
356 Selective Surface
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxii
357 Selective Coat
358 Collector Efficiency Factor (Fprime) 359 Collector Flow Factor (FPrime) 3510 Collector Heat Removal Factor (FR)
3511 Collector Heat Loss Coefficient (UL)
4 Main Collector Components
41 The Solar Radiation Absorber
42 The Transparent Cover
43 Thermal Insulation
44 The Casing of the Collector
45 The Supporting of the Collector
5 The Solar Absorbers
51 Types of Solar Absorbers
511 Absorbers of Common Paint
512 Selective coat Absorbers
52 Forms of Absorbers and Tubes
521 General considerations
522 Sandwich Type Absorber
523 Roll Bond Tube Absorber
524 Soldered Type Absorbers
525 Absorbers with Ω Type Fins
6 Characteristics of Flat-Plate Collectors
61 General considerations
62 Installation Configuration of a Collector System
63 Orientation and Slope of the Collector
7 Dynamic Operational Characteristics of a Collector
71 The Incident Angle Coefficient
72 The Thermal Capacity of the Collector C
73 The Heat Removal Factor FR
8 The Thermal Characteristics of a Collector
81 Determination of the Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL
82 Determination of Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL for in Series Interconnection
83 Equivalent Thermal Loss between Tubes and Collector
84 The Influence of Wind Velocity
9 Shading of the Collectors
10 Basic Calculation Methods
101 Cover Reflectance
102 Cover Transmittance
103 The Transmittance-Absorptance Product
104 Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
105 Multi-Cover Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
11 The Heat Transfer Loss Coefficients
111 Loss Coefficient Uc
112 Loss Coefficient Ub
113 Loss Coefficient Us
114 The Collector Efficiency Factor Fprime 115 Collector flow factor FPrime Large Active Solar Systems Load 220
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and other Energy Systems National Centre for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Estimation of Thermal Load
21 Estimation of the Required Heat Qload
22 Estimation of the Required Heat for the Water Qw
23 Estimation of the Heat Loss in Distribution Pipes Qp
24 Estimation of Heat Loss in the Storage Tank Qt
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiii
Large Active Solar Systems Typical Economic Analysis 225
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Cost of a Solar Hot Water System
21 Initial Capital Cost
22 Operational Costs
221 Cost of Fuel
222 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
223 Cost of Maintenance
224 Cost for Loans
225 Costs for Insurance
226 Miscellaneous Expenses
3 Cost of Conventional Hot Water System
31 Operational Costs
311 Cost of Fuel
312 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
313 Cost of Maintenance
4 Inflation
5 Rate of Interest
6 Methods of Life Cycle Cost
61 General
62 Present and Future Costs
63 Yearly Instalment
64 Yearly Expenses
7 Methodology
8 Present Value Factor
9 Comparison Methodology
Integration of Solar Pond with Water Desalination 240
U Fisher J Weinberg and B Doron Ormat Industries Ltd Yavne Israel
1 Introduction
2 Historical Background
3 The Solar Pond
31 Structure
32 Heat Absorption and Storage
33 Main Demands when Building a Pond
331 Surface Area
332 Surface Water Make-up
333 Concentrated Brine Supply
34 How to Build a Solar Pond
341 Geometry or Shape
342 Lining
343 Construction Materials in the Pond
344 Initial Filling and Build-up of Gradient
35 How to Control
36 Heat Losses (Ground Diffusion Evaporation)
361 Top Losses
362 Bottom Heat Losses
37 Disturbances
371 Algae
372 Corrosion
373 Wind
38 Heat Extraction
39 Fuel Assisted Solar Ponds
310 Maintenance
3101 Clarity
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Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiv
3102 Cleaning of Wind Breakers
3103 Blow Down
3104 Make-up
3105 Leakages
311 Practical Size of a Single Pond
312 Investment in Solar Ponds
313 OampM Costs
4 Desalination Processes Coupled to the Solar Pond
41 Economic Aspects of Coupling Desalination Plants to Solar Ponds
411 Desalination Processes
412 The Choice and Proportion of Producing Heat and Power in the Solar Pond
4121 The Solar Pond Yield
4122 Desalination Plant Performance
4123 The Impact of Daily and Seasonal Fluctuations
4124 Economic Considerations and Evaluations
42 Experience with SP-Desalination Systems
43 Conclusions
Evacuated Tube Collectors 276
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Current Designs of Evacuated Tube Collectors
3 Thermal Analysis
4 Analysis of Flat Plate Evacuated Tube Collector
5 Analysis of Concentric-Tube Collector
6 Performance of Evacuated Tube Collectors
7 Case Study (Collector Field at the Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant)
71 Description of collector field
72 Performance of collector field
73 Economics
Parabolic Trough Collectors 299
Wolfgang Meinecke Deutsches Zentrum fuumlr Luft-und Raumfahrt eV (DLR German Aerospace Center)
Solar Energy Technology Division Koumlln Germany
1 Introduction
2 Brief History of Trough Development
3 State of the Art of Trough Applications
31 Conventional Thermal Water Desalination Applications
32 Solar Thermal Water Desalination Applications
33 Solar Electric Power Generation
34 Solar Process Heat Generation
35 Process Hot Water (Project Examples)
36 Process Steam (Project Examples)
37 Process Steam for Water Desalination (Project Examples)
38 Process Hot Air
4 Trough Technologies
41 LS 3 Trough Collector System
411 LS 3 Parabolic Reflector
412 Steel Support Structure
413 Absorber Element
414 Tracking System and Field Control System
415 Heat Transfer Fluid System
416 Steam Generator
417 Balance of Plant Technologies
418 Energy Storage System
42 IST Trough Collector System
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxv
421 IST Parabolic Reflector
422 Support Structure
423 Absorber Element
424 Tracking System and Field Control System
425 Heat Transfer Fluid System
426 Heat Exchanger
427 Balance of Plant Technology
428 Energy Storage
5 Prospects and Potential
51 Solar Electric Power Generation
52 Solar Process Heat Generation
53 Solar Thermal Water Desalination
6 Cost and Economic Aspects
61 Collector Investment Costs
611 LS 3 Collector Costs
612 IST Collector Costs
62 Other Economic Parameters
621 Fossil Fuel Prices
622 Solar Energy Yield
623 Solar Share
624 Plant Power Size
625 Capacity Factor
626 OampM Costs
627 Non-Technical Parameters
63 Costs of Solar Water Desalination
7 Conclusions
Index 363
About EOLSS 369
VOLUME V
Central Receivers 1
MM Elsayed Mechanical Engineering Department Kuwait University Safat Kuwait
1 Introduction
2 Heliostats Types and Design Shapes
3 Heliostat Angles
4 Heliostat Field Heliostat Layout
5 Heliostat Field Cosine Effect
6 Heliostat Field Preliminary Sizing of the Field
7 Heliostat Field Usefulness Efficiency
8 Reflected Solar Radiation
9 The Effective Sunshape
10 Principal Images and Relation between Receiver and Image Planes
11 Models to Predict the Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Image Plane
111 Incoming Ray Formulation
112 The Mirror Plane Formulation
113 Solar Disk Formulation
114 The Pinhole View
12 Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Receiver Surface Using the Separation of
VariableSuperposition Technique
121 Concept
122 Calculation of φ 123 Validation of Model Using Measurements
13 Receivers Types and Losses
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14 Preliminary Sizing of the Receiver
15 Overall System Optimization
Configuration Theoretical Analysis and Performance of Simple Solar Stills 98
A Kumar Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources Solar Energy Center New Delhi India
1 Introduction
2 Configuration of Simple Solar Stills
21 Basic Principle
22 Classification
23 Single Basin Solar Stills
24 Inclined Solar Stills
241 Basin Type Solar Stills
242 Wick Type Solar Stills
25 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
26 Solar Earth Water Stills
27 Plastic Solar Stills
271 Life Raft Solar Still
272 Circular Solar Still
273 Extruded Plastic Solar Still
274 Concentric Tube Solar Still
28 A Typical Solar Distillation Plant
3 Theoretical Analysis of Simple Solar Stills
31 Heat and Mass Transfer in Solar Stills
311 Inside the Solar Still
312 Outside the Solar Still
32 Solar Radiation Balance
321 Transmission through Top Cover
322 Absorption in the Top Cover
33 Energy Balance Equations
34 Solution Procedure
4 Performance of Solar Stills
41 Single Basin Solar Stills
42 Inclined Solar Stills
43 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
44 Solar Earth Water Stills
45 Plastic Solar Stills
46 Case Studies
461 Australia
462 Greek Islands
463 India
47 Suggested Practices for Installing Solar Stills
Development in Simple Solar Stills 169
Hassan ES Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Modified Simple (Passive) Stills
21 Basin Still
211 Single Slope versus Double Slope Basin Stills
212 Basin Still with Cover Cooling
213 Basin Still with Treated Cover Surface
214 Basin Still with Additional Condenser
215 Basin Still with Black DyeMuddy Water
22 Wick Stills
221 Single-wick Stills
222 Multi-wick Stills
223 Wick versus Basin Stills
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvii
224 Combined Wick-Basin Stills
23 Other Stills Configurations
231 Vertical Microporous Evaporator Still
232 Cascade Solar Still
233 Still Integrated with Greenhouse
3 Externally Heated (Active) Solar Stills
31 Introduction
32 Stills Coupled to a Solar Collector
321 Direct and Indirect Heating
322 Use of Dye and Cover Cooling
323 Other Solar Heaters
33 Stills Coupled with Solar Concentrator
34 The Use of Waste Heat in Solar Stills
4 Other Types of Solar Distillation Systems
41 Water Recovery from Air
Multi-Effect Solar Stills 197
HES Fath Al-Jubail 31951 Saudi Arabia
1 Why Multi Effect
2 Double Effect Basin Stills
21 Double Basins Stills
22 Double Effect Tilted Stills
23 Purging Vapor to a Second Effect
3 Multi-Effect Multi-Wick Stills
4 Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
41 Introduction
42 Mass Diffusion
43 Comparison between Diffusion and Basin Stills
44 Description of Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
45 Analysis and Performance Considerations
5 Other Distillation Systems
51 Stacked Tray Stills
52 Multi-Effect Humidification-Dehumidification
Materials for Construction of Solar Stills 218
TA Lawand and J Ayoub Brace Research Institute Canada
1 Introduction
2 General Specifications of Solar Stills
3 Transparent Cover
4 Basin Liner
5 Solar Still Frame
6 Sealants
7 Insulation
8 Auxiliaries - Piping Pumping and Reservoirs
Reverse Osmosis by Solar Energy 225
W Bucher DLR German Aerospace Research Establishment Cologne Germany
1 Introduction
2 Basic Parameters and Energy Demand for Osmosis
21 Physical Properties of Hyperfiltration
22 Energy required for the RO Process
3 Solar Power Conversion Systems
31 Solar Conversion Principles
32 Technical Data of Solar Energy Conversion Methods
33 RO Plant Operation Utilizing Variable Energy Sources
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxviii
4 Reverse Osmosis System Configuration and Operation Aspects
41 Process Design of RO Desalination Systems
42 Procedural Steps and Data for Water Treatment and Energy Consumption
43 Components of RO -Desalination
431 Membranes and Modules
432 High Pressure Pumps
433 Pressure Regulating Devices
5 Solar Powered Desalination Units
51 Specific Figures or RO Systems
52 Solar Power Concepts for RO Desalination
53 Operational Experience with Solar driven RO Systems
6 Costs
61 Specific Cost Figures for the Plant Components
62 Water Delivery Cost
Availability of Solar Radiation and Its Estimation 265
VG Belessiotis Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems National Center for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun and the Radiation Emitted
21 The Physics of the Sun
22 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
3 The Extraterrestrial Radiation
31 What is the Solar Constant
32 Variations of the Extraterrestrial Radiation
33 The Black-body Emittance and Absorptance
34 Blackbody Absorbers - Application to Desalination
4 The Co-ordinate Systems The Basic Solar Angles
41 The Earth-Sun Relationships
42 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Sky
43 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Celestial Sphere
44 Earth-Sun Geometric Relationship
45 Time and its Units - Day Length
46 Terrestrial Solar Radiation
461 Estimation of Radiation Availability
462 Average Radiation Values - Clearness Index
463 Clear Sky Radiation
464 Sky Radiation
47 Atmospheric Factors Affecting Radiation
5 Computation of Insolation at the Earths Surface
51 Insolation Data
52 Measurement of Solar Radiation
53 Models for Solar Radiation
54 Where the Models Apply
55 Tilted Surfaces - Absorptance of Solar Radiation
551 Fixed Tilted Surfaces
552 Tracking Surfaces
6 Applications of Solar Radiation
7 Impact of Solar Energy to the Environment
Economics of Small Solar-Assisted Multiple-Effect Seawater Distillation Plants 296
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Configurations
3 Design and Sizing Considerations
31 Thermal Energy Requirement
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxix
32 Pumping Requirements
33 Collector Performance
34 Sizing Thermal Collector Area
35 Sizing the PV System
351 Sizing the PV Array
4 Economic Ground Rules and Water Cost Optimization
41 Capital Equipment Cost
42 Operating Costs
43 Optimum Cost of Water for each Plant Configuration
5 Results
6 Conclusion
A Solar-Assisted Sea Water Multiple Effect Distillation Plant 15 Years of Operating
Performance (1985-1999) 316
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Basic Design Concept
21 General Plant Description
22 Design Specifications
23 Evaporator Heat Transfer Coefficient
24 Tube Dimensions Heat Transfer Areas and Materials
3 Performance during Commissioning Tests
31 The MES Evaporator
32 The Solar Collector Field
33 The Heat Accumulator
34 Total Plant Performance
4 Performance History
41 The MES Evaporator
42 The Solar Collector Field
43 The Heat Accumulator
431 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
4311 The heat balance method
4312 The direct temperature measurement method
4313 Thermal stratification ratio
44 Total Plant Performance
5 Major Maintenance Activities
51 Equipment Failure and Replacement
52 Acid Cleanings and Silt Removal from Evaporator
6 Evaluation of Water Cost
61 Capital Costs
62 Operation and Maintenance Costs
7 Conclusions
Mathematical Simulation of a Solar Desalination Plant 341
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Description
3 System Operating Conditions
31 Solar Heat Collecting Subsystem
32 Evaporator Subsystem
4 Mathematical Modeling of System Components
41 Solar radiation model
42 Ambient temperature model
43 Solar collector subsystem
431 Effect of shade on solar radiation
432 Effect of dust on transmissivity of glass tubes
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxx
433 Control of heat collecting operation
434 Heat collection by solar collectors
435 Heat loss from piping
4351 Piping specifications
4352 Standard pipe lengths
4353 Heat loss from piping during operation of heat collecting pump
4354 Heat loss from piping while the heat collecting pump is shutdown
4355 Correction of piping heat loss
44 Heat accumulator subsystem
441 Temperature distribution
442 MES evaporator subsystem
5 The Simulation Program
51 Program structure
52 Input and output data
6 Results
7 Conclusions
Index 379
About EOLSS 385
VOLUME VI
Modeling and Design of Solar Energy Systems Including Solar Economics 1
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 F-Chart Method
11 Performance and Design of Liquid-Based Solar Heating Systems
111 Storage Capacity Correction
112 Collector Flow Rate Correction
113 Load Heat Exchanger Size Correction
12 Performance and Design of Air-Based Solar Heating Systems
121 Pebble Bed Storage Size Correction
122 Air Flow Rate Correction
13 Performance and Design of Solar Service Water Systems
14 Thermosiphon Solar Water Heating Systems
15 General Remarks
2 Modeling and Simulation of Solar Energy Systems
21 Simple System Models
211 Pipe Losses
22 F-Chart Program
23 Trnsys Simulation Program
24 Limitations of Simulations
3 Solar Economic Analysis
31 Life Cycle Costing
32 Life Cycle Analysis Method
33 Payback Time
331 Not Discounted Fuel Savings
332 Discounted Fuel Savings
34 Alternative Method
341 System Optimization Using Economic Analysis
35 Uncertainties in Economic Analysis
Solar Energy Power Generation and Desalination Systems 47
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 Global Energy Problems and the Role of Renewables
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxi
11 Energy demand
12 Energy environmental problems and sustainable development
13 Water demand and consumption
14 Water and energy
15 Desalination and energy
16 Renewable energy technologies
2 Solar Collectors
21 Parabolic trough collectors
22 Fresnel collectors
23 Parabolic dish reflector
24 Heliostat field collector
3 Power Generation and Industrial Process Heat Systems
31 Parabolic trough collector systems
32 Power tower systems
33 Dish systems
34 Solar ponds
341 Heat extraction and applications
35 Industrial process heat systems
36 Solar industrial steam generation systems
4 Desalination Processes
41 Direct collection systems
42 Indirect collection systems
421 The multi-stage flash process
422 The multiple-effect distillation process
423 The vapor-compression process
424 Reverse osmosis
425 Electrodialysis
Solar Updraft Power Plant Technology Basic Concepts and Structural Design 94
Francesca Lupi University of Florence Florence Italy
Claudio Borri University of Florence Florence Italy
Wilfried B Kraumltzig Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
Hans-Juumlrgen Niemann Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
1 Solar Updraft Power Technology Introduction and Working Principles
2 History of the Solar Updraft Power Technology
21 Solar Tower Prototype in Manzanares (Spain)
3 Evaluation of Plant Efficiency
31 The Collector
32 The Chimney
33 The Turbines
34 Electric Power Generated by Supps
4 The Collector
5 Actions on Solar Updraft Towers
6 Wind Loading on Solar Updraft Towers
61 Wind Flow Structure in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer at High Altitudes
611 Boundary Layer Meteorology
612 The Ekman Spiral
613 Theoretical Considerations on the Mean Wind and Turbulence in the Ekman Layer
62 Modeling of the Wind Load on Solar Towers
621 Mean Wind Load
622 Response to Wind Turbulence
623 Fluctuating Wind Load
624 Equivalent Static Wind Pressures
625 Vortex Excitation
626 Other Effects The Effect of the Efflux
63 Wind Load on the Collector Roof
7 Structural Behavior of Solar Updraft Towers
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxii
71 Structural Elements of Solar Tower Shells
72 Some Typical Response Characteristics of Solar Tower Shells Vibration and Instability
Behavior
73 Non-Linear Tower Response
8 Structural Optimization of Solar Updraft Towers
81 The Role of the Stiffening Rings in the Structural Design of Solar Towers
82 Strategies of Optimization
9 Technology of Construction
Renewable Energy Potential in The Arab Region 162
Mohammed Mostafa El-Khayat General Manager of Planning New and Renewable Energy Authority
NREA Cairo Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Research Problem and Objectives
111 Research Problem
12 Research Objectives
2 Energy Demand
3 The Current Situation of Renewable Energy
31 Hydropower
32 Wind Energy
33 Solar Energy
34 Biomass and Geothermal Energy
4 Strategies
5 Institutional and Regulatory Framework
6 Main Policies and Incentives
7 RE Policies and Incentives Profiles
71 Algeria
72 Egypt
73 Jordan
74 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
75 Lebanon
76 Libya
77 Morocco
78 Palestine
79 Sudan
710 Syria
711 Tunisia
712 United Arab Emirates
713 Yemen
8 Financing Schemes and Investment Opportunities
9 Motivations and Barriers of Renewable Energy
10 Renewable Energy Initiatives
101 Arabian Initiatives
102 DESERTEC
11 Potential of Renewable Energy in the Region
12 The proposed mechanisms to enhance and accelerate the rate of using RE applications
13 The situation of localizing RE technologies
14 RE and climate change in Arab countries
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
198
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiii
22 Humidifying with Cooling and Dehumidifying Processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in HD Desalination Process
25 Overview on Some Desalination HD Projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process Description
32 The Condenser in the SWGH
321 Different Condenser Layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the Condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of Condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot Plant
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH Project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot Plant
522 Performances of the Pilot Plant
53 The SWGH Project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot Plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Evolution of Photovoltaic Materials for Renewable Energy Development 262
Abdelilah Slaoui InESS ndash CNRS ndash University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
Jef Poortmans IMEC Leuven Belgium
Marko Topic University of Ljubljana Faculty of Elec Eng Ljubljana Slovenia
Gavin Conibeer ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence UNSW Sydney Australia
1 General Introduction
2 Photovoltaic Materials and Technologies State of the Art
21 Crystalline Silicon
22 Thin Films
221 Amorphous Silicon
222 Nanocrystalline and Microcrystalline Silicon
223 Polycrystalline Silicon
224 Copper Indium Selenide Its alloys and Related Chalcopyrites
225 Cadmium Telluride
226 Materials for Photochemical Solar Cells
227 Materials for Organic Solar Cells
3 Next Generation Solar Cells
31 Introduction
32 Multiple energy level approaches
33 Multiple Exciton Generation solar cells
34 Intermediate Band (IB) cells
35 Hot carrier cells
4 Conclusions and Perspectives
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiv
Wind and Solar Renewable Energy Potential Resources Estimation 302
Philippe Drobinski Institut Pierre Simon LaplaceLaboratoire de Meacuteteacuteorologie Dynamique CNRSEcole
Polytechnique Palaiseau France
1 Renewable Wind and Solar Energies The Context
11 An Economical and Environmental Necessity
12 Energy Definitions and Units
2 Basic Knowledge in Geophysics for Energy Resource Evaluation
21 Earth Energy Budget and Atmospheric Motion
22 Near Surface Wind
23 Impacts of Clouds and Aerosols on Surface Solar Radiation
3 Wind Energy Resource
31 Wind Energy A Brief History
32 Wind Energy Resources Evaluation
33 Wind Energy Installed Capacity in the World
4 Solar Energy Resources
41 Solar Energy An Introduction
42 Worldwide Solar Heat
5 Methods for Wind and Solar Energy Resources Forecast
Index 353
About EOLSS 361
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xix
VOLUME IV
Desalination Using Tidal Energy 1
Abdalla S Hanafi Cairo University Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Tides
21 Spring and Neap Tides
3 Tidal Power Plants
31 Barrage
32 Locks and Gates
33 Power House
34 Basins
35 Storage
36 Economical Considerations
37 Tidal Sites
4 Tidal Desalination Technologies
41 Tidal-Vapor Compression Desalination
42 Tidal-Reverse Osmosis
421 Overall Analysis of the Reverse Osmosis Modules
43 Tidal - Electrodialysis (ED)
431 Electrodialysis DC Power
44 Tidal Freezing-Melting (FM)
441 Freezing-Melting System Analysis
5 Economic Comparisons with Wind and Solar Energy
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
15
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
22 Humidifying with cooling and dehumidifying processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in Desalination HD Process
25 Overview on Some desalination HD projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process description
32 The condenser in the SWGH
321 Different condenser layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot plant
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xx
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot plant
522 Performances of the SWGH
53 Case Study 3 The SWGH project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Wave Energy 81
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Considerations
5 Prospects
Wind Energy 97
B Sorensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Worldwide Distribution of Wind Energy Resources
11 Physical Potential Wind Maps
12 Practical Potential for Wind Turbines
13 Restrictions due to Competing Land Use
14 Off-Shore Potential
15 Methods for Determining Local Potential Atlas Technique
16 Overall Assessment of Potential
2 Wind Turbine Technology
21 Current Status and Prospects for the Future
22 Basic Theory Wind Turbine Types and Efficiencies
23 Prospects for Further Development
24 Current Penetration of Wind Power Utilization
25 National Plans and Future Prospects
26 Plant Lifetime and Reliability
27 Impacts on Requirements for Transmission and Back-Up
28 Energy Storage and Demand Management
3 Economic Social and Environmental Impacts of Wind Energy Utilization
31 Current Cost and Cost Trends
32 Employment Generation
33 Energy Balance
34 Noise
35 Aspects of Decentralized Energy Supply
36 Life-Cycle Estimate of Externalities Including Construction and Decommissioning Impacts
4 Evaluation of Greenhouse Warming Mitigation Potential of Wind Power
41 Assessment of Marginal Life-Cycle Impacts Including Greenhouse Warming
42 Elements of Non-Marginal Analysis of Energy Systems with Large Wind Power Share
43 Relationship between Demand Development and the Valuations of Wind Energy
44 Concluding Remarks
Availability of Wind Energy and Its Estimation 139
Richard Morris Richard Morris Associates Glasgow United Kingdom
1 The Sun as the Wind Driver
2 The Nature of Wind
3 Wind Power Statistics
4 Estimating Wind Power
5 Siting for Wind Energy
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxi
The Use of Geothermal Energy in Desalination 155
BW Tleimat Water Reuse Technology Alamo California USA
ADK Laird (deceased) Professor Emeritus and Director Emeritus Sea Water Conversion Laboratory
University of California Berkeley California USA
1 Introduction
2 Historical Perspective
3 Heat Transfer from Geothermal Reservoirs
4 Geothermal Energy Utilization
5 Electricity Generation
6 Water Production from Geothermal Sources
7 Idealized Liquid-dominated Reservoirs
8 Water and Power Generation Effects of Some System Parameters
9 Multiple-effect and Multistage Distillation Processes
10 Energy-budget Management
11 Processes for Decentralized Desalination
12 Water-budget Management
13 Solids-budget Management
Solar Photovoltaic Energy Conversion 181
G Schumm Zentrum fuer Sonnenenergie und Wasserstoff-Forschung Baden Wuerttemberg Stuttgart
Germany
1 The General Photovoltaic System
2 Non-Concentrating PV Systems
3 Tracking and Concentrating PV Systems
Flat-Plate Collectors 191
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Solar Collector Applications
3 Definitions
31 Solar Collectors
311 Solar Thermal Collector
312 Flat-Plate Collector
32 Construction Elements of a Solar Collector
321 Absorber Plate or Selective Surface
322 The Transparent Cover
323 The Collector Insulation
324 The Heat Transfer Medium
33 The Surface Areas
331 The Surface Area of the Absorber Plate
332 The Transparent Cover Surface
333 Total Surface Area
34 Operational Characteristics of the Collector
341 Collector efficiency (η)
342 Thermal Capacity of the Collector (C)
343 Pressure Drop (Δp)
344 Stagnant Conditions
345 Incidence Angle Coefficient (kθ)
35 The Characteristic Parameters of the Collector
351 The cover reflectance (ρc)
353 Cover Absorptance (αc)
352 Cover Transmittance (τc)
354 Coefficient of cover Emissivity (εc)
355 Coefficient of Absorber Emissivity
356 Selective Surface
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxii
357 Selective Coat
358 Collector Efficiency Factor (Fprime) 359 Collector Flow Factor (FPrime) 3510 Collector Heat Removal Factor (FR)
3511 Collector Heat Loss Coefficient (UL)
4 Main Collector Components
41 The Solar Radiation Absorber
42 The Transparent Cover
43 Thermal Insulation
44 The Casing of the Collector
45 The Supporting of the Collector
5 The Solar Absorbers
51 Types of Solar Absorbers
511 Absorbers of Common Paint
512 Selective coat Absorbers
52 Forms of Absorbers and Tubes
521 General considerations
522 Sandwich Type Absorber
523 Roll Bond Tube Absorber
524 Soldered Type Absorbers
525 Absorbers with Ω Type Fins
6 Characteristics of Flat-Plate Collectors
61 General considerations
62 Installation Configuration of a Collector System
63 Orientation and Slope of the Collector
7 Dynamic Operational Characteristics of a Collector
71 The Incident Angle Coefficient
72 The Thermal Capacity of the Collector C
73 The Heat Removal Factor FR
8 The Thermal Characteristics of a Collector
81 Determination of the Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL
82 Determination of Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL for in Series Interconnection
83 Equivalent Thermal Loss between Tubes and Collector
84 The Influence of Wind Velocity
9 Shading of the Collectors
10 Basic Calculation Methods
101 Cover Reflectance
102 Cover Transmittance
103 The Transmittance-Absorptance Product
104 Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
105 Multi-Cover Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
11 The Heat Transfer Loss Coefficients
111 Loss Coefficient Uc
112 Loss Coefficient Ub
113 Loss Coefficient Us
114 The Collector Efficiency Factor Fprime 115 Collector flow factor FPrime Large Active Solar Systems Load 220
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and other Energy Systems National Centre for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Estimation of Thermal Load
21 Estimation of the Required Heat Qload
22 Estimation of the Required Heat for the Water Qw
23 Estimation of the Heat Loss in Distribution Pipes Qp
24 Estimation of Heat Loss in the Storage Tank Qt
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiii
Large Active Solar Systems Typical Economic Analysis 225
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Cost of a Solar Hot Water System
21 Initial Capital Cost
22 Operational Costs
221 Cost of Fuel
222 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
223 Cost of Maintenance
224 Cost for Loans
225 Costs for Insurance
226 Miscellaneous Expenses
3 Cost of Conventional Hot Water System
31 Operational Costs
311 Cost of Fuel
312 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
313 Cost of Maintenance
4 Inflation
5 Rate of Interest
6 Methods of Life Cycle Cost
61 General
62 Present and Future Costs
63 Yearly Instalment
64 Yearly Expenses
7 Methodology
8 Present Value Factor
9 Comparison Methodology
Integration of Solar Pond with Water Desalination 240
U Fisher J Weinberg and B Doron Ormat Industries Ltd Yavne Israel
1 Introduction
2 Historical Background
3 The Solar Pond
31 Structure
32 Heat Absorption and Storage
33 Main Demands when Building a Pond
331 Surface Area
332 Surface Water Make-up
333 Concentrated Brine Supply
34 How to Build a Solar Pond
341 Geometry or Shape
342 Lining
343 Construction Materials in the Pond
344 Initial Filling and Build-up of Gradient
35 How to Control
36 Heat Losses (Ground Diffusion Evaporation)
361 Top Losses
362 Bottom Heat Losses
37 Disturbances
371 Algae
372 Corrosion
373 Wind
38 Heat Extraction
39 Fuel Assisted Solar Ponds
310 Maintenance
3101 Clarity
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiv
3102 Cleaning of Wind Breakers
3103 Blow Down
3104 Make-up
3105 Leakages
311 Practical Size of a Single Pond
312 Investment in Solar Ponds
313 OampM Costs
4 Desalination Processes Coupled to the Solar Pond
41 Economic Aspects of Coupling Desalination Plants to Solar Ponds
411 Desalination Processes
412 The Choice and Proportion of Producing Heat and Power in the Solar Pond
4121 The Solar Pond Yield
4122 Desalination Plant Performance
4123 The Impact of Daily and Seasonal Fluctuations
4124 Economic Considerations and Evaluations
42 Experience with SP-Desalination Systems
43 Conclusions
Evacuated Tube Collectors 276
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Current Designs of Evacuated Tube Collectors
3 Thermal Analysis
4 Analysis of Flat Plate Evacuated Tube Collector
5 Analysis of Concentric-Tube Collector
6 Performance of Evacuated Tube Collectors
7 Case Study (Collector Field at the Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant)
71 Description of collector field
72 Performance of collector field
73 Economics
Parabolic Trough Collectors 299
Wolfgang Meinecke Deutsches Zentrum fuumlr Luft-und Raumfahrt eV (DLR German Aerospace Center)
Solar Energy Technology Division Koumlln Germany
1 Introduction
2 Brief History of Trough Development
3 State of the Art of Trough Applications
31 Conventional Thermal Water Desalination Applications
32 Solar Thermal Water Desalination Applications
33 Solar Electric Power Generation
34 Solar Process Heat Generation
35 Process Hot Water (Project Examples)
36 Process Steam (Project Examples)
37 Process Steam for Water Desalination (Project Examples)
38 Process Hot Air
4 Trough Technologies
41 LS 3 Trough Collector System
411 LS 3 Parabolic Reflector
412 Steel Support Structure
413 Absorber Element
414 Tracking System and Field Control System
415 Heat Transfer Fluid System
416 Steam Generator
417 Balance of Plant Technologies
418 Energy Storage System
42 IST Trough Collector System
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxv
421 IST Parabolic Reflector
422 Support Structure
423 Absorber Element
424 Tracking System and Field Control System
425 Heat Transfer Fluid System
426 Heat Exchanger
427 Balance of Plant Technology
428 Energy Storage
5 Prospects and Potential
51 Solar Electric Power Generation
52 Solar Process Heat Generation
53 Solar Thermal Water Desalination
6 Cost and Economic Aspects
61 Collector Investment Costs
611 LS 3 Collector Costs
612 IST Collector Costs
62 Other Economic Parameters
621 Fossil Fuel Prices
622 Solar Energy Yield
623 Solar Share
624 Plant Power Size
625 Capacity Factor
626 OampM Costs
627 Non-Technical Parameters
63 Costs of Solar Water Desalination
7 Conclusions
Index 363
About EOLSS 369
VOLUME V
Central Receivers 1
MM Elsayed Mechanical Engineering Department Kuwait University Safat Kuwait
1 Introduction
2 Heliostats Types and Design Shapes
3 Heliostat Angles
4 Heliostat Field Heliostat Layout
5 Heliostat Field Cosine Effect
6 Heliostat Field Preliminary Sizing of the Field
7 Heliostat Field Usefulness Efficiency
8 Reflected Solar Radiation
9 The Effective Sunshape
10 Principal Images and Relation between Receiver and Image Planes
11 Models to Predict the Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Image Plane
111 Incoming Ray Formulation
112 The Mirror Plane Formulation
113 Solar Disk Formulation
114 The Pinhole View
12 Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Receiver Surface Using the Separation of
VariableSuperposition Technique
121 Concept
122 Calculation of φ 123 Validation of Model Using Measurements
13 Receivers Types and Losses
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvi
14 Preliminary Sizing of the Receiver
15 Overall System Optimization
Configuration Theoretical Analysis and Performance of Simple Solar Stills 98
A Kumar Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources Solar Energy Center New Delhi India
1 Introduction
2 Configuration of Simple Solar Stills
21 Basic Principle
22 Classification
23 Single Basin Solar Stills
24 Inclined Solar Stills
241 Basin Type Solar Stills
242 Wick Type Solar Stills
25 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
26 Solar Earth Water Stills
27 Plastic Solar Stills
271 Life Raft Solar Still
272 Circular Solar Still
273 Extruded Plastic Solar Still
274 Concentric Tube Solar Still
28 A Typical Solar Distillation Plant
3 Theoretical Analysis of Simple Solar Stills
31 Heat and Mass Transfer in Solar Stills
311 Inside the Solar Still
312 Outside the Solar Still
32 Solar Radiation Balance
321 Transmission through Top Cover
322 Absorption in the Top Cover
33 Energy Balance Equations
34 Solution Procedure
4 Performance of Solar Stills
41 Single Basin Solar Stills
42 Inclined Solar Stills
43 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
44 Solar Earth Water Stills
45 Plastic Solar Stills
46 Case Studies
461 Australia
462 Greek Islands
463 India
47 Suggested Practices for Installing Solar Stills
Development in Simple Solar Stills 169
Hassan ES Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Modified Simple (Passive) Stills
21 Basin Still
211 Single Slope versus Double Slope Basin Stills
212 Basin Still with Cover Cooling
213 Basin Still with Treated Cover Surface
214 Basin Still with Additional Condenser
215 Basin Still with Black DyeMuddy Water
22 Wick Stills
221 Single-wick Stills
222 Multi-wick Stills
223 Wick versus Basin Stills
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvii
224 Combined Wick-Basin Stills
23 Other Stills Configurations
231 Vertical Microporous Evaporator Still
232 Cascade Solar Still
233 Still Integrated with Greenhouse
3 Externally Heated (Active) Solar Stills
31 Introduction
32 Stills Coupled to a Solar Collector
321 Direct and Indirect Heating
322 Use of Dye and Cover Cooling
323 Other Solar Heaters
33 Stills Coupled with Solar Concentrator
34 The Use of Waste Heat in Solar Stills
4 Other Types of Solar Distillation Systems
41 Water Recovery from Air
Multi-Effect Solar Stills 197
HES Fath Al-Jubail 31951 Saudi Arabia
1 Why Multi Effect
2 Double Effect Basin Stills
21 Double Basins Stills
22 Double Effect Tilted Stills
23 Purging Vapor to a Second Effect
3 Multi-Effect Multi-Wick Stills
4 Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
41 Introduction
42 Mass Diffusion
43 Comparison between Diffusion and Basin Stills
44 Description of Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
45 Analysis and Performance Considerations
5 Other Distillation Systems
51 Stacked Tray Stills
52 Multi-Effect Humidification-Dehumidification
Materials for Construction of Solar Stills 218
TA Lawand and J Ayoub Brace Research Institute Canada
1 Introduction
2 General Specifications of Solar Stills
3 Transparent Cover
4 Basin Liner
5 Solar Still Frame
6 Sealants
7 Insulation
8 Auxiliaries - Piping Pumping and Reservoirs
Reverse Osmosis by Solar Energy 225
W Bucher DLR German Aerospace Research Establishment Cologne Germany
1 Introduction
2 Basic Parameters and Energy Demand for Osmosis
21 Physical Properties of Hyperfiltration
22 Energy required for the RO Process
3 Solar Power Conversion Systems
31 Solar Conversion Principles
32 Technical Data of Solar Energy Conversion Methods
33 RO Plant Operation Utilizing Variable Energy Sources
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxviii
4 Reverse Osmosis System Configuration and Operation Aspects
41 Process Design of RO Desalination Systems
42 Procedural Steps and Data for Water Treatment and Energy Consumption
43 Components of RO -Desalination
431 Membranes and Modules
432 High Pressure Pumps
433 Pressure Regulating Devices
5 Solar Powered Desalination Units
51 Specific Figures or RO Systems
52 Solar Power Concepts for RO Desalination
53 Operational Experience with Solar driven RO Systems
6 Costs
61 Specific Cost Figures for the Plant Components
62 Water Delivery Cost
Availability of Solar Radiation and Its Estimation 265
VG Belessiotis Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems National Center for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun and the Radiation Emitted
21 The Physics of the Sun
22 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
3 The Extraterrestrial Radiation
31 What is the Solar Constant
32 Variations of the Extraterrestrial Radiation
33 The Black-body Emittance and Absorptance
34 Blackbody Absorbers - Application to Desalination
4 The Co-ordinate Systems The Basic Solar Angles
41 The Earth-Sun Relationships
42 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Sky
43 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Celestial Sphere
44 Earth-Sun Geometric Relationship
45 Time and its Units - Day Length
46 Terrestrial Solar Radiation
461 Estimation of Radiation Availability
462 Average Radiation Values - Clearness Index
463 Clear Sky Radiation
464 Sky Radiation
47 Atmospheric Factors Affecting Radiation
5 Computation of Insolation at the Earths Surface
51 Insolation Data
52 Measurement of Solar Radiation
53 Models for Solar Radiation
54 Where the Models Apply
55 Tilted Surfaces - Absorptance of Solar Radiation
551 Fixed Tilted Surfaces
552 Tracking Surfaces
6 Applications of Solar Radiation
7 Impact of Solar Energy to the Environment
Economics of Small Solar-Assisted Multiple-Effect Seawater Distillation Plants 296
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Configurations
3 Design and Sizing Considerations
31 Thermal Energy Requirement
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxix
32 Pumping Requirements
33 Collector Performance
34 Sizing Thermal Collector Area
35 Sizing the PV System
351 Sizing the PV Array
4 Economic Ground Rules and Water Cost Optimization
41 Capital Equipment Cost
42 Operating Costs
43 Optimum Cost of Water for each Plant Configuration
5 Results
6 Conclusion
A Solar-Assisted Sea Water Multiple Effect Distillation Plant 15 Years of Operating
Performance (1985-1999) 316
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Basic Design Concept
21 General Plant Description
22 Design Specifications
23 Evaporator Heat Transfer Coefficient
24 Tube Dimensions Heat Transfer Areas and Materials
3 Performance during Commissioning Tests
31 The MES Evaporator
32 The Solar Collector Field
33 The Heat Accumulator
34 Total Plant Performance
4 Performance History
41 The MES Evaporator
42 The Solar Collector Field
43 The Heat Accumulator
431 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
4311 The heat balance method
4312 The direct temperature measurement method
4313 Thermal stratification ratio
44 Total Plant Performance
5 Major Maintenance Activities
51 Equipment Failure and Replacement
52 Acid Cleanings and Silt Removal from Evaporator
6 Evaluation of Water Cost
61 Capital Costs
62 Operation and Maintenance Costs
7 Conclusions
Mathematical Simulation of a Solar Desalination Plant 341
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Description
3 System Operating Conditions
31 Solar Heat Collecting Subsystem
32 Evaporator Subsystem
4 Mathematical Modeling of System Components
41 Solar radiation model
42 Ambient temperature model
43 Solar collector subsystem
431 Effect of shade on solar radiation
432 Effect of dust on transmissivity of glass tubes
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxx
433 Control of heat collecting operation
434 Heat collection by solar collectors
435 Heat loss from piping
4351 Piping specifications
4352 Standard pipe lengths
4353 Heat loss from piping during operation of heat collecting pump
4354 Heat loss from piping while the heat collecting pump is shutdown
4355 Correction of piping heat loss
44 Heat accumulator subsystem
441 Temperature distribution
442 MES evaporator subsystem
5 The Simulation Program
51 Program structure
52 Input and output data
6 Results
7 Conclusions
Index 379
About EOLSS 385
VOLUME VI
Modeling and Design of Solar Energy Systems Including Solar Economics 1
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 F-Chart Method
11 Performance and Design of Liquid-Based Solar Heating Systems
111 Storage Capacity Correction
112 Collector Flow Rate Correction
113 Load Heat Exchanger Size Correction
12 Performance and Design of Air-Based Solar Heating Systems
121 Pebble Bed Storage Size Correction
122 Air Flow Rate Correction
13 Performance and Design of Solar Service Water Systems
14 Thermosiphon Solar Water Heating Systems
15 General Remarks
2 Modeling and Simulation of Solar Energy Systems
21 Simple System Models
211 Pipe Losses
22 F-Chart Program
23 Trnsys Simulation Program
24 Limitations of Simulations
3 Solar Economic Analysis
31 Life Cycle Costing
32 Life Cycle Analysis Method
33 Payback Time
331 Not Discounted Fuel Savings
332 Discounted Fuel Savings
34 Alternative Method
341 System Optimization Using Economic Analysis
35 Uncertainties in Economic Analysis
Solar Energy Power Generation and Desalination Systems 47
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 Global Energy Problems and the Role of Renewables
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxi
11 Energy demand
12 Energy environmental problems and sustainable development
13 Water demand and consumption
14 Water and energy
15 Desalination and energy
16 Renewable energy technologies
2 Solar Collectors
21 Parabolic trough collectors
22 Fresnel collectors
23 Parabolic dish reflector
24 Heliostat field collector
3 Power Generation and Industrial Process Heat Systems
31 Parabolic trough collector systems
32 Power tower systems
33 Dish systems
34 Solar ponds
341 Heat extraction and applications
35 Industrial process heat systems
36 Solar industrial steam generation systems
4 Desalination Processes
41 Direct collection systems
42 Indirect collection systems
421 The multi-stage flash process
422 The multiple-effect distillation process
423 The vapor-compression process
424 Reverse osmosis
425 Electrodialysis
Solar Updraft Power Plant Technology Basic Concepts and Structural Design 94
Francesca Lupi University of Florence Florence Italy
Claudio Borri University of Florence Florence Italy
Wilfried B Kraumltzig Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
Hans-Juumlrgen Niemann Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
1 Solar Updraft Power Technology Introduction and Working Principles
2 History of the Solar Updraft Power Technology
21 Solar Tower Prototype in Manzanares (Spain)
3 Evaluation of Plant Efficiency
31 The Collector
32 The Chimney
33 The Turbines
34 Electric Power Generated by Supps
4 The Collector
5 Actions on Solar Updraft Towers
6 Wind Loading on Solar Updraft Towers
61 Wind Flow Structure in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer at High Altitudes
611 Boundary Layer Meteorology
612 The Ekman Spiral
613 Theoretical Considerations on the Mean Wind and Turbulence in the Ekman Layer
62 Modeling of the Wind Load on Solar Towers
621 Mean Wind Load
622 Response to Wind Turbulence
623 Fluctuating Wind Load
624 Equivalent Static Wind Pressures
625 Vortex Excitation
626 Other Effects The Effect of the Efflux
63 Wind Load on the Collector Roof
7 Structural Behavior of Solar Updraft Towers
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxii
71 Structural Elements of Solar Tower Shells
72 Some Typical Response Characteristics of Solar Tower Shells Vibration and Instability
Behavior
73 Non-Linear Tower Response
8 Structural Optimization of Solar Updraft Towers
81 The Role of the Stiffening Rings in the Structural Design of Solar Towers
82 Strategies of Optimization
9 Technology of Construction
Renewable Energy Potential in The Arab Region 162
Mohammed Mostafa El-Khayat General Manager of Planning New and Renewable Energy Authority
NREA Cairo Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Research Problem and Objectives
111 Research Problem
12 Research Objectives
2 Energy Demand
3 The Current Situation of Renewable Energy
31 Hydropower
32 Wind Energy
33 Solar Energy
34 Biomass and Geothermal Energy
4 Strategies
5 Institutional and Regulatory Framework
6 Main Policies and Incentives
7 RE Policies and Incentives Profiles
71 Algeria
72 Egypt
73 Jordan
74 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
75 Lebanon
76 Libya
77 Morocco
78 Palestine
79 Sudan
710 Syria
711 Tunisia
712 United Arab Emirates
713 Yemen
8 Financing Schemes and Investment Opportunities
9 Motivations and Barriers of Renewable Energy
10 Renewable Energy Initiatives
101 Arabian Initiatives
102 DESERTEC
11 Potential of Renewable Energy in the Region
12 The proposed mechanisms to enhance and accelerate the rate of using RE applications
13 The situation of localizing RE technologies
14 RE and climate change in Arab countries
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
198
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiii
22 Humidifying with Cooling and Dehumidifying Processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in HD Desalination Process
25 Overview on Some Desalination HD Projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process Description
32 The Condenser in the SWGH
321 Different Condenser Layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the Condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of Condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot Plant
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH Project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot Plant
522 Performances of the Pilot Plant
53 The SWGH Project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot Plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Evolution of Photovoltaic Materials for Renewable Energy Development 262
Abdelilah Slaoui InESS ndash CNRS ndash University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
Jef Poortmans IMEC Leuven Belgium
Marko Topic University of Ljubljana Faculty of Elec Eng Ljubljana Slovenia
Gavin Conibeer ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence UNSW Sydney Australia
1 General Introduction
2 Photovoltaic Materials and Technologies State of the Art
21 Crystalline Silicon
22 Thin Films
221 Amorphous Silicon
222 Nanocrystalline and Microcrystalline Silicon
223 Polycrystalline Silicon
224 Copper Indium Selenide Its alloys and Related Chalcopyrites
225 Cadmium Telluride
226 Materials for Photochemical Solar Cells
227 Materials for Organic Solar Cells
3 Next Generation Solar Cells
31 Introduction
32 Multiple energy level approaches
33 Multiple Exciton Generation solar cells
34 Intermediate Band (IB) cells
35 Hot carrier cells
4 Conclusions and Perspectives
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiv
Wind and Solar Renewable Energy Potential Resources Estimation 302
Philippe Drobinski Institut Pierre Simon LaplaceLaboratoire de Meacuteteacuteorologie Dynamique CNRSEcole
Polytechnique Palaiseau France
1 Renewable Wind and Solar Energies The Context
11 An Economical and Environmental Necessity
12 Energy Definitions and Units
2 Basic Knowledge in Geophysics for Energy Resource Evaluation
21 Earth Energy Budget and Atmospheric Motion
22 Near Surface Wind
23 Impacts of Clouds and Aerosols on Surface Solar Radiation
3 Wind Energy Resource
31 Wind Energy A Brief History
32 Wind Energy Resources Evaluation
33 Wind Energy Installed Capacity in the World
4 Solar Energy Resources
41 Solar Energy An Introduction
42 Worldwide Solar Heat
5 Methods for Wind and Solar Energy Resources Forecast
Index 353
About EOLSS 361
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xx
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot plant
522 Performances of the SWGH
53 Case Study 3 The SWGH project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Wave Energy 81
B Soslashrensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Resources
2 Technology
3 Economic Aspects
4 Environmental Considerations
5 Prospects
Wind Energy 97
B Sorensen Roskilde University Denmark
1 Worldwide Distribution of Wind Energy Resources
11 Physical Potential Wind Maps
12 Practical Potential for Wind Turbines
13 Restrictions due to Competing Land Use
14 Off-Shore Potential
15 Methods for Determining Local Potential Atlas Technique
16 Overall Assessment of Potential
2 Wind Turbine Technology
21 Current Status and Prospects for the Future
22 Basic Theory Wind Turbine Types and Efficiencies
23 Prospects for Further Development
24 Current Penetration of Wind Power Utilization
25 National Plans and Future Prospects
26 Plant Lifetime and Reliability
27 Impacts on Requirements for Transmission and Back-Up
28 Energy Storage and Demand Management
3 Economic Social and Environmental Impacts of Wind Energy Utilization
31 Current Cost and Cost Trends
32 Employment Generation
33 Energy Balance
34 Noise
35 Aspects of Decentralized Energy Supply
36 Life-Cycle Estimate of Externalities Including Construction and Decommissioning Impacts
4 Evaluation of Greenhouse Warming Mitigation Potential of Wind Power
41 Assessment of Marginal Life-Cycle Impacts Including Greenhouse Warming
42 Elements of Non-Marginal Analysis of Energy Systems with Large Wind Power Share
43 Relationship between Demand Development and the Valuations of Wind Energy
44 Concluding Remarks
Availability of Wind Energy and Its Estimation 139
Richard Morris Richard Morris Associates Glasgow United Kingdom
1 The Sun as the Wind Driver
2 The Nature of Wind
3 Wind Power Statistics
4 Estimating Wind Power
5 Siting for Wind Energy
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxi
The Use of Geothermal Energy in Desalination 155
BW Tleimat Water Reuse Technology Alamo California USA
ADK Laird (deceased) Professor Emeritus and Director Emeritus Sea Water Conversion Laboratory
University of California Berkeley California USA
1 Introduction
2 Historical Perspective
3 Heat Transfer from Geothermal Reservoirs
4 Geothermal Energy Utilization
5 Electricity Generation
6 Water Production from Geothermal Sources
7 Idealized Liquid-dominated Reservoirs
8 Water and Power Generation Effects of Some System Parameters
9 Multiple-effect and Multistage Distillation Processes
10 Energy-budget Management
11 Processes for Decentralized Desalination
12 Water-budget Management
13 Solids-budget Management
Solar Photovoltaic Energy Conversion 181
G Schumm Zentrum fuer Sonnenenergie und Wasserstoff-Forschung Baden Wuerttemberg Stuttgart
Germany
1 The General Photovoltaic System
2 Non-Concentrating PV Systems
3 Tracking and Concentrating PV Systems
Flat-Plate Collectors 191
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Solar Collector Applications
3 Definitions
31 Solar Collectors
311 Solar Thermal Collector
312 Flat-Plate Collector
32 Construction Elements of a Solar Collector
321 Absorber Plate or Selective Surface
322 The Transparent Cover
323 The Collector Insulation
324 The Heat Transfer Medium
33 The Surface Areas
331 The Surface Area of the Absorber Plate
332 The Transparent Cover Surface
333 Total Surface Area
34 Operational Characteristics of the Collector
341 Collector efficiency (η)
342 Thermal Capacity of the Collector (C)
343 Pressure Drop (Δp)
344 Stagnant Conditions
345 Incidence Angle Coefficient (kθ)
35 The Characteristic Parameters of the Collector
351 The cover reflectance (ρc)
353 Cover Absorptance (αc)
352 Cover Transmittance (τc)
354 Coefficient of cover Emissivity (εc)
355 Coefficient of Absorber Emissivity
356 Selective Surface
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxii
357 Selective Coat
358 Collector Efficiency Factor (Fprime) 359 Collector Flow Factor (FPrime) 3510 Collector Heat Removal Factor (FR)
3511 Collector Heat Loss Coefficient (UL)
4 Main Collector Components
41 The Solar Radiation Absorber
42 The Transparent Cover
43 Thermal Insulation
44 The Casing of the Collector
45 The Supporting of the Collector
5 The Solar Absorbers
51 Types of Solar Absorbers
511 Absorbers of Common Paint
512 Selective coat Absorbers
52 Forms of Absorbers and Tubes
521 General considerations
522 Sandwich Type Absorber
523 Roll Bond Tube Absorber
524 Soldered Type Absorbers
525 Absorbers with Ω Type Fins
6 Characteristics of Flat-Plate Collectors
61 General considerations
62 Installation Configuration of a Collector System
63 Orientation and Slope of the Collector
7 Dynamic Operational Characteristics of a Collector
71 The Incident Angle Coefficient
72 The Thermal Capacity of the Collector C
73 The Heat Removal Factor FR
8 The Thermal Characteristics of a Collector
81 Determination of the Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL
82 Determination of Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL for in Series Interconnection
83 Equivalent Thermal Loss between Tubes and Collector
84 The Influence of Wind Velocity
9 Shading of the Collectors
10 Basic Calculation Methods
101 Cover Reflectance
102 Cover Transmittance
103 The Transmittance-Absorptance Product
104 Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
105 Multi-Cover Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
11 The Heat Transfer Loss Coefficients
111 Loss Coefficient Uc
112 Loss Coefficient Ub
113 Loss Coefficient Us
114 The Collector Efficiency Factor Fprime 115 Collector flow factor FPrime Large Active Solar Systems Load 220
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and other Energy Systems National Centre for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Estimation of Thermal Load
21 Estimation of the Required Heat Qload
22 Estimation of the Required Heat for the Water Qw
23 Estimation of the Heat Loss in Distribution Pipes Qp
24 Estimation of Heat Loss in the Storage Tank Qt
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiii
Large Active Solar Systems Typical Economic Analysis 225
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Cost of a Solar Hot Water System
21 Initial Capital Cost
22 Operational Costs
221 Cost of Fuel
222 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
223 Cost of Maintenance
224 Cost for Loans
225 Costs for Insurance
226 Miscellaneous Expenses
3 Cost of Conventional Hot Water System
31 Operational Costs
311 Cost of Fuel
312 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
313 Cost of Maintenance
4 Inflation
5 Rate of Interest
6 Methods of Life Cycle Cost
61 General
62 Present and Future Costs
63 Yearly Instalment
64 Yearly Expenses
7 Methodology
8 Present Value Factor
9 Comparison Methodology
Integration of Solar Pond with Water Desalination 240
U Fisher J Weinberg and B Doron Ormat Industries Ltd Yavne Israel
1 Introduction
2 Historical Background
3 The Solar Pond
31 Structure
32 Heat Absorption and Storage
33 Main Demands when Building a Pond
331 Surface Area
332 Surface Water Make-up
333 Concentrated Brine Supply
34 How to Build a Solar Pond
341 Geometry or Shape
342 Lining
343 Construction Materials in the Pond
344 Initial Filling and Build-up of Gradient
35 How to Control
36 Heat Losses (Ground Diffusion Evaporation)
361 Top Losses
362 Bottom Heat Losses
37 Disturbances
371 Algae
372 Corrosion
373 Wind
38 Heat Extraction
39 Fuel Assisted Solar Ponds
310 Maintenance
3101 Clarity
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiv
3102 Cleaning of Wind Breakers
3103 Blow Down
3104 Make-up
3105 Leakages
311 Practical Size of a Single Pond
312 Investment in Solar Ponds
313 OampM Costs
4 Desalination Processes Coupled to the Solar Pond
41 Economic Aspects of Coupling Desalination Plants to Solar Ponds
411 Desalination Processes
412 The Choice and Proportion of Producing Heat and Power in the Solar Pond
4121 The Solar Pond Yield
4122 Desalination Plant Performance
4123 The Impact of Daily and Seasonal Fluctuations
4124 Economic Considerations and Evaluations
42 Experience with SP-Desalination Systems
43 Conclusions
Evacuated Tube Collectors 276
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Current Designs of Evacuated Tube Collectors
3 Thermal Analysis
4 Analysis of Flat Plate Evacuated Tube Collector
5 Analysis of Concentric-Tube Collector
6 Performance of Evacuated Tube Collectors
7 Case Study (Collector Field at the Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant)
71 Description of collector field
72 Performance of collector field
73 Economics
Parabolic Trough Collectors 299
Wolfgang Meinecke Deutsches Zentrum fuumlr Luft-und Raumfahrt eV (DLR German Aerospace Center)
Solar Energy Technology Division Koumlln Germany
1 Introduction
2 Brief History of Trough Development
3 State of the Art of Trough Applications
31 Conventional Thermal Water Desalination Applications
32 Solar Thermal Water Desalination Applications
33 Solar Electric Power Generation
34 Solar Process Heat Generation
35 Process Hot Water (Project Examples)
36 Process Steam (Project Examples)
37 Process Steam for Water Desalination (Project Examples)
38 Process Hot Air
4 Trough Technologies
41 LS 3 Trough Collector System
411 LS 3 Parabolic Reflector
412 Steel Support Structure
413 Absorber Element
414 Tracking System and Field Control System
415 Heat Transfer Fluid System
416 Steam Generator
417 Balance of Plant Technologies
418 Energy Storage System
42 IST Trough Collector System
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxv
421 IST Parabolic Reflector
422 Support Structure
423 Absorber Element
424 Tracking System and Field Control System
425 Heat Transfer Fluid System
426 Heat Exchanger
427 Balance of Plant Technology
428 Energy Storage
5 Prospects and Potential
51 Solar Electric Power Generation
52 Solar Process Heat Generation
53 Solar Thermal Water Desalination
6 Cost and Economic Aspects
61 Collector Investment Costs
611 LS 3 Collector Costs
612 IST Collector Costs
62 Other Economic Parameters
621 Fossil Fuel Prices
622 Solar Energy Yield
623 Solar Share
624 Plant Power Size
625 Capacity Factor
626 OampM Costs
627 Non-Technical Parameters
63 Costs of Solar Water Desalination
7 Conclusions
Index 363
About EOLSS 369
VOLUME V
Central Receivers 1
MM Elsayed Mechanical Engineering Department Kuwait University Safat Kuwait
1 Introduction
2 Heliostats Types and Design Shapes
3 Heliostat Angles
4 Heliostat Field Heliostat Layout
5 Heliostat Field Cosine Effect
6 Heliostat Field Preliminary Sizing of the Field
7 Heliostat Field Usefulness Efficiency
8 Reflected Solar Radiation
9 The Effective Sunshape
10 Principal Images and Relation between Receiver and Image Planes
11 Models to Predict the Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Image Plane
111 Incoming Ray Formulation
112 The Mirror Plane Formulation
113 Solar Disk Formulation
114 The Pinhole View
12 Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Receiver Surface Using the Separation of
VariableSuperposition Technique
121 Concept
122 Calculation of φ 123 Validation of Model Using Measurements
13 Receivers Types and Losses
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvi
14 Preliminary Sizing of the Receiver
15 Overall System Optimization
Configuration Theoretical Analysis and Performance of Simple Solar Stills 98
A Kumar Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources Solar Energy Center New Delhi India
1 Introduction
2 Configuration of Simple Solar Stills
21 Basic Principle
22 Classification
23 Single Basin Solar Stills
24 Inclined Solar Stills
241 Basin Type Solar Stills
242 Wick Type Solar Stills
25 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
26 Solar Earth Water Stills
27 Plastic Solar Stills
271 Life Raft Solar Still
272 Circular Solar Still
273 Extruded Plastic Solar Still
274 Concentric Tube Solar Still
28 A Typical Solar Distillation Plant
3 Theoretical Analysis of Simple Solar Stills
31 Heat and Mass Transfer in Solar Stills
311 Inside the Solar Still
312 Outside the Solar Still
32 Solar Radiation Balance
321 Transmission through Top Cover
322 Absorption in the Top Cover
33 Energy Balance Equations
34 Solution Procedure
4 Performance of Solar Stills
41 Single Basin Solar Stills
42 Inclined Solar Stills
43 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
44 Solar Earth Water Stills
45 Plastic Solar Stills
46 Case Studies
461 Australia
462 Greek Islands
463 India
47 Suggested Practices for Installing Solar Stills
Development in Simple Solar Stills 169
Hassan ES Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Modified Simple (Passive) Stills
21 Basin Still
211 Single Slope versus Double Slope Basin Stills
212 Basin Still with Cover Cooling
213 Basin Still with Treated Cover Surface
214 Basin Still with Additional Condenser
215 Basin Still with Black DyeMuddy Water
22 Wick Stills
221 Single-wick Stills
222 Multi-wick Stills
223 Wick versus Basin Stills
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvii
224 Combined Wick-Basin Stills
23 Other Stills Configurations
231 Vertical Microporous Evaporator Still
232 Cascade Solar Still
233 Still Integrated with Greenhouse
3 Externally Heated (Active) Solar Stills
31 Introduction
32 Stills Coupled to a Solar Collector
321 Direct and Indirect Heating
322 Use of Dye and Cover Cooling
323 Other Solar Heaters
33 Stills Coupled with Solar Concentrator
34 The Use of Waste Heat in Solar Stills
4 Other Types of Solar Distillation Systems
41 Water Recovery from Air
Multi-Effect Solar Stills 197
HES Fath Al-Jubail 31951 Saudi Arabia
1 Why Multi Effect
2 Double Effect Basin Stills
21 Double Basins Stills
22 Double Effect Tilted Stills
23 Purging Vapor to a Second Effect
3 Multi-Effect Multi-Wick Stills
4 Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
41 Introduction
42 Mass Diffusion
43 Comparison between Diffusion and Basin Stills
44 Description of Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
45 Analysis and Performance Considerations
5 Other Distillation Systems
51 Stacked Tray Stills
52 Multi-Effect Humidification-Dehumidification
Materials for Construction of Solar Stills 218
TA Lawand and J Ayoub Brace Research Institute Canada
1 Introduction
2 General Specifications of Solar Stills
3 Transparent Cover
4 Basin Liner
5 Solar Still Frame
6 Sealants
7 Insulation
8 Auxiliaries - Piping Pumping and Reservoirs
Reverse Osmosis by Solar Energy 225
W Bucher DLR German Aerospace Research Establishment Cologne Germany
1 Introduction
2 Basic Parameters and Energy Demand for Osmosis
21 Physical Properties of Hyperfiltration
22 Energy required for the RO Process
3 Solar Power Conversion Systems
31 Solar Conversion Principles
32 Technical Data of Solar Energy Conversion Methods
33 RO Plant Operation Utilizing Variable Energy Sources
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxviii
4 Reverse Osmosis System Configuration and Operation Aspects
41 Process Design of RO Desalination Systems
42 Procedural Steps and Data for Water Treatment and Energy Consumption
43 Components of RO -Desalination
431 Membranes and Modules
432 High Pressure Pumps
433 Pressure Regulating Devices
5 Solar Powered Desalination Units
51 Specific Figures or RO Systems
52 Solar Power Concepts for RO Desalination
53 Operational Experience with Solar driven RO Systems
6 Costs
61 Specific Cost Figures for the Plant Components
62 Water Delivery Cost
Availability of Solar Radiation and Its Estimation 265
VG Belessiotis Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems National Center for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun and the Radiation Emitted
21 The Physics of the Sun
22 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
3 The Extraterrestrial Radiation
31 What is the Solar Constant
32 Variations of the Extraterrestrial Radiation
33 The Black-body Emittance and Absorptance
34 Blackbody Absorbers - Application to Desalination
4 The Co-ordinate Systems The Basic Solar Angles
41 The Earth-Sun Relationships
42 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Sky
43 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Celestial Sphere
44 Earth-Sun Geometric Relationship
45 Time and its Units - Day Length
46 Terrestrial Solar Radiation
461 Estimation of Radiation Availability
462 Average Radiation Values - Clearness Index
463 Clear Sky Radiation
464 Sky Radiation
47 Atmospheric Factors Affecting Radiation
5 Computation of Insolation at the Earths Surface
51 Insolation Data
52 Measurement of Solar Radiation
53 Models for Solar Radiation
54 Where the Models Apply
55 Tilted Surfaces - Absorptance of Solar Radiation
551 Fixed Tilted Surfaces
552 Tracking Surfaces
6 Applications of Solar Radiation
7 Impact of Solar Energy to the Environment
Economics of Small Solar-Assisted Multiple-Effect Seawater Distillation Plants 296
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Configurations
3 Design and Sizing Considerations
31 Thermal Energy Requirement
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxix
32 Pumping Requirements
33 Collector Performance
34 Sizing Thermal Collector Area
35 Sizing the PV System
351 Sizing the PV Array
4 Economic Ground Rules and Water Cost Optimization
41 Capital Equipment Cost
42 Operating Costs
43 Optimum Cost of Water for each Plant Configuration
5 Results
6 Conclusion
A Solar-Assisted Sea Water Multiple Effect Distillation Plant 15 Years of Operating
Performance (1985-1999) 316
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Basic Design Concept
21 General Plant Description
22 Design Specifications
23 Evaporator Heat Transfer Coefficient
24 Tube Dimensions Heat Transfer Areas and Materials
3 Performance during Commissioning Tests
31 The MES Evaporator
32 The Solar Collector Field
33 The Heat Accumulator
34 Total Plant Performance
4 Performance History
41 The MES Evaporator
42 The Solar Collector Field
43 The Heat Accumulator
431 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
4311 The heat balance method
4312 The direct temperature measurement method
4313 Thermal stratification ratio
44 Total Plant Performance
5 Major Maintenance Activities
51 Equipment Failure and Replacement
52 Acid Cleanings and Silt Removal from Evaporator
6 Evaluation of Water Cost
61 Capital Costs
62 Operation and Maintenance Costs
7 Conclusions
Mathematical Simulation of a Solar Desalination Plant 341
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Description
3 System Operating Conditions
31 Solar Heat Collecting Subsystem
32 Evaporator Subsystem
4 Mathematical Modeling of System Components
41 Solar radiation model
42 Ambient temperature model
43 Solar collector subsystem
431 Effect of shade on solar radiation
432 Effect of dust on transmissivity of glass tubes
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxx
433 Control of heat collecting operation
434 Heat collection by solar collectors
435 Heat loss from piping
4351 Piping specifications
4352 Standard pipe lengths
4353 Heat loss from piping during operation of heat collecting pump
4354 Heat loss from piping while the heat collecting pump is shutdown
4355 Correction of piping heat loss
44 Heat accumulator subsystem
441 Temperature distribution
442 MES evaporator subsystem
5 The Simulation Program
51 Program structure
52 Input and output data
6 Results
7 Conclusions
Index 379
About EOLSS 385
VOLUME VI
Modeling and Design of Solar Energy Systems Including Solar Economics 1
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 F-Chart Method
11 Performance and Design of Liquid-Based Solar Heating Systems
111 Storage Capacity Correction
112 Collector Flow Rate Correction
113 Load Heat Exchanger Size Correction
12 Performance and Design of Air-Based Solar Heating Systems
121 Pebble Bed Storage Size Correction
122 Air Flow Rate Correction
13 Performance and Design of Solar Service Water Systems
14 Thermosiphon Solar Water Heating Systems
15 General Remarks
2 Modeling and Simulation of Solar Energy Systems
21 Simple System Models
211 Pipe Losses
22 F-Chart Program
23 Trnsys Simulation Program
24 Limitations of Simulations
3 Solar Economic Analysis
31 Life Cycle Costing
32 Life Cycle Analysis Method
33 Payback Time
331 Not Discounted Fuel Savings
332 Discounted Fuel Savings
34 Alternative Method
341 System Optimization Using Economic Analysis
35 Uncertainties in Economic Analysis
Solar Energy Power Generation and Desalination Systems 47
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 Global Energy Problems and the Role of Renewables
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxi
11 Energy demand
12 Energy environmental problems and sustainable development
13 Water demand and consumption
14 Water and energy
15 Desalination and energy
16 Renewable energy technologies
2 Solar Collectors
21 Parabolic trough collectors
22 Fresnel collectors
23 Parabolic dish reflector
24 Heliostat field collector
3 Power Generation and Industrial Process Heat Systems
31 Parabolic trough collector systems
32 Power tower systems
33 Dish systems
34 Solar ponds
341 Heat extraction and applications
35 Industrial process heat systems
36 Solar industrial steam generation systems
4 Desalination Processes
41 Direct collection systems
42 Indirect collection systems
421 The multi-stage flash process
422 The multiple-effect distillation process
423 The vapor-compression process
424 Reverse osmosis
425 Electrodialysis
Solar Updraft Power Plant Technology Basic Concepts and Structural Design 94
Francesca Lupi University of Florence Florence Italy
Claudio Borri University of Florence Florence Italy
Wilfried B Kraumltzig Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
Hans-Juumlrgen Niemann Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
1 Solar Updraft Power Technology Introduction and Working Principles
2 History of the Solar Updraft Power Technology
21 Solar Tower Prototype in Manzanares (Spain)
3 Evaluation of Plant Efficiency
31 The Collector
32 The Chimney
33 The Turbines
34 Electric Power Generated by Supps
4 The Collector
5 Actions on Solar Updraft Towers
6 Wind Loading on Solar Updraft Towers
61 Wind Flow Structure in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer at High Altitudes
611 Boundary Layer Meteorology
612 The Ekman Spiral
613 Theoretical Considerations on the Mean Wind and Turbulence in the Ekman Layer
62 Modeling of the Wind Load on Solar Towers
621 Mean Wind Load
622 Response to Wind Turbulence
623 Fluctuating Wind Load
624 Equivalent Static Wind Pressures
625 Vortex Excitation
626 Other Effects The Effect of the Efflux
63 Wind Load on the Collector Roof
7 Structural Behavior of Solar Updraft Towers
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxii
71 Structural Elements of Solar Tower Shells
72 Some Typical Response Characteristics of Solar Tower Shells Vibration and Instability
Behavior
73 Non-Linear Tower Response
8 Structural Optimization of Solar Updraft Towers
81 The Role of the Stiffening Rings in the Structural Design of Solar Towers
82 Strategies of Optimization
9 Technology of Construction
Renewable Energy Potential in The Arab Region 162
Mohammed Mostafa El-Khayat General Manager of Planning New and Renewable Energy Authority
NREA Cairo Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Research Problem and Objectives
111 Research Problem
12 Research Objectives
2 Energy Demand
3 The Current Situation of Renewable Energy
31 Hydropower
32 Wind Energy
33 Solar Energy
34 Biomass and Geothermal Energy
4 Strategies
5 Institutional and Regulatory Framework
6 Main Policies and Incentives
7 RE Policies and Incentives Profiles
71 Algeria
72 Egypt
73 Jordan
74 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
75 Lebanon
76 Libya
77 Morocco
78 Palestine
79 Sudan
710 Syria
711 Tunisia
712 United Arab Emirates
713 Yemen
8 Financing Schemes and Investment Opportunities
9 Motivations and Barriers of Renewable Energy
10 Renewable Energy Initiatives
101 Arabian Initiatives
102 DESERTEC
11 Potential of Renewable Energy in the Region
12 The proposed mechanisms to enhance and accelerate the rate of using RE applications
13 The situation of localizing RE technologies
14 RE and climate change in Arab countries
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
198
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiii
22 Humidifying with Cooling and Dehumidifying Processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in HD Desalination Process
25 Overview on Some Desalination HD Projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process Description
32 The Condenser in the SWGH
321 Different Condenser Layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the Condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of Condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot Plant
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH Project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot Plant
522 Performances of the Pilot Plant
53 The SWGH Project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot Plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Evolution of Photovoltaic Materials for Renewable Energy Development 262
Abdelilah Slaoui InESS ndash CNRS ndash University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
Jef Poortmans IMEC Leuven Belgium
Marko Topic University of Ljubljana Faculty of Elec Eng Ljubljana Slovenia
Gavin Conibeer ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence UNSW Sydney Australia
1 General Introduction
2 Photovoltaic Materials and Technologies State of the Art
21 Crystalline Silicon
22 Thin Films
221 Amorphous Silicon
222 Nanocrystalline and Microcrystalline Silicon
223 Polycrystalline Silicon
224 Copper Indium Selenide Its alloys and Related Chalcopyrites
225 Cadmium Telluride
226 Materials for Photochemical Solar Cells
227 Materials for Organic Solar Cells
3 Next Generation Solar Cells
31 Introduction
32 Multiple energy level approaches
33 Multiple Exciton Generation solar cells
34 Intermediate Band (IB) cells
35 Hot carrier cells
4 Conclusions and Perspectives
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiv
Wind and Solar Renewable Energy Potential Resources Estimation 302
Philippe Drobinski Institut Pierre Simon LaplaceLaboratoire de Meacuteteacuteorologie Dynamique CNRSEcole
Polytechnique Palaiseau France
1 Renewable Wind and Solar Energies The Context
11 An Economical and Environmental Necessity
12 Energy Definitions and Units
2 Basic Knowledge in Geophysics for Energy Resource Evaluation
21 Earth Energy Budget and Atmospheric Motion
22 Near Surface Wind
23 Impacts of Clouds and Aerosols on Surface Solar Radiation
3 Wind Energy Resource
31 Wind Energy A Brief History
32 Wind Energy Resources Evaluation
33 Wind Energy Installed Capacity in the World
4 Solar Energy Resources
41 Solar Energy An Introduction
42 Worldwide Solar Heat
5 Methods for Wind and Solar Energy Resources Forecast
Index 353
About EOLSS 361
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxi
The Use of Geothermal Energy in Desalination 155
BW Tleimat Water Reuse Technology Alamo California USA
ADK Laird (deceased) Professor Emeritus and Director Emeritus Sea Water Conversion Laboratory
University of California Berkeley California USA
1 Introduction
2 Historical Perspective
3 Heat Transfer from Geothermal Reservoirs
4 Geothermal Energy Utilization
5 Electricity Generation
6 Water Production from Geothermal Sources
7 Idealized Liquid-dominated Reservoirs
8 Water and Power Generation Effects of Some System Parameters
9 Multiple-effect and Multistage Distillation Processes
10 Energy-budget Management
11 Processes for Decentralized Desalination
12 Water-budget Management
13 Solids-budget Management
Solar Photovoltaic Energy Conversion 181
G Schumm Zentrum fuer Sonnenenergie und Wasserstoff-Forschung Baden Wuerttemberg Stuttgart
Germany
1 The General Photovoltaic System
2 Non-Concentrating PV Systems
3 Tracking and Concentrating PV Systems
Flat-Plate Collectors 191
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Solar Collector Applications
3 Definitions
31 Solar Collectors
311 Solar Thermal Collector
312 Flat-Plate Collector
32 Construction Elements of a Solar Collector
321 Absorber Plate or Selective Surface
322 The Transparent Cover
323 The Collector Insulation
324 The Heat Transfer Medium
33 The Surface Areas
331 The Surface Area of the Absorber Plate
332 The Transparent Cover Surface
333 Total Surface Area
34 Operational Characteristics of the Collector
341 Collector efficiency (η)
342 Thermal Capacity of the Collector (C)
343 Pressure Drop (Δp)
344 Stagnant Conditions
345 Incidence Angle Coefficient (kθ)
35 The Characteristic Parameters of the Collector
351 The cover reflectance (ρc)
353 Cover Absorptance (αc)
352 Cover Transmittance (τc)
354 Coefficient of cover Emissivity (εc)
355 Coefficient of Absorber Emissivity
356 Selective Surface
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxii
357 Selective Coat
358 Collector Efficiency Factor (Fprime) 359 Collector Flow Factor (FPrime) 3510 Collector Heat Removal Factor (FR)
3511 Collector Heat Loss Coefficient (UL)
4 Main Collector Components
41 The Solar Radiation Absorber
42 The Transparent Cover
43 Thermal Insulation
44 The Casing of the Collector
45 The Supporting of the Collector
5 The Solar Absorbers
51 Types of Solar Absorbers
511 Absorbers of Common Paint
512 Selective coat Absorbers
52 Forms of Absorbers and Tubes
521 General considerations
522 Sandwich Type Absorber
523 Roll Bond Tube Absorber
524 Soldered Type Absorbers
525 Absorbers with Ω Type Fins
6 Characteristics of Flat-Plate Collectors
61 General considerations
62 Installation Configuration of a Collector System
63 Orientation and Slope of the Collector
7 Dynamic Operational Characteristics of a Collector
71 The Incident Angle Coefficient
72 The Thermal Capacity of the Collector C
73 The Heat Removal Factor FR
8 The Thermal Characteristics of a Collector
81 Determination of the Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL
82 Determination of Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL for in Series Interconnection
83 Equivalent Thermal Loss between Tubes and Collector
84 The Influence of Wind Velocity
9 Shading of the Collectors
10 Basic Calculation Methods
101 Cover Reflectance
102 Cover Transmittance
103 The Transmittance-Absorptance Product
104 Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
105 Multi-Cover Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
11 The Heat Transfer Loss Coefficients
111 Loss Coefficient Uc
112 Loss Coefficient Ub
113 Loss Coefficient Us
114 The Collector Efficiency Factor Fprime 115 Collector flow factor FPrime Large Active Solar Systems Load 220
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and other Energy Systems National Centre for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Estimation of Thermal Load
21 Estimation of the Required Heat Qload
22 Estimation of the Required Heat for the Water Qw
23 Estimation of the Heat Loss in Distribution Pipes Qp
24 Estimation of Heat Loss in the Storage Tank Qt
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiii
Large Active Solar Systems Typical Economic Analysis 225
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Cost of a Solar Hot Water System
21 Initial Capital Cost
22 Operational Costs
221 Cost of Fuel
222 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
223 Cost of Maintenance
224 Cost for Loans
225 Costs for Insurance
226 Miscellaneous Expenses
3 Cost of Conventional Hot Water System
31 Operational Costs
311 Cost of Fuel
312 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
313 Cost of Maintenance
4 Inflation
5 Rate of Interest
6 Methods of Life Cycle Cost
61 General
62 Present and Future Costs
63 Yearly Instalment
64 Yearly Expenses
7 Methodology
8 Present Value Factor
9 Comparison Methodology
Integration of Solar Pond with Water Desalination 240
U Fisher J Weinberg and B Doron Ormat Industries Ltd Yavne Israel
1 Introduction
2 Historical Background
3 The Solar Pond
31 Structure
32 Heat Absorption and Storage
33 Main Demands when Building a Pond
331 Surface Area
332 Surface Water Make-up
333 Concentrated Brine Supply
34 How to Build a Solar Pond
341 Geometry or Shape
342 Lining
343 Construction Materials in the Pond
344 Initial Filling and Build-up of Gradient
35 How to Control
36 Heat Losses (Ground Diffusion Evaporation)
361 Top Losses
362 Bottom Heat Losses
37 Disturbances
371 Algae
372 Corrosion
373 Wind
38 Heat Extraction
39 Fuel Assisted Solar Ponds
310 Maintenance
3101 Clarity
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiv
3102 Cleaning of Wind Breakers
3103 Blow Down
3104 Make-up
3105 Leakages
311 Practical Size of a Single Pond
312 Investment in Solar Ponds
313 OampM Costs
4 Desalination Processes Coupled to the Solar Pond
41 Economic Aspects of Coupling Desalination Plants to Solar Ponds
411 Desalination Processes
412 The Choice and Proportion of Producing Heat and Power in the Solar Pond
4121 The Solar Pond Yield
4122 Desalination Plant Performance
4123 The Impact of Daily and Seasonal Fluctuations
4124 Economic Considerations and Evaluations
42 Experience with SP-Desalination Systems
43 Conclusions
Evacuated Tube Collectors 276
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Current Designs of Evacuated Tube Collectors
3 Thermal Analysis
4 Analysis of Flat Plate Evacuated Tube Collector
5 Analysis of Concentric-Tube Collector
6 Performance of Evacuated Tube Collectors
7 Case Study (Collector Field at the Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant)
71 Description of collector field
72 Performance of collector field
73 Economics
Parabolic Trough Collectors 299
Wolfgang Meinecke Deutsches Zentrum fuumlr Luft-und Raumfahrt eV (DLR German Aerospace Center)
Solar Energy Technology Division Koumlln Germany
1 Introduction
2 Brief History of Trough Development
3 State of the Art of Trough Applications
31 Conventional Thermal Water Desalination Applications
32 Solar Thermal Water Desalination Applications
33 Solar Electric Power Generation
34 Solar Process Heat Generation
35 Process Hot Water (Project Examples)
36 Process Steam (Project Examples)
37 Process Steam for Water Desalination (Project Examples)
38 Process Hot Air
4 Trough Technologies
41 LS 3 Trough Collector System
411 LS 3 Parabolic Reflector
412 Steel Support Structure
413 Absorber Element
414 Tracking System and Field Control System
415 Heat Transfer Fluid System
416 Steam Generator
417 Balance of Plant Technologies
418 Energy Storage System
42 IST Trough Collector System
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxv
421 IST Parabolic Reflector
422 Support Structure
423 Absorber Element
424 Tracking System and Field Control System
425 Heat Transfer Fluid System
426 Heat Exchanger
427 Balance of Plant Technology
428 Energy Storage
5 Prospects and Potential
51 Solar Electric Power Generation
52 Solar Process Heat Generation
53 Solar Thermal Water Desalination
6 Cost and Economic Aspects
61 Collector Investment Costs
611 LS 3 Collector Costs
612 IST Collector Costs
62 Other Economic Parameters
621 Fossil Fuel Prices
622 Solar Energy Yield
623 Solar Share
624 Plant Power Size
625 Capacity Factor
626 OampM Costs
627 Non-Technical Parameters
63 Costs of Solar Water Desalination
7 Conclusions
Index 363
About EOLSS 369
VOLUME V
Central Receivers 1
MM Elsayed Mechanical Engineering Department Kuwait University Safat Kuwait
1 Introduction
2 Heliostats Types and Design Shapes
3 Heliostat Angles
4 Heliostat Field Heliostat Layout
5 Heliostat Field Cosine Effect
6 Heliostat Field Preliminary Sizing of the Field
7 Heliostat Field Usefulness Efficiency
8 Reflected Solar Radiation
9 The Effective Sunshape
10 Principal Images and Relation between Receiver and Image Planes
11 Models to Predict the Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Image Plane
111 Incoming Ray Formulation
112 The Mirror Plane Formulation
113 Solar Disk Formulation
114 The Pinhole View
12 Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Receiver Surface Using the Separation of
VariableSuperposition Technique
121 Concept
122 Calculation of φ 123 Validation of Model Using Measurements
13 Receivers Types and Losses
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvi
14 Preliminary Sizing of the Receiver
15 Overall System Optimization
Configuration Theoretical Analysis and Performance of Simple Solar Stills 98
A Kumar Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources Solar Energy Center New Delhi India
1 Introduction
2 Configuration of Simple Solar Stills
21 Basic Principle
22 Classification
23 Single Basin Solar Stills
24 Inclined Solar Stills
241 Basin Type Solar Stills
242 Wick Type Solar Stills
25 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
26 Solar Earth Water Stills
27 Plastic Solar Stills
271 Life Raft Solar Still
272 Circular Solar Still
273 Extruded Plastic Solar Still
274 Concentric Tube Solar Still
28 A Typical Solar Distillation Plant
3 Theoretical Analysis of Simple Solar Stills
31 Heat and Mass Transfer in Solar Stills
311 Inside the Solar Still
312 Outside the Solar Still
32 Solar Radiation Balance
321 Transmission through Top Cover
322 Absorption in the Top Cover
33 Energy Balance Equations
34 Solution Procedure
4 Performance of Solar Stills
41 Single Basin Solar Stills
42 Inclined Solar Stills
43 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
44 Solar Earth Water Stills
45 Plastic Solar Stills
46 Case Studies
461 Australia
462 Greek Islands
463 India
47 Suggested Practices for Installing Solar Stills
Development in Simple Solar Stills 169
Hassan ES Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Modified Simple (Passive) Stills
21 Basin Still
211 Single Slope versus Double Slope Basin Stills
212 Basin Still with Cover Cooling
213 Basin Still with Treated Cover Surface
214 Basin Still with Additional Condenser
215 Basin Still with Black DyeMuddy Water
22 Wick Stills
221 Single-wick Stills
222 Multi-wick Stills
223 Wick versus Basin Stills
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvii
224 Combined Wick-Basin Stills
23 Other Stills Configurations
231 Vertical Microporous Evaporator Still
232 Cascade Solar Still
233 Still Integrated with Greenhouse
3 Externally Heated (Active) Solar Stills
31 Introduction
32 Stills Coupled to a Solar Collector
321 Direct and Indirect Heating
322 Use of Dye and Cover Cooling
323 Other Solar Heaters
33 Stills Coupled with Solar Concentrator
34 The Use of Waste Heat in Solar Stills
4 Other Types of Solar Distillation Systems
41 Water Recovery from Air
Multi-Effect Solar Stills 197
HES Fath Al-Jubail 31951 Saudi Arabia
1 Why Multi Effect
2 Double Effect Basin Stills
21 Double Basins Stills
22 Double Effect Tilted Stills
23 Purging Vapor to a Second Effect
3 Multi-Effect Multi-Wick Stills
4 Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
41 Introduction
42 Mass Diffusion
43 Comparison between Diffusion and Basin Stills
44 Description of Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
45 Analysis and Performance Considerations
5 Other Distillation Systems
51 Stacked Tray Stills
52 Multi-Effect Humidification-Dehumidification
Materials for Construction of Solar Stills 218
TA Lawand and J Ayoub Brace Research Institute Canada
1 Introduction
2 General Specifications of Solar Stills
3 Transparent Cover
4 Basin Liner
5 Solar Still Frame
6 Sealants
7 Insulation
8 Auxiliaries - Piping Pumping and Reservoirs
Reverse Osmosis by Solar Energy 225
W Bucher DLR German Aerospace Research Establishment Cologne Germany
1 Introduction
2 Basic Parameters and Energy Demand for Osmosis
21 Physical Properties of Hyperfiltration
22 Energy required for the RO Process
3 Solar Power Conversion Systems
31 Solar Conversion Principles
32 Technical Data of Solar Energy Conversion Methods
33 RO Plant Operation Utilizing Variable Energy Sources
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxviii
4 Reverse Osmosis System Configuration and Operation Aspects
41 Process Design of RO Desalination Systems
42 Procedural Steps and Data for Water Treatment and Energy Consumption
43 Components of RO -Desalination
431 Membranes and Modules
432 High Pressure Pumps
433 Pressure Regulating Devices
5 Solar Powered Desalination Units
51 Specific Figures or RO Systems
52 Solar Power Concepts for RO Desalination
53 Operational Experience with Solar driven RO Systems
6 Costs
61 Specific Cost Figures for the Plant Components
62 Water Delivery Cost
Availability of Solar Radiation and Its Estimation 265
VG Belessiotis Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems National Center for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun and the Radiation Emitted
21 The Physics of the Sun
22 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
3 The Extraterrestrial Radiation
31 What is the Solar Constant
32 Variations of the Extraterrestrial Radiation
33 The Black-body Emittance and Absorptance
34 Blackbody Absorbers - Application to Desalination
4 The Co-ordinate Systems The Basic Solar Angles
41 The Earth-Sun Relationships
42 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Sky
43 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Celestial Sphere
44 Earth-Sun Geometric Relationship
45 Time and its Units - Day Length
46 Terrestrial Solar Radiation
461 Estimation of Radiation Availability
462 Average Radiation Values - Clearness Index
463 Clear Sky Radiation
464 Sky Radiation
47 Atmospheric Factors Affecting Radiation
5 Computation of Insolation at the Earths Surface
51 Insolation Data
52 Measurement of Solar Radiation
53 Models for Solar Radiation
54 Where the Models Apply
55 Tilted Surfaces - Absorptance of Solar Radiation
551 Fixed Tilted Surfaces
552 Tracking Surfaces
6 Applications of Solar Radiation
7 Impact of Solar Energy to the Environment
Economics of Small Solar-Assisted Multiple-Effect Seawater Distillation Plants 296
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Configurations
3 Design and Sizing Considerations
31 Thermal Energy Requirement
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxix
32 Pumping Requirements
33 Collector Performance
34 Sizing Thermal Collector Area
35 Sizing the PV System
351 Sizing the PV Array
4 Economic Ground Rules and Water Cost Optimization
41 Capital Equipment Cost
42 Operating Costs
43 Optimum Cost of Water for each Plant Configuration
5 Results
6 Conclusion
A Solar-Assisted Sea Water Multiple Effect Distillation Plant 15 Years of Operating
Performance (1985-1999) 316
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Basic Design Concept
21 General Plant Description
22 Design Specifications
23 Evaporator Heat Transfer Coefficient
24 Tube Dimensions Heat Transfer Areas and Materials
3 Performance during Commissioning Tests
31 The MES Evaporator
32 The Solar Collector Field
33 The Heat Accumulator
34 Total Plant Performance
4 Performance History
41 The MES Evaporator
42 The Solar Collector Field
43 The Heat Accumulator
431 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
4311 The heat balance method
4312 The direct temperature measurement method
4313 Thermal stratification ratio
44 Total Plant Performance
5 Major Maintenance Activities
51 Equipment Failure and Replacement
52 Acid Cleanings and Silt Removal from Evaporator
6 Evaluation of Water Cost
61 Capital Costs
62 Operation and Maintenance Costs
7 Conclusions
Mathematical Simulation of a Solar Desalination Plant 341
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Description
3 System Operating Conditions
31 Solar Heat Collecting Subsystem
32 Evaporator Subsystem
4 Mathematical Modeling of System Components
41 Solar radiation model
42 Ambient temperature model
43 Solar collector subsystem
431 Effect of shade on solar radiation
432 Effect of dust on transmissivity of glass tubes
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxx
433 Control of heat collecting operation
434 Heat collection by solar collectors
435 Heat loss from piping
4351 Piping specifications
4352 Standard pipe lengths
4353 Heat loss from piping during operation of heat collecting pump
4354 Heat loss from piping while the heat collecting pump is shutdown
4355 Correction of piping heat loss
44 Heat accumulator subsystem
441 Temperature distribution
442 MES evaporator subsystem
5 The Simulation Program
51 Program structure
52 Input and output data
6 Results
7 Conclusions
Index 379
About EOLSS 385
VOLUME VI
Modeling and Design of Solar Energy Systems Including Solar Economics 1
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 F-Chart Method
11 Performance and Design of Liquid-Based Solar Heating Systems
111 Storage Capacity Correction
112 Collector Flow Rate Correction
113 Load Heat Exchanger Size Correction
12 Performance and Design of Air-Based Solar Heating Systems
121 Pebble Bed Storage Size Correction
122 Air Flow Rate Correction
13 Performance and Design of Solar Service Water Systems
14 Thermosiphon Solar Water Heating Systems
15 General Remarks
2 Modeling and Simulation of Solar Energy Systems
21 Simple System Models
211 Pipe Losses
22 F-Chart Program
23 Trnsys Simulation Program
24 Limitations of Simulations
3 Solar Economic Analysis
31 Life Cycle Costing
32 Life Cycle Analysis Method
33 Payback Time
331 Not Discounted Fuel Savings
332 Discounted Fuel Savings
34 Alternative Method
341 System Optimization Using Economic Analysis
35 Uncertainties in Economic Analysis
Solar Energy Power Generation and Desalination Systems 47
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 Global Energy Problems and the Role of Renewables
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxi
11 Energy demand
12 Energy environmental problems and sustainable development
13 Water demand and consumption
14 Water and energy
15 Desalination and energy
16 Renewable energy technologies
2 Solar Collectors
21 Parabolic trough collectors
22 Fresnel collectors
23 Parabolic dish reflector
24 Heliostat field collector
3 Power Generation and Industrial Process Heat Systems
31 Parabolic trough collector systems
32 Power tower systems
33 Dish systems
34 Solar ponds
341 Heat extraction and applications
35 Industrial process heat systems
36 Solar industrial steam generation systems
4 Desalination Processes
41 Direct collection systems
42 Indirect collection systems
421 The multi-stage flash process
422 The multiple-effect distillation process
423 The vapor-compression process
424 Reverse osmosis
425 Electrodialysis
Solar Updraft Power Plant Technology Basic Concepts and Structural Design 94
Francesca Lupi University of Florence Florence Italy
Claudio Borri University of Florence Florence Italy
Wilfried B Kraumltzig Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
Hans-Juumlrgen Niemann Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
1 Solar Updraft Power Technology Introduction and Working Principles
2 History of the Solar Updraft Power Technology
21 Solar Tower Prototype in Manzanares (Spain)
3 Evaluation of Plant Efficiency
31 The Collector
32 The Chimney
33 The Turbines
34 Electric Power Generated by Supps
4 The Collector
5 Actions on Solar Updraft Towers
6 Wind Loading on Solar Updraft Towers
61 Wind Flow Structure in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer at High Altitudes
611 Boundary Layer Meteorology
612 The Ekman Spiral
613 Theoretical Considerations on the Mean Wind and Turbulence in the Ekman Layer
62 Modeling of the Wind Load on Solar Towers
621 Mean Wind Load
622 Response to Wind Turbulence
623 Fluctuating Wind Load
624 Equivalent Static Wind Pressures
625 Vortex Excitation
626 Other Effects The Effect of the Efflux
63 Wind Load on the Collector Roof
7 Structural Behavior of Solar Updraft Towers
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxii
71 Structural Elements of Solar Tower Shells
72 Some Typical Response Characteristics of Solar Tower Shells Vibration and Instability
Behavior
73 Non-Linear Tower Response
8 Structural Optimization of Solar Updraft Towers
81 The Role of the Stiffening Rings in the Structural Design of Solar Towers
82 Strategies of Optimization
9 Technology of Construction
Renewable Energy Potential in The Arab Region 162
Mohammed Mostafa El-Khayat General Manager of Planning New and Renewable Energy Authority
NREA Cairo Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Research Problem and Objectives
111 Research Problem
12 Research Objectives
2 Energy Demand
3 The Current Situation of Renewable Energy
31 Hydropower
32 Wind Energy
33 Solar Energy
34 Biomass and Geothermal Energy
4 Strategies
5 Institutional and Regulatory Framework
6 Main Policies and Incentives
7 RE Policies and Incentives Profiles
71 Algeria
72 Egypt
73 Jordan
74 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
75 Lebanon
76 Libya
77 Morocco
78 Palestine
79 Sudan
710 Syria
711 Tunisia
712 United Arab Emirates
713 Yemen
8 Financing Schemes and Investment Opportunities
9 Motivations and Barriers of Renewable Energy
10 Renewable Energy Initiatives
101 Arabian Initiatives
102 DESERTEC
11 Potential of Renewable Energy in the Region
12 The proposed mechanisms to enhance and accelerate the rate of using RE applications
13 The situation of localizing RE technologies
14 RE and climate change in Arab countries
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
198
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiii
22 Humidifying with Cooling and Dehumidifying Processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in HD Desalination Process
25 Overview on Some Desalination HD Projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process Description
32 The Condenser in the SWGH
321 Different Condenser Layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the Condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of Condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot Plant
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH Project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot Plant
522 Performances of the Pilot Plant
53 The SWGH Project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot Plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Evolution of Photovoltaic Materials for Renewable Energy Development 262
Abdelilah Slaoui InESS ndash CNRS ndash University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
Jef Poortmans IMEC Leuven Belgium
Marko Topic University of Ljubljana Faculty of Elec Eng Ljubljana Slovenia
Gavin Conibeer ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence UNSW Sydney Australia
1 General Introduction
2 Photovoltaic Materials and Technologies State of the Art
21 Crystalline Silicon
22 Thin Films
221 Amorphous Silicon
222 Nanocrystalline and Microcrystalline Silicon
223 Polycrystalline Silicon
224 Copper Indium Selenide Its alloys and Related Chalcopyrites
225 Cadmium Telluride
226 Materials for Photochemical Solar Cells
227 Materials for Organic Solar Cells
3 Next Generation Solar Cells
31 Introduction
32 Multiple energy level approaches
33 Multiple Exciton Generation solar cells
34 Intermediate Band (IB) cells
35 Hot carrier cells
4 Conclusions and Perspectives
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiv
Wind and Solar Renewable Energy Potential Resources Estimation 302
Philippe Drobinski Institut Pierre Simon LaplaceLaboratoire de Meacuteteacuteorologie Dynamique CNRSEcole
Polytechnique Palaiseau France
1 Renewable Wind and Solar Energies The Context
11 An Economical and Environmental Necessity
12 Energy Definitions and Units
2 Basic Knowledge in Geophysics for Energy Resource Evaluation
21 Earth Energy Budget and Atmospheric Motion
22 Near Surface Wind
23 Impacts of Clouds and Aerosols on Surface Solar Radiation
3 Wind Energy Resource
31 Wind Energy A Brief History
32 Wind Energy Resources Evaluation
33 Wind Energy Installed Capacity in the World
4 Solar Energy Resources
41 Solar Energy An Introduction
42 Worldwide Solar Heat
5 Methods for Wind and Solar Energy Resources Forecast
Index 353
About EOLSS 361
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxii
357 Selective Coat
358 Collector Efficiency Factor (Fprime) 359 Collector Flow Factor (FPrime) 3510 Collector Heat Removal Factor (FR)
3511 Collector Heat Loss Coefficient (UL)
4 Main Collector Components
41 The Solar Radiation Absorber
42 The Transparent Cover
43 Thermal Insulation
44 The Casing of the Collector
45 The Supporting of the Collector
5 The Solar Absorbers
51 Types of Solar Absorbers
511 Absorbers of Common Paint
512 Selective coat Absorbers
52 Forms of Absorbers and Tubes
521 General considerations
522 Sandwich Type Absorber
523 Roll Bond Tube Absorber
524 Soldered Type Absorbers
525 Absorbers with Ω Type Fins
6 Characteristics of Flat-Plate Collectors
61 General considerations
62 Installation Configuration of a Collector System
63 Orientation and Slope of the Collector
7 Dynamic Operational Characteristics of a Collector
71 The Incident Angle Coefficient
72 The Thermal Capacity of the Collector C
73 The Heat Removal Factor FR
8 The Thermal Characteristics of a Collector
81 Determination of the Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL
82 Determination of Thermal Parameters FR(τα) and FRUL for in Series Interconnection
83 Equivalent Thermal Loss between Tubes and Collector
84 The Influence of Wind Velocity
9 Shading of the Collectors
10 Basic Calculation Methods
101 Cover Reflectance
102 Cover Transmittance
103 The Transmittance-Absorptance Product
104 Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
105 Multi-Cover Effective Transmittance-Absorptance Product
11 The Heat Transfer Loss Coefficients
111 Loss Coefficient Uc
112 Loss Coefficient Ub
113 Loss Coefficient Us
114 The Collector Efficiency Factor Fprime 115 Collector flow factor FPrime Large Active Solar Systems Load 220
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and other Energy Systems National Centre for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Estimation of Thermal Load
21 Estimation of the Required Heat Qload
22 Estimation of the Required Heat for the Water Qw
23 Estimation of the Heat Loss in Distribution Pipes Qp
24 Estimation of Heat Loss in the Storage Tank Qt
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiii
Large Active Solar Systems Typical Economic Analysis 225
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Cost of a Solar Hot Water System
21 Initial Capital Cost
22 Operational Costs
221 Cost of Fuel
222 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
223 Cost of Maintenance
224 Cost for Loans
225 Costs for Insurance
226 Miscellaneous Expenses
3 Cost of Conventional Hot Water System
31 Operational Costs
311 Cost of Fuel
312 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
313 Cost of Maintenance
4 Inflation
5 Rate of Interest
6 Methods of Life Cycle Cost
61 General
62 Present and Future Costs
63 Yearly Instalment
64 Yearly Expenses
7 Methodology
8 Present Value Factor
9 Comparison Methodology
Integration of Solar Pond with Water Desalination 240
U Fisher J Weinberg and B Doron Ormat Industries Ltd Yavne Israel
1 Introduction
2 Historical Background
3 The Solar Pond
31 Structure
32 Heat Absorption and Storage
33 Main Demands when Building a Pond
331 Surface Area
332 Surface Water Make-up
333 Concentrated Brine Supply
34 How to Build a Solar Pond
341 Geometry or Shape
342 Lining
343 Construction Materials in the Pond
344 Initial Filling and Build-up of Gradient
35 How to Control
36 Heat Losses (Ground Diffusion Evaporation)
361 Top Losses
362 Bottom Heat Losses
37 Disturbances
371 Algae
372 Corrosion
373 Wind
38 Heat Extraction
39 Fuel Assisted Solar Ponds
310 Maintenance
3101 Clarity
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiv
3102 Cleaning of Wind Breakers
3103 Blow Down
3104 Make-up
3105 Leakages
311 Practical Size of a Single Pond
312 Investment in Solar Ponds
313 OampM Costs
4 Desalination Processes Coupled to the Solar Pond
41 Economic Aspects of Coupling Desalination Plants to Solar Ponds
411 Desalination Processes
412 The Choice and Proportion of Producing Heat and Power in the Solar Pond
4121 The Solar Pond Yield
4122 Desalination Plant Performance
4123 The Impact of Daily and Seasonal Fluctuations
4124 Economic Considerations and Evaluations
42 Experience with SP-Desalination Systems
43 Conclusions
Evacuated Tube Collectors 276
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Current Designs of Evacuated Tube Collectors
3 Thermal Analysis
4 Analysis of Flat Plate Evacuated Tube Collector
5 Analysis of Concentric-Tube Collector
6 Performance of Evacuated Tube Collectors
7 Case Study (Collector Field at the Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant)
71 Description of collector field
72 Performance of collector field
73 Economics
Parabolic Trough Collectors 299
Wolfgang Meinecke Deutsches Zentrum fuumlr Luft-und Raumfahrt eV (DLR German Aerospace Center)
Solar Energy Technology Division Koumlln Germany
1 Introduction
2 Brief History of Trough Development
3 State of the Art of Trough Applications
31 Conventional Thermal Water Desalination Applications
32 Solar Thermal Water Desalination Applications
33 Solar Electric Power Generation
34 Solar Process Heat Generation
35 Process Hot Water (Project Examples)
36 Process Steam (Project Examples)
37 Process Steam for Water Desalination (Project Examples)
38 Process Hot Air
4 Trough Technologies
41 LS 3 Trough Collector System
411 LS 3 Parabolic Reflector
412 Steel Support Structure
413 Absorber Element
414 Tracking System and Field Control System
415 Heat Transfer Fluid System
416 Steam Generator
417 Balance of Plant Technologies
418 Energy Storage System
42 IST Trough Collector System
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxv
421 IST Parabolic Reflector
422 Support Structure
423 Absorber Element
424 Tracking System and Field Control System
425 Heat Transfer Fluid System
426 Heat Exchanger
427 Balance of Plant Technology
428 Energy Storage
5 Prospects and Potential
51 Solar Electric Power Generation
52 Solar Process Heat Generation
53 Solar Thermal Water Desalination
6 Cost and Economic Aspects
61 Collector Investment Costs
611 LS 3 Collector Costs
612 IST Collector Costs
62 Other Economic Parameters
621 Fossil Fuel Prices
622 Solar Energy Yield
623 Solar Share
624 Plant Power Size
625 Capacity Factor
626 OampM Costs
627 Non-Technical Parameters
63 Costs of Solar Water Desalination
7 Conclusions
Index 363
About EOLSS 369
VOLUME V
Central Receivers 1
MM Elsayed Mechanical Engineering Department Kuwait University Safat Kuwait
1 Introduction
2 Heliostats Types and Design Shapes
3 Heliostat Angles
4 Heliostat Field Heliostat Layout
5 Heliostat Field Cosine Effect
6 Heliostat Field Preliminary Sizing of the Field
7 Heliostat Field Usefulness Efficiency
8 Reflected Solar Radiation
9 The Effective Sunshape
10 Principal Images and Relation between Receiver and Image Planes
11 Models to Predict the Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Image Plane
111 Incoming Ray Formulation
112 The Mirror Plane Formulation
113 Solar Disk Formulation
114 The Pinhole View
12 Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Receiver Surface Using the Separation of
VariableSuperposition Technique
121 Concept
122 Calculation of φ 123 Validation of Model Using Measurements
13 Receivers Types and Losses
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvi
14 Preliminary Sizing of the Receiver
15 Overall System Optimization
Configuration Theoretical Analysis and Performance of Simple Solar Stills 98
A Kumar Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources Solar Energy Center New Delhi India
1 Introduction
2 Configuration of Simple Solar Stills
21 Basic Principle
22 Classification
23 Single Basin Solar Stills
24 Inclined Solar Stills
241 Basin Type Solar Stills
242 Wick Type Solar Stills
25 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
26 Solar Earth Water Stills
27 Plastic Solar Stills
271 Life Raft Solar Still
272 Circular Solar Still
273 Extruded Plastic Solar Still
274 Concentric Tube Solar Still
28 A Typical Solar Distillation Plant
3 Theoretical Analysis of Simple Solar Stills
31 Heat and Mass Transfer in Solar Stills
311 Inside the Solar Still
312 Outside the Solar Still
32 Solar Radiation Balance
321 Transmission through Top Cover
322 Absorption in the Top Cover
33 Energy Balance Equations
34 Solution Procedure
4 Performance of Solar Stills
41 Single Basin Solar Stills
42 Inclined Solar Stills
43 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
44 Solar Earth Water Stills
45 Plastic Solar Stills
46 Case Studies
461 Australia
462 Greek Islands
463 India
47 Suggested Practices for Installing Solar Stills
Development in Simple Solar Stills 169
Hassan ES Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Modified Simple (Passive) Stills
21 Basin Still
211 Single Slope versus Double Slope Basin Stills
212 Basin Still with Cover Cooling
213 Basin Still with Treated Cover Surface
214 Basin Still with Additional Condenser
215 Basin Still with Black DyeMuddy Water
22 Wick Stills
221 Single-wick Stills
222 Multi-wick Stills
223 Wick versus Basin Stills
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvii
224 Combined Wick-Basin Stills
23 Other Stills Configurations
231 Vertical Microporous Evaporator Still
232 Cascade Solar Still
233 Still Integrated with Greenhouse
3 Externally Heated (Active) Solar Stills
31 Introduction
32 Stills Coupled to a Solar Collector
321 Direct and Indirect Heating
322 Use of Dye and Cover Cooling
323 Other Solar Heaters
33 Stills Coupled with Solar Concentrator
34 The Use of Waste Heat in Solar Stills
4 Other Types of Solar Distillation Systems
41 Water Recovery from Air
Multi-Effect Solar Stills 197
HES Fath Al-Jubail 31951 Saudi Arabia
1 Why Multi Effect
2 Double Effect Basin Stills
21 Double Basins Stills
22 Double Effect Tilted Stills
23 Purging Vapor to a Second Effect
3 Multi-Effect Multi-Wick Stills
4 Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
41 Introduction
42 Mass Diffusion
43 Comparison between Diffusion and Basin Stills
44 Description of Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
45 Analysis and Performance Considerations
5 Other Distillation Systems
51 Stacked Tray Stills
52 Multi-Effect Humidification-Dehumidification
Materials for Construction of Solar Stills 218
TA Lawand and J Ayoub Brace Research Institute Canada
1 Introduction
2 General Specifications of Solar Stills
3 Transparent Cover
4 Basin Liner
5 Solar Still Frame
6 Sealants
7 Insulation
8 Auxiliaries - Piping Pumping and Reservoirs
Reverse Osmosis by Solar Energy 225
W Bucher DLR German Aerospace Research Establishment Cologne Germany
1 Introduction
2 Basic Parameters and Energy Demand for Osmosis
21 Physical Properties of Hyperfiltration
22 Energy required for the RO Process
3 Solar Power Conversion Systems
31 Solar Conversion Principles
32 Technical Data of Solar Energy Conversion Methods
33 RO Plant Operation Utilizing Variable Energy Sources
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxviii
4 Reverse Osmosis System Configuration and Operation Aspects
41 Process Design of RO Desalination Systems
42 Procedural Steps and Data for Water Treatment and Energy Consumption
43 Components of RO -Desalination
431 Membranes and Modules
432 High Pressure Pumps
433 Pressure Regulating Devices
5 Solar Powered Desalination Units
51 Specific Figures or RO Systems
52 Solar Power Concepts for RO Desalination
53 Operational Experience with Solar driven RO Systems
6 Costs
61 Specific Cost Figures for the Plant Components
62 Water Delivery Cost
Availability of Solar Radiation and Its Estimation 265
VG Belessiotis Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems National Center for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun and the Radiation Emitted
21 The Physics of the Sun
22 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
3 The Extraterrestrial Radiation
31 What is the Solar Constant
32 Variations of the Extraterrestrial Radiation
33 The Black-body Emittance and Absorptance
34 Blackbody Absorbers - Application to Desalination
4 The Co-ordinate Systems The Basic Solar Angles
41 The Earth-Sun Relationships
42 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Sky
43 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Celestial Sphere
44 Earth-Sun Geometric Relationship
45 Time and its Units - Day Length
46 Terrestrial Solar Radiation
461 Estimation of Radiation Availability
462 Average Radiation Values - Clearness Index
463 Clear Sky Radiation
464 Sky Radiation
47 Atmospheric Factors Affecting Radiation
5 Computation of Insolation at the Earths Surface
51 Insolation Data
52 Measurement of Solar Radiation
53 Models for Solar Radiation
54 Where the Models Apply
55 Tilted Surfaces - Absorptance of Solar Radiation
551 Fixed Tilted Surfaces
552 Tracking Surfaces
6 Applications of Solar Radiation
7 Impact of Solar Energy to the Environment
Economics of Small Solar-Assisted Multiple-Effect Seawater Distillation Plants 296
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Configurations
3 Design and Sizing Considerations
31 Thermal Energy Requirement
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxix
32 Pumping Requirements
33 Collector Performance
34 Sizing Thermal Collector Area
35 Sizing the PV System
351 Sizing the PV Array
4 Economic Ground Rules and Water Cost Optimization
41 Capital Equipment Cost
42 Operating Costs
43 Optimum Cost of Water for each Plant Configuration
5 Results
6 Conclusion
A Solar-Assisted Sea Water Multiple Effect Distillation Plant 15 Years of Operating
Performance (1985-1999) 316
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Basic Design Concept
21 General Plant Description
22 Design Specifications
23 Evaporator Heat Transfer Coefficient
24 Tube Dimensions Heat Transfer Areas and Materials
3 Performance during Commissioning Tests
31 The MES Evaporator
32 The Solar Collector Field
33 The Heat Accumulator
34 Total Plant Performance
4 Performance History
41 The MES Evaporator
42 The Solar Collector Field
43 The Heat Accumulator
431 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
4311 The heat balance method
4312 The direct temperature measurement method
4313 Thermal stratification ratio
44 Total Plant Performance
5 Major Maintenance Activities
51 Equipment Failure and Replacement
52 Acid Cleanings and Silt Removal from Evaporator
6 Evaluation of Water Cost
61 Capital Costs
62 Operation and Maintenance Costs
7 Conclusions
Mathematical Simulation of a Solar Desalination Plant 341
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Description
3 System Operating Conditions
31 Solar Heat Collecting Subsystem
32 Evaporator Subsystem
4 Mathematical Modeling of System Components
41 Solar radiation model
42 Ambient temperature model
43 Solar collector subsystem
431 Effect of shade on solar radiation
432 Effect of dust on transmissivity of glass tubes
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxx
433 Control of heat collecting operation
434 Heat collection by solar collectors
435 Heat loss from piping
4351 Piping specifications
4352 Standard pipe lengths
4353 Heat loss from piping during operation of heat collecting pump
4354 Heat loss from piping while the heat collecting pump is shutdown
4355 Correction of piping heat loss
44 Heat accumulator subsystem
441 Temperature distribution
442 MES evaporator subsystem
5 The Simulation Program
51 Program structure
52 Input and output data
6 Results
7 Conclusions
Index 379
About EOLSS 385
VOLUME VI
Modeling and Design of Solar Energy Systems Including Solar Economics 1
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 F-Chart Method
11 Performance and Design of Liquid-Based Solar Heating Systems
111 Storage Capacity Correction
112 Collector Flow Rate Correction
113 Load Heat Exchanger Size Correction
12 Performance and Design of Air-Based Solar Heating Systems
121 Pebble Bed Storage Size Correction
122 Air Flow Rate Correction
13 Performance and Design of Solar Service Water Systems
14 Thermosiphon Solar Water Heating Systems
15 General Remarks
2 Modeling and Simulation of Solar Energy Systems
21 Simple System Models
211 Pipe Losses
22 F-Chart Program
23 Trnsys Simulation Program
24 Limitations of Simulations
3 Solar Economic Analysis
31 Life Cycle Costing
32 Life Cycle Analysis Method
33 Payback Time
331 Not Discounted Fuel Savings
332 Discounted Fuel Savings
34 Alternative Method
341 System Optimization Using Economic Analysis
35 Uncertainties in Economic Analysis
Solar Energy Power Generation and Desalination Systems 47
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 Global Energy Problems and the Role of Renewables
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxi
11 Energy demand
12 Energy environmental problems and sustainable development
13 Water demand and consumption
14 Water and energy
15 Desalination and energy
16 Renewable energy technologies
2 Solar Collectors
21 Parabolic trough collectors
22 Fresnel collectors
23 Parabolic dish reflector
24 Heliostat field collector
3 Power Generation and Industrial Process Heat Systems
31 Parabolic trough collector systems
32 Power tower systems
33 Dish systems
34 Solar ponds
341 Heat extraction and applications
35 Industrial process heat systems
36 Solar industrial steam generation systems
4 Desalination Processes
41 Direct collection systems
42 Indirect collection systems
421 The multi-stage flash process
422 The multiple-effect distillation process
423 The vapor-compression process
424 Reverse osmosis
425 Electrodialysis
Solar Updraft Power Plant Technology Basic Concepts and Structural Design 94
Francesca Lupi University of Florence Florence Italy
Claudio Borri University of Florence Florence Italy
Wilfried B Kraumltzig Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
Hans-Juumlrgen Niemann Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
1 Solar Updraft Power Technology Introduction and Working Principles
2 History of the Solar Updraft Power Technology
21 Solar Tower Prototype in Manzanares (Spain)
3 Evaluation of Plant Efficiency
31 The Collector
32 The Chimney
33 The Turbines
34 Electric Power Generated by Supps
4 The Collector
5 Actions on Solar Updraft Towers
6 Wind Loading on Solar Updraft Towers
61 Wind Flow Structure in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer at High Altitudes
611 Boundary Layer Meteorology
612 The Ekman Spiral
613 Theoretical Considerations on the Mean Wind and Turbulence in the Ekman Layer
62 Modeling of the Wind Load on Solar Towers
621 Mean Wind Load
622 Response to Wind Turbulence
623 Fluctuating Wind Load
624 Equivalent Static Wind Pressures
625 Vortex Excitation
626 Other Effects The Effect of the Efflux
63 Wind Load on the Collector Roof
7 Structural Behavior of Solar Updraft Towers
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxii
71 Structural Elements of Solar Tower Shells
72 Some Typical Response Characteristics of Solar Tower Shells Vibration and Instability
Behavior
73 Non-Linear Tower Response
8 Structural Optimization of Solar Updraft Towers
81 The Role of the Stiffening Rings in the Structural Design of Solar Towers
82 Strategies of Optimization
9 Technology of Construction
Renewable Energy Potential in The Arab Region 162
Mohammed Mostafa El-Khayat General Manager of Planning New and Renewable Energy Authority
NREA Cairo Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Research Problem and Objectives
111 Research Problem
12 Research Objectives
2 Energy Demand
3 The Current Situation of Renewable Energy
31 Hydropower
32 Wind Energy
33 Solar Energy
34 Biomass and Geothermal Energy
4 Strategies
5 Institutional and Regulatory Framework
6 Main Policies and Incentives
7 RE Policies and Incentives Profiles
71 Algeria
72 Egypt
73 Jordan
74 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
75 Lebanon
76 Libya
77 Morocco
78 Palestine
79 Sudan
710 Syria
711 Tunisia
712 United Arab Emirates
713 Yemen
8 Financing Schemes and Investment Opportunities
9 Motivations and Barriers of Renewable Energy
10 Renewable Energy Initiatives
101 Arabian Initiatives
102 DESERTEC
11 Potential of Renewable Energy in the Region
12 The proposed mechanisms to enhance and accelerate the rate of using RE applications
13 The situation of localizing RE technologies
14 RE and climate change in Arab countries
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
198
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiii
22 Humidifying with Cooling and Dehumidifying Processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in HD Desalination Process
25 Overview on Some Desalination HD Projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process Description
32 The Condenser in the SWGH
321 Different Condenser Layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the Condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of Condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot Plant
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH Project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot Plant
522 Performances of the Pilot Plant
53 The SWGH Project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot Plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Evolution of Photovoltaic Materials for Renewable Energy Development 262
Abdelilah Slaoui InESS ndash CNRS ndash University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
Jef Poortmans IMEC Leuven Belgium
Marko Topic University of Ljubljana Faculty of Elec Eng Ljubljana Slovenia
Gavin Conibeer ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence UNSW Sydney Australia
1 General Introduction
2 Photovoltaic Materials and Technologies State of the Art
21 Crystalline Silicon
22 Thin Films
221 Amorphous Silicon
222 Nanocrystalline and Microcrystalline Silicon
223 Polycrystalline Silicon
224 Copper Indium Selenide Its alloys and Related Chalcopyrites
225 Cadmium Telluride
226 Materials for Photochemical Solar Cells
227 Materials for Organic Solar Cells
3 Next Generation Solar Cells
31 Introduction
32 Multiple energy level approaches
33 Multiple Exciton Generation solar cells
34 Intermediate Band (IB) cells
35 Hot carrier cells
4 Conclusions and Perspectives
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiv
Wind and Solar Renewable Energy Potential Resources Estimation 302
Philippe Drobinski Institut Pierre Simon LaplaceLaboratoire de Meacuteteacuteorologie Dynamique CNRSEcole
Polytechnique Palaiseau France
1 Renewable Wind and Solar Energies The Context
11 An Economical and Environmental Necessity
12 Energy Definitions and Units
2 Basic Knowledge in Geophysics for Energy Resource Evaluation
21 Earth Energy Budget and Atmospheric Motion
22 Near Surface Wind
23 Impacts of Clouds and Aerosols on Surface Solar Radiation
3 Wind Energy Resource
31 Wind Energy A Brief History
32 Wind Energy Resources Evaluation
33 Wind Energy Installed Capacity in the World
4 Solar Energy Resources
41 Solar Energy An Introduction
42 Worldwide Solar Heat
5 Methods for Wind and Solar Energy Resources Forecast
Index 353
About EOLSS 361
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiii
Large Active Solar Systems Typical Economic Analysis 225
VG Belessiotis Head Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems NCSR Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 Cost of a Solar Hot Water System
21 Initial Capital Cost
22 Operational Costs
221 Cost of Fuel
222 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
223 Cost of Maintenance
224 Cost for Loans
225 Costs for Insurance
226 Miscellaneous Expenses
3 Cost of Conventional Hot Water System
31 Operational Costs
311 Cost of Fuel
312 Cost of Auxiliary Electrical Energy
313 Cost of Maintenance
4 Inflation
5 Rate of Interest
6 Methods of Life Cycle Cost
61 General
62 Present and Future Costs
63 Yearly Instalment
64 Yearly Expenses
7 Methodology
8 Present Value Factor
9 Comparison Methodology
Integration of Solar Pond with Water Desalination 240
U Fisher J Weinberg and B Doron Ormat Industries Ltd Yavne Israel
1 Introduction
2 Historical Background
3 The Solar Pond
31 Structure
32 Heat Absorption and Storage
33 Main Demands when Building a Pond
331 Surface Area
332 Surface Water Make-up
333 Concentrated Brine Supply
34 How to Build a Solar Pond
341 Geometry or Shape
342 Lining
343 Construction Materials in the Pond
344 Initial Filling and Build-up of Gradient
35 How to Control
36 Heat Losses (Ground Diffusion Evaporation)
361 Top Losses
362 Bottom Heat Losses
37 Disturbances
371 Algae
372 Corrosion
373 Wind
38 Heat Extraction
39 Fuel Assisted Solar Ponds
310 Maintenance
3101 Clarity
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiv
3102 Cleaning of Wind Breakers
3103 Blow Down
3104 Make-up
3105 Leakages
311 Practical Size of a Single Pond
312 Investment in Solar Ponds
313 OampM Costs
4 Desalination Processes Coupled to the Solar Pond
41 Economic Aspects of Coupling Desalination Plants to Solar Ponds
411 Desalination Processes
412 The Choice and Proportion of Producing Heat and Power in the Solar Pond
4121 The Solar Pond Yield
4122 Desalination Plant Performance
4123 The Impact of Daily and Seasonal Fluctuations
4124 Economic Considerations and Evaluations
42 Experience with SP-Desalination Systems
43 Conclusions
Evacuated Tube Collectors 276
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Current Designs of Evacuated Tube Collectors
3 Thermal Analysis
4 Analysis of Flat Plate Evacuated Tube Collector
5 Analysis of Concentric-Tube Collector
6 Performance of Evacuated Tube Collectors
7 Case Study (Collector Field at the Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant)
71 Description of collector field
72 Performance of collector field
73 Economics
Parabolic Trough Collectors 299
Wolfgang Meinecke Deutsches Zentrum fuumlr Luft-und Raumfahrt eV (DLR German Aerospace Center)
Solar Energy Technology Division Koumlln Germany
1 Introduction
2 Brief History of Trough Development
3 State of the Art of Trough Applications
31 Conventional Thermal Water Desalination Applications
32 Solar Thermal Water Desalination Applications
33 Solar Electric Power Generation
34 Solar Process Heat Generation
35 Process Hot Water (Project Examples)
36 Process Steam (Project Examples)
37 Process Steam for Water Desalination (Project Examples)
38 Process Hot Air
4 Trough Technologies
41 LS 3 Trough Collector System
411 LS 3 Parabolic Reflector
412 Steel Support Structure
413 Absorber Element
414 Tracking System and Field Control System
415 Heat Transfer Fluid System
416 Steam Generator
417 Balance of Plant Technologies
418 Energy Storage System
42 IST Trough Collector System
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxv
421 IST Parabolic Reflector
422 Support Structure
423 Absorber Element
424 Tracking System and Field Control System
425 Heat Transfer Fluid System
426 Heat Exchanger
427 Balance of Plant Technology
428 Energy Storage
5 Prospects and Potential
51 Solar Electric Power Generation
52 Solar Process Heat Generation
53 Solar Thermal Water Desalination
6 Cost and Economic Aspects
61 Collector Investment Costs
611 LS 3 Collector Costs
612 IST Collector Costs
62 Other Economic Parameters
621 Fossil Fuel Prices
622 Solar Energy Yield
623 Solar Share
624 Plant Power Size
625 Capacity Factor
626 OampM Costs
627 Non-Technical Parameters
63 Costs of Solar Water Desalination
7 Conclusions
Index 363
About EOLSS 369
VOLUME V
Central Receivers 1
MM Elsayed Mechanical Engineering Department Kuwait University Safat Kuwait
1 Introduction
2 Heliostats Types and Design Shapes
3 Heliostat Angles
4 Heliostat Field Heliostat Layout
5 Heliostat Field Cosine Effect
6 Heliostat Field Preliminary Sizing of the Field
7 Heliostat Field Usefulness Efficiency
8 Reflected Solar Radiation
9 The Effective Sunshape
10 Principal Images and Relation between Receiver and Image Planes
11 Models to Predict the Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Image Plane
111 Incoming Ray Formulation
112 The Mirror Plane Formulation
113 Solar Disk Formulation
114 The Pinhole View
12 Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Receiver Surface Using the Separation of
VariableSuperposition Technique
121 Concept
122 Calculation of φ 123 Validation of Model Using Measurements
13 Receivers Types and Losses
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvi
14 Preliminary Sizing of the Receiver
15 Overall System Optimization
Configuration Theoretical Analysis and Performance of Simple Solar Stills 98
A Kumar Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources Solar Energy Center New Delhi India
1 Introduction
2 Configuration of Simple Solar Stills
21 Basic Principle
22 Classification
23 Single Basin Solar Stills
24 Inclined Solar Stills
241 Basin Type Solar Stills
242 Wick Type Solar Stills
25 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
26 Solar Earth Water Stills
27 Plastic Solar Stills
271 Life Raft Solar Still
272 Circular Solar Still
273 Extruded Plastic Solar Still
274 Concentric Tube Solar Still
28 A Typical Solar Distillation Plant
3 Theoretical Analysis of Simple Solar Stills
31 Heat and Mass Transfer in Solar Stills
311 Inside the Solar Still
312 Outside the Solar Still
32 Solar Radiation Balance
321 Transmission through Top Cover
322 Absorption in the Top Cover
33 Energy Balance Equations
34 Solution Procedure
4 Performance of Solar Stills
41 Single Basin Solar Stills
42 Inclined Solar Stills
43 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
44 Solar Earth Water Stills
45 Plastic Solar Stills
46 Case Studies
461 Australia
462 Greek Islands
463 India
47 Suggested Practices for Installing Solar Stills
Development in Simple Solar Stills 169
Hassan ES Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Modified Simple (Passive) Stills
21 Basin Still
211 Single Slope versus Double Slope Basin Stills
212 Basin Still with Cover Cooling
213 Basin Still with Treated Cover Surface
214 Basin Still with Additional Condenser
215 Basin Still with Black DyeMuddy Water
22 Wick Stills
221 Single-wick Stills
222 Multi-wick Stills
223 Wick versus Basin Stills
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvii
224 Combined Wick-Basin Stills
23 Other Stills Configurations
231 Vertical Microporous Evaporator Still
232 Cascade Solar Still
233 Still Integrated with Greenhouse
3 Externally Heated (Active) Solar Stills
31 Introduction
32 Stills Coupled to a Solar Collector
321 Direct and Indirect Heating
322 Use of Dye and Cover Cooling
323 Other Solar Heaters
33 Stills Coupled with Solar Concentrator
34 The Use of Waste Heat in Solar Stills
4 Other Types of Solar Distillation Systems
41 Water Recovery from Air
Multi-Effect Solar Stills 197
HES Fath Al-Jubail 31951 Saudi Arabia
1 Why Multi Effect
2 Double Effect Basin Stills
21 Double Basins Stills
22 Double Effect Tilted Stills
23 Purging Vapor to a Second Effect
3 Multi-Effect Multi-Wick Stills
4 Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
41 Introduction
42 Mass Diffusion
43 Comparison between Diffusion and Basin Stills
44 Description of Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
45 Analysis and Performance Considerations
5 Other Distillation Systems
51 Stacked Tray Stills
52 Multi-Effect Humidification-Dehumidification
Materials for Construction of Solar Stills 218
TA Lawand and J Ayoub Brace Research Institute Canada
1 Introduction
2 General Specifications of Solar Stills
3 Transparent Cover
4 Basin Liner
5 Solar Still Frame
6 Sealants
7 Insulation
8 Auxiliaries - Piping Pumping and Reservoirs
Reverse Osmosis by Solar Energy 225
W Bucher DLR German Aerospace Research Establishment Cologne Germany
1 Introduction
2 Basic Parameters and Energy Demand for Osmosis
21 Physical Properties of Hyperfiltration
22 Energy required for the RO Process
3 Solar Power Conversion Systems
31 Solar Conversion Principles
32 Technical Data of Solar Energy Conversion Methods
33 RO Plant Operation Utilizing Variable Energy Sources
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxviii
4 Reverse Osmosis System Configuration and Operation Aspects
41 Process Design of RO Desalination Systems
42 Procedural Steps and Data for Water Treatment and Energy Consumption
43 Components of RO -Desalination
431 Membranes and Modules
432 High Pressure Pumps
433 Pressure Regulating Devices
5 Solar Powered Desalination Units
51 Specific Figures or RO Systems
52 Solar Power Concepts for RO Desalination
53 Operational Experience with Solar driven RO Systems
6 Costs
61 Specific Cost Figures for the Plant Components
62 Water Delivery Cost
Availability of Solar Radiation and Its Estimation 265
VG Belessiotis Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems National Center for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun and the Radiation Emitted
21 The Physics of the Sun
22 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
3 The Extraterrestrial Radiation
31 What is the Solar Constant
32 Variations of the Extraterrestrial Radiation
33 The Black-body Emittance and Absorptance
34 Blackbody Absorbers - Application to Desalination
4 The Co-ordinate Systems The Basic Solar Angles
41 The Earth-Sun Relationships
42 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Sky
43 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Celestial Sphere
44 Earth-Sun Geometric Relationship
45 Time and its Units - Day Length
46 Terrestrial Solar Radiation
461 Estimation of Radiation Availability
462 Average Radiation Values - Clearness Index
463 Clear Sky Radiation
464 Sky Radiation
47 Atmospheric Factors Affecting Radiation
5 Computation of Insolation at the Earths Surface
51 Insolation Data
52 Measurement of Solar Radiation
53 Models for Solar Radiation
54 Where the Models Apply
55 Tilted Surfaces - Absorptance of Solar Radiation
551 Fixed Tilted Surfaces
552 Tracking Surfaces
6 Applications of Solar Radiation
7 Impact of Solar Energy to the Environment
Economics of Small Solar-Assisted Multiple-Effect Seawater Distillation Plants 296
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Configurations
3 Design and Sizing Considerations
31 Thermal Energy Requirement
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxix
32 Pumping Requirements
33 Collector Performance
34 Sizing Thermal Collector Area
35 Sizing the PV System
351 Sizing the PV Array
4 Economic Ground Rules and Water Cost Optimization
41 Capital Equipment Cost
42 Operating Costs
43 Optimum Cost of Water for each Plant Configuration
5 Results
6 Conclusion
A Solar-Assisted Sea Water Multiple Effect Distillation Plant 15 Years of Operating
Performance (1985-1999) 316
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Basic Design Concept
21 General Plant Description
22 Design Specifications
23 Evaporator Heat Transfer Coefficient
24 Tube Dimensions Heat Transfer Areas and Materials
3 Performance during Commissioning Tests
31 The MES Evaporator
32 The Solar Collector Field
33 The Heat Accumulator
34 Total Plant Performance
4 Performance History
41 The MES Evaporator
42 The Solar Collector Field
43 The Heat Accumulator
431 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
4311 The heat balance method
4312 The direct temperature measurement method
4313 Thermal stratification ratio
44 Total Plant Performance
5 Major Maintenance Activities
51 Equipment Failure and Replacement
52 Acid Cleanings and Silt Removal from Evaporator
6 Evaluation of Water Cost
61 Capital Costs
62 Operation and Maintenance Costs
7 Conclusions
Mathematical Simulation of a Solar Desalination Plant 341
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Description
3 System Operating Conditions
31 Solar Heat Collecting Subsystem
32 Evaporator Subsystem
4 Mathematical Modeling of System Components
41 Solar radiation model
42 Ambient temperature model
43 Solar collector subsystem
431 Effect of shade on solar radiation
432 Effect of dust on transmissivity of glass tubes
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxx
433 Control of heat collecting operation
434 Heat collection by solar collectors
435 Heat loss from piping
4351 Piping specifications
4352 Standard pipe lengths
4353 Heat loss from piping during operation of heat collecting pump
4354 Heat loss from piping while the heat collecting pump is shutdown
4355 Correction of piping heat loss
44 Heat accumulator subsystem
441 Temperature distribution
442 MES evaporator subsystem
5 The Simulation Program
51 Program structure
52 Input and output data
6 Results
7 Conclusions
Index 379
About EOLSS 385
VOLUME VI
Modeling and Design of Solar Energy Systems Including Solar Economics 1
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 F-Chart Method
11 Performance and Design of Liquid-Based Solar Heating Systems
111 Storage Capacity Correction
112 Collector Flow Rate Correction
113 Load Heat Exchanger Size Correction
12 Performance and Design of Air-Based Solar Heating Systems
121 Pebble Bed Storage Size Correction
122 Air Flow Rate Correction
13 Performance and Design of Solar Service Water Systems
14 Thermosiphon Solar Water Heating Systems
15 General Remarks
2 Modeling and Simulation of Solar Energy Systems
21 Simple System Models
211 Pipe Losses
22 F-Chart Program
23 Trnsys Simulation Program
24 Limitations of Simulations
3 Solar Economic Analysis
31 Life Cycle Costing
32 Life Cycle Analysis Method
33 Payback Time
331 Not Discounted Fuel Savings
332 Discounted Fuel Savings
34 Alternative Method
341 System Optimization Using Economic Analysis
35 Uncertainties in Economic Analysis
Solar Energy Power Generation and Desalination Systems 47
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 Global Energy Problems and the Role of Renewables
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxi
11 Energy demand
12 Energy environmental problems and sustainable development
13 Water demand and consumption
14 Water and energy
15 Desalination and energy
16 Renewable energy technologies
2 Solar Collectors
21 Parabolic trough collectors
22 Fresnel collectors
23 Parabolic dish reflector
24 Heliostat field collector
3 Power Generation and Industrial Process Heat Systems
31 Parabolic trough collector systems
32 Power tower systems
33 Dish systems
34 Solar ponds
341 Heat extraction and applications
35 Industrial process heat systems
36 Solar industrial steam generation systems
4 Desalination Processes
41 Direct collection systems
42 Indirect collection systems
421 The multi-stage flash process
422 The multiple-effect distillation process
423 The vapor-compression process
424 Reverse osmosis
425 Electrodialysis
Solar Updraft Power Plant Technology Basic Concepts and Structural Design 94
Francesca Lupi University of Florence Florence Italy
Claudio Borri University of Florence Florence Italy
Wilfried B Kraumltzig Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
Hans-Juumlrgen Niemann Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
1 Solar Updraft Power Technology Introduction and Working Principles
2 History of the Solar Updraft Power Technology
21 Solar Tower Prototype in Manzanares (Spain)
3 Evaluation of Plant Efficiency
31 The Collector
32 The Chimney
33 The Turbines
34 Electric Power Generated by Supps
4 The Collector
5 Actions on Solar Updraft Towers
6 Wind Loading on Solar Updraft Towers
61 Wind Flow Structure in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer at High Altitudes
611 Boundary Layer Meteorology
612 The Ekman Spiral
613 Theoretical Considerations on the Mean Wind and Turbulence in the Ekman Layer
62 Modeling of the Wind Load on Solar Towers
621 Mean Wind Load
622 Response to Wind Turbulence
623 Fluctuating Wind Load
624 Equivalent Static Wind Pressures
625 Vortex Excitation
626 Other Effects The Effect of the Efflux
63 Wind Load on the Collector Roof
7 Structural Behavior of Solar Updraft Towers
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxii
71 Structural Elements of Solar Tower Shells
72 Some Typical Response Characteristics of Solar Tower Shells Vibration and Instability
Behavior
73 Non-Linear Tower Response
8 Structural Optimization of Solar Updraft Towers
81 The Role of the Stiffening Rings in the Structural Design of Solar Towers
82 Strategies of Optimization
9 Technology of Construction
Renewable Energy Potential in The Arab Region 162
Mohammed Mostafa El-Khayat General Manager of Planning New and Renewable Energy Authority
NREA Cairo Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Research Problem and Objectives
111 Research Problem
12 Research Objectives
2 Energy Demand
3 The Current Situation of Renewable Energy
31 Hydropower
32 Wind Energy
33 Solar Energy
34 Biomass and Geothermal Energy
4 Strategies
5 Institutional and Regulatory Framework
6 Main Policies and Incentives
7 RE Policies and Incentives Profiles
71 Algeria
72 Egypt
73 Jordan
74 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
75 Lebanon
76 Libya
77 Morocco
78 Palestine
79 Sudan
710 Syria
711 Tunisia
712 United Arab Emirates
713 Yemen
8 Financing Schemes and Investment Opportunities
9 Motivations and Barriers of Renewable Energy
10 Renewable Energy Initiatives
101 Arabian Initiatives
102 DESERTEC
11 Potential of Renewable Energy in the Region
12 The proposed mechanisms to enhance and accelerate the rate of using RE applications
13 The situation of localizing RE technologies
14 RE and climate change in Arab countries
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
198
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiii
22 Humidifying with Cooling and Dehumidifying Processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in HD Desalination Process
25 Overview on Some Desalination HD Projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process Description
32 The Condenser in the SWGH
321 Different Condenser Layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the Condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of Condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot Plant
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH Project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot Plant
522 Performances of the Pilot Plant
53 The SWGH Project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot Plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Evolution of Photovoltaic Materials for Renewable Energy Development 262
Abdelilah Slaoui InESS ndash CNRS ndash University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
Jef Poortmans IMEC Leuven Belgium
Marko Topic University of Ljubljana Faculty of Elec Eng Ljubljana Slovenia
Gavin Conibeer ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence UNSW Sydney Australia
1 General Introduction
2 Photovoltaic Materials and Technologies State of the Art
21 Crystalline Silicon
22 Thin Films
221 Amorphous Silicon
222 Nanocrystalline and Microcrystalline Silicon
223 Polycrystalline Silicon
224 Copper Indium Selenide Its alloys and Related Chalcopyrites
225 Cadmium Telluride
226 Materials for Photochemical Solar Cells
227 Materials for Organic Solar Cells
3 Next Generation Solar Cells
31 Introduction
32 Multiple energy level approaches
33 Multiple Exciton Generation solar cells
34 Intermediate Band (IB) cells
35 Hot carrier cells
4 Conclusions and Perspectives
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiv
Wind and Solar Renewable Energy Potential Resources Estimation 302
Philippe Drobinski Institut Pierre Simon LaplaceLaboratoire de Meacuteteacuteorologie Dynamique CNRSEcole
Polytechnique Palaiseau France
1 Renewable Wind and Solar Energies The Context
11 An Economical and Environmental Necessity
12 Energy Definitions and Units
2 Basic Knowledge in Geophysics for Energy Resource Evaluation
21 Earth Energy Budget and Atmospheric Motion
22 Near Surface Wind
23 Impacts of Clouds and Aerosols on Surface Solar Radiation
3 Wind Energy Resource
31 Wind Energy A Brief History
32 Wind Energy Resources Evaluation
33 Wind Energy Installed Capacity in the World
4 Solar Energy Resources
41 Solar Energy An Introduction
42 Worldwide Solar Heat
5 Methods for Wind and Solar Energy Resources Forecast
Index 353
About EOLSS 361
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxiv
3102 Cleaning of Wind Breakers
3103 Blow Down
3104 Make-up
3105 Leakages
311 Practical Size of a Single Pond
312 Investment in Solar Ponds
313 OampM Costs
4 Desalination Processes Coupled to the Solar Pond
41 Economic Aspects of Coupling Desalination Plants to Solar Ponds
411 Desalination Processes
412 The Choice and Proportion of Producing Heat and Power in the Solar Pond
4121 The Solar Pond Yield
4122 Desalination Plant Performance
4123 The Impact of Daily and Seasonal Fluctuations
4124 Economic Considerations and Evaluations
42 Experience with SP-Desalination Systems
43 Conclusions
Evacuated Tube Collectors 276
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Current Designs of Evacuated Tube Collectors
3 Thermal Analysis
4 Analysis of Flat Plate Evacuated Tube Collector
5 Analysis of Concentric-Tube Collector
6 Performance of Evacuated Tube Collectors
7 Case Study (Collector Field at the Abu Dhabi Solar Desalination Plant)
71 Description of collector field
72 Performance of collector field
73 Economics
Parabolic Trough Collectors 299
Wolfgang Meinecke Deutsches Zentrum fuumlr Luft-und Raumfahrt eV (DLR German Aerospace Center)
Solar Energy Technology Division Koumlln Germany
1 Introduction
2 Brief History of Trough Development
3 State of the Art of Trough Applications
31 Conventional Thermal Water Desalination Applications
32 Solar Thermal Water Desalination Applications
33 Solar Electric Power Generation
34 Solar Process Heat Generation
35 Process Hot Water (Project Examples)
36 Process Steam (Project Examples)
37 Process Steam for Water Desalination (Project Examples)
38 Process Hot Air
4 Trough Technologies
41 LS 3 Trough Collector System
411 LS 3 Parabolic Reflector
412 Steel Support Structure
413 Absorber Element
414 Tracking System and Field Control System
415 Heat Transfer Fluid System
416 Steam Generator
417 Balance of Plant Technologies
418 Energy Storage System
42 IST Trough Collector System
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxv
421 IST Parabolic Reflector
422 Support Structure
423 Absorber Element
424 Tracking System and Field Control System
425 Heat Transfer Fluid System
426 Heat Exchanger
427 Balance of Plant Technology
428 Energy Storage
5 Prospects and Potential
51 Solar Electric Power Generation
52 Solar Process Heat Generation
53 Solar Thermal Water Desalination
6 Cost and Economic Aspects
61 Collector Investment Costs
611 LS 3 Collector Costs
612 IST Collector Costs
62 Other Economic Parameters
621 Fossil Fuel Prices
622 Solar Energy Yield
623 Solar Share
624 Plant Power Size
625 Capacity Factor
626 OampM Costs
627 Non-Technical Parameters
63 Costs of Solar Water Desalination
7 Conclusions
Index 363
About EOLSS 369
VOLUME V
Central Receivers 1
MM Elsayed Mechanical Engineering Department Kuwait University Safat Kuwait
1 Introduction
2 Heliostats Types and Design Shapes
3 Heliostat Angles
4 Heliostat Field Heliostat Layout
5 Heliostat Field Cosine Effect
6 Heliostat Field Preliminary Sizing of the Field
7 Heliostat Field Usefulness Efficiency
8 Reflected Solar Radiation
9 The Effective Sunshape
10 Principal Images and Relation between Receiver and Image Planes
11 Models to Predict the Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Image Plane
111 Incoming Ray Formulation
112 The Mirror Plane Formulation
113 Solar Disk Formulation
114 The Pinhole View
12 Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Receiver Surface Using the Separation of
VariableSuperposition Technique
121 Concept
122 Calculation of φ 123 Validation of Model Using Measurements
13 Receivers Types and Losses
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvi
14 Preliminary Sizing of the Receiver
15 Overall System Optimization
Configuration Theoretical Analysis and Performance of Simple Solar Stills 98
A Kumar Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources Solar Energy Center New Delhi India
1 Introduction
2 Configuration of Simple Solar Stills
21 Basic Principle
22 Classification
23 Single Basin Solar Stills
24 Inclined Solar Stills
241 Basin Type Solar Stills
242 Wick Type Solar Stills
25 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
26 Solar Earth Water Stills
27 Plastic Solar Stills
271 Life Raft Solar Still
272 Circular Solar Still
273 Extruded Plastic Solar Still
274 Concentric Tube Solar Still
28 A Typical Solar Distillation Plant
3 Theoretical Analysis of Simple Solar Stills
31 Heat and Mass Transfer in Solar Stills
311 Inside the Solar Still
312 Outside the Solar Still
32 Solar Radiation Balance
321 Transmission through Top Cover
322 Absorption in the Top Cover
33 Energy Balance Equations
34 Solution Procedure
4 Performance of Solar Stills
41 Single Basin Solar Stills
42 Inclined Solar Stills
43 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
44 Solar Earth Water Stills
45 Plastic Solar Stills
46 Case Studies
461 Australia
462 Greek Islands
463 India
47 Suggested Practices for Installing Solar Stills
Development in Simple Solar Stills 169
Hassan ES Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Modified Simple (Passive) Stills
21 Basin Still
211 Single Slope versus Double Slope Basin Stills
212 Basin Still with Cover Cooling
213 Basin Still with Treated Cover Surface
214 Basin Still with Additional Condenser
215 Basin Still with Black DyeMuddy Water
22 Wick Stills
221 Single-wick Stills
222 Multi-wick Stills
223 Wick versus Basin Stills
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvii
224 Combined Wick-Basin Stills
23 Other Stills Configurations
231 Vertical Microporous Evaporator Still
232 Cascade Solar Still
233 Still Integrated with Greenhouse
3 Externally Heated (Active) Solar Stills
31 Introduction
32 Stills Coupled to a Solar Collector
321 Direct and Indirect Heating
322 Use of Dye and Cover Cooling
323 Other Solar Heaters
33 Stills Coupled with Solar Concentrator
34 The Use of Waste Heat in Solar Stills
4 Other Types of Solar Distillation Systems
41 Water Recovery from Air
Multi-Effect Solar Stills 197
HES Fath Al-Jubail 31951 Saudi Arabia
1 Why Multi Effect
2 Double Effect Basin Stills
21 Double Basins Stills
22 Double Effect Tilted Stills
23 Purging Vapor to a Second Effect
3 Multi-Effect Multi-Wick Stills
4 Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
41 Introduction
42 Mass Diffusion
43 Comparison between Diffusion and Basin Stills
44 Description of Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
45 Analysis and Performance Considerations
5 Other Distillation Systems
51 Stacked Tray Stills
52 Multi-Effect Humidification-Dehumidification
Materials for Construction of Solar Stills 218
TA Lawand and J Ayoub Brace Research Institute Canada
1 Introduction
2 General Specifications of Solar Stills
3 Transparent Cover
4 Basin Liner
5 Solar Still Frame
6 Sealants
7 Insulation
8 Auxiliaries - Piping Pumping and Reservoirs
Reverse Osmosis by Solar Energy 225
W Bucher DLR German Aerospace Research Establishment Cologne Germany
1 Introduction
2 Basic Parameters and Energy Demand for Osmosis
21 Physical Properties of Hyperfiltration
22 Energy required for the RO Process
3 Solar Power Conversion Systems
31 Solar Conversion Principles
32 Technical Data of Solar Energy Conversion Methods
33 RO Plant Operation Utilizing Variable Energy Sources
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxviii
4 Reverse Osmosis System Configuration and Operation Aspects
41 Process Design of RO Desalination Systems
42 Procedural Steps and Data for Water Treatment and Energy Consumption
43 Components of RO -Desalination
431 Membranes and Modules
432 High Pressure Pumps
433 Pressure Regulating Devices
5 Solar Powered Desalination Units
51 Specific Figures or RO Systems
52 Solar Power Concepts for RO Desalination
53 Operational Experience with Solar driven RO Systems
6 Costs
61 Specific Cost Figures for the Plant Components
62 Water Delivery Cost
Availability of Solar Radiation and Its Estimation 265
VG Belessiotis Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems National Center for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun and the Radiation Emitted
21 The Physics of the Sun
22 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
3 The Extraterrestrial Radiation
31 What is the Solar Constant
32 Variations of the Extraterrestrial Radiation
33 The Black-body Emittance and Absorptance
34 Blackbody Absorbers - Application to Desalination
4 The Co-ordinate Systems The Basic Solar Angles
41 The Earth-Sun Relationships
42 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Sky
43 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Celestial Sphere
44 Earth-Sun Geometric Relationship
45 Time and its Units - Day Length
46 Terrestrial Solar Radiation
461 Estimation of Radiation Availability
462 Average Radiation Values - Clearness Index
463 Clear Sky Radiation
464 Sky Radiation
47 Atmospheric Factors Affecting Radiation
5 Computation of Insolation at the Earths Surface
51 Insolation Data
52 Measurement of Solar Radiation
53 Models for Solar Radiation
54 Where the Models Apply
55 Tilted Surfaces - Absorptance of Solar Radiation
551 Fixed Tilted Surfaces
552 Tracking Surfaces
6 Applications of Solar Radiation
7 Impact of Solar Energy to the Environment
Economics of Small Solar-Assisted Multiple-Effect Seawater Distillation Plants 296
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Configurations
3 Design and Sizing Considerations
31 Thermal Energy Requirement
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxix
32 Pumping Requirements
33 Collector Performance
34 Sizing Thermal Collector Area
35 Sizing the PV System
351 Sizing the PV Array
4 Economic Ground Rules and Water Cost Optimization
41 Capital Equipment Cost
42 Operating Costs
43 Optimum Cost of Water for each Plant Configuration
5 Results
6 Conclusion
A Solar-Assisted Sea Water Multiple Effect Distillation Plant 15 Years of Operating
Performance (1985-1999) 316
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Basic Design Concept
21 General Plant Description
22 Design Specifications
23 Evaporator Heat Transfer Coefficient
24 Tube Dimensions Heat Transfer Areas and Materials
3 Performance during Commissioning Tests
31 The MES Evaporator
32 The Solar Collector Field
33 The Heat Accumulator
34 Total Plant Performance
4 Performance History
41 The MES Evaporator
42 The Solar Collector Field
43 The Heat Accumulator
431 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
4311 The heat balance method
4312 The direct temperature measurement method
4313 Thermal stratification ratio
44 Total Plant Performance
5 Major Maintenance Activities
51 Equipment Failure and Replacement
52 Acid Cleanings and Silt Removal from Evaporator
6 Evaluation of Water Cost
61 Capital Costs
62 Operation and Maintenance Costs
7 Conclusions
Mathematical Simulation of a Solar Desalination Plant 341
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Description
3 System Operating Conditions
31 Solar Heat Collecting Subsystem
32 Evaporator Subsystem
4 Mathematical Modeling of System Components
41 Solar radiation model
42 Ambient temperature model
43 Solar collector subsystem
431 Effect of shade on solar radiation
432 Effect of dust on transmissivity of glass tubes
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxx
433 Control of heat collecting operation
434 Heat collection by solar collectors
435 Heat loss from piping
4351 Piping specifications
4352 Standard pipe lengths
4353 Heat loss from piping during operation of heat collecting pump
4354 Heat loss from piping while the heat collecting pump is shutdown
4355 Correction of piping heat loss
44 Heat accumulator subsystem
441 Temperature distribution
442 MES evaporator subsystem
5 The Simulation Program
51 Program structure
52 Input and output data
6 Results
7 Conclusions
Index 379
About EOLSS 385
VOLUME VI
Modeling and Design of Solar Energy Systems Including Solar Economics 1
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 F-Chart Method
11 Performance and Design of Liquid-Based Solar Heating Systems
111 Storage Capacity Correction
112 Collector Flow Rate Correction
113 Load Heat Exchanger Size Correction
12 Performance and Design of Air-Based Solar Heating Systems
121 Pebble Bed Storage Size Correction
122 Air Flow Rate Correction
13 Performance and Design of Solar Service Water Systems
14 Thermosiphon Solar Water Heating Systems
15 General Remarks
2 Modeling and Simulation of Solar Energy Systems
21 Simple System Models
211 Pipe Losses
22 F-Chart Program
23 Trnsys Simulation Program
24 Limitations of Simulations
3 Solar Economic Analysis
31 Life Cycle Costing
32 Life Cycle Analysis Method
33 Payback Time
331 Not Discounted Fuel Savings
332 Discounted Fuel Savings
34 Alternative Method
341 System Optimization Using Economic Analysis
35 Uncertainties in Economic Analysis
Solar Energy Power Generation and Desalination Systems 47
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 Global Energy Problems and the Role of Renewables
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxi
11 Energy demand
12 Energy environmental problems and sustainable development
13 Water demand and consumption
14 Water and energy
15 Desalination and energy
16 Renewable energy technologies
2 Solar Collectors
21 Parabolic trough collectors
22 Fresnel collectors
23 Parabolic dish reflector
24 Heliostat field collector
3 Power Generation and Industrial Process Heat Systems
31 Parabolic trough collector systems
32 Power tower systems
33 Dish systems
34 Solar ponds
341 Heat extraction and applications
35 Industrial process heat systems
36 Solar industrial steam generation systems
4 Desalination Processes
41 Direct collection systems
42 Indirect collection systems
421 The multi-stage flash process
422 The multiple-effect distillation process
423 The vapor-compression process
424 Reverse osmosis
425 Electrodialysis
Solar Updraft Power Plant Technology Basic Concepts and Structural Design 94
Francesca Lupi University of Florence Florence Italy
Claudio Borri University of Florence Florence Italy
Wilfried B Kraumltzig Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
Hans-Juumlrgen Niemann Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
1 Solar Updraft Power Technology Introduction and Working Principles
2 History of the Solar Updraft Power Technology
21 Solar Tower Prototype in Manzanares (Spain)
3 Evaluation of Plant Efficiency
31 The Collector
32 The Chimney
33 The Turbines
34 Electric Power Generated by Supps
4 The Collector
5 Actions on Solar Updraft Towers
6 Wind Loading on Solar Updraft Towers
61 Wind Flow Structure in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer at High Altitudes
611 Boundary Layer Meteorology
612 The Ekman Spiral
613 Theoretical Considerations on the Mean Wind and Turbulence in the Ekman Layer
62 Modeling of the Wind Load on Solar Towers
621 Mean Wind Load
622 Response to Wind Turbulence
623 Fluctuating Wind Load
624 Equivalent Static Wind Pressures
625 Vortex Excitation
626 Other Effects The Effect of the Efflux
63 Wind Load on the Collector Roof
7 Structural Behavior of Solar Updraft Towers
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxii
71 Structural Elements of Solar Tower Shells
72 Some Typical Response Characteristics of Solar Tower Shells Vibration and Instability
Behavior
73 Non-Linear Tower Response
8 Structural Optimization of Solar Updraft Towers
81 The Role of the Stiffening Rings in the Structural Design of Solar Towers
82 Strategies of Optimization
9 Technology of Construction
Renewable Energy Potential in The Arab Region 162
Mohammed Mostafa El-Khayat General Manager of Planning New and Renewable Energy Authority
NREA Cairo Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Research Problem and Objectives
111 Research Problem
12 Research Objectives
2 Energy Demand
3 The Current Situation of Renewable Energy
31 Hydropower
32 Wind Energy
33 Solar Energy
34 Biomass and Geothermal Energy
4 Strategies
5 Institutional and Regulatory Framework
6 Main Policies and Incentives
7 RE Policies and Incentives Profiles
71 Algeria
72 Egypt
73 Jordan
74 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
75 Lebanon
76 Libya
77 Morocco
78 Palestine
79 Sudan
710 Syria
711 Tunisia
712 United Arab Emirates
713 Yemen
8 Financing Schemes and Investment Opportunities
9 Motivations and Barriers of Renewable Energy
10 Renewable Energy Initiatives
101 Arabian Initiatives
102 DESERTEC
11 Potential of Renewable Energy in the Region
12 The proposed mechanisms to enhance and accelerate the rate of using RE applications
13 The situation of localizing RE technologies
14 RE and climate change in Arab countries
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
198
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiii
22 Humidifying with Cooling and Dehumidifying Processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in HD Desalination Process
25 Overview on Some Desalination HD Projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process Description
32 The Condenser in the SWGH
321 Different Condenser Layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the Condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of Condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot Plant
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH Project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot Plant
522 Performances of the Pilot Plant
53 The SWGH Project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot Plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Evolution of Photovoltaic Materials for Renewable Energy Development 262
Abdelilah Slaoui InESS ndash CNRS ndash University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
Jef Poortmans IMEC Leuven Belgium
Marko Topic University of Ljubljana Faculty of Elec Eng Ljubljana Slovenia
Gavin Conibeer ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence UNSW Sydney Australia
1 General Introduction
2 Photovoltaic Materials and Technologies State of the Art
21 Crystalline Silicon
22 Thin Films
221 Amorphous Silicon
222 Nanocrystalline and Microcrystalline Silicon
223 Polycrystalline Silicon
224 Copper Indium Selenide Its alloys and Related Chalcopyrites
225 Cadmium Telluride
226 Materials for Photochemical Solar Cells
227 Materials for Organic Solar Cells
3 Next Generation Solar Cells
31 Introduction
32 Multiple energy level approaches
33 Multiple Exciton Generation solar cells
34 Intermediate Band (IB) cells
35 Hot carrier cells
4 Conclusions and Perspectives
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiv
Wind and Solar Renewable Energy Potential Resources Estimation 302
Philippe Drobinski Institut Pierre Simon LaplaceLaboratoire de Meacuteteacuteorologie Dynamique CNRSEcole
Polytechnique Palaiseau France
1 Renewable Wind and Solar Energies The Context
11 An Economical and Environmental Necessity
12 Energy Definitions and Units
2 Basic Knowledge in Geophysics for Energy Resource Evaluation
21 Earth Energy Budget and Atmospheric Motion
22 Near Surface Wind
23 Impacts of Clouds and Aerosols on Surface Solar Radiation
3 Wind Energy Resource
31 Wind Energy A Brief History
32 Wind Energy Resources Evaluation
33 Wind Energy Installed Capacity in the World
4 Solar Energy Resources
41 Solar Energy An Introduction
42 Worldwide Solar Heat
5 Methods for Wind and Solar Energy Resources Forecast
Index 353
About EOLSS 361
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxv
421 IST Parabolic Reflector
422 Support Structure
423 Absorber Element
424 Tracking System and Field Control System
425 Heat Transfer Fluid System
426 Heat Exchanger
427 Balance of Plant Technology
428 Energy Storage
5 Prospects and Potential
51 Solar Electric Power Generation
52 Solar Process Heat Generation
53 Solar Thermal Water Desalination
6 Cost and Economic Aspects
61 Collector Investment Costs
611 LS 3 Collector Costs
612 IST Collector Costs
62 Other Economic Parameters
621 Fossil Fuel Prices
622 Solar Energy Yield
623 Solar Share
624 Plant Power Size
625 Capacity Factor
626 OampM Costs
627 Non-Technical Parameters
63 Costs of Solar Water Desalination
7 Conclusions
Index 363
About EOLSS 369
VOLUME V
Central Receivers 1
MM Elsayed Mechanical Engineering Department Kuwait University Safat Kuwait
1 Introduction
2 Heliostats Types and Design Shapes
3 Heliostat Angles
4 Heliostat Field Heliostat Layout
5 Heliostat Field Cosine Effect
6 Heliostat Field Preliminary Sizing of the Field
7 Heliostat Field Usefulness Efficiency
8 Reflected Solar Radiation
9 The Effective Sunshape
10 Principal Images and Relation between Receiver and Image Planes
11 Models to Predict the Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Image Plane
111 Incoming Ray Formulation
112 The Mirror Plane Formulation
113 Solar Disk Formulation
114 The Pinhole View
12 Solar Flux Density Distribution on the Receiver Surface Using the Separation of
VariableSuperposition Technique
121 Concept
122 Calculation of φ 123 Validation of Model Using Measurements
13 Receivers Types and Losses
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvi
14 Preliminary Sizing of the Receiver
15 Overall System Optimization
Configuration Theoretical Analysis and Performance of Simple Solar Stills 98
A Kumar Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources Solar Energy Center New Delhi India
1 Introduction
2 Configuration of Simple Solar Stills
21 Basic Principle
22 Classification
23 Single Basin Solar Stills
24 Inclined Solar Stills
241 Basin Type Solar Stills
242 Wick Type Solar Stills
25 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
26 Solar Earth Water Stills
27 Plastic Solar Stills
271 Life Raft Solar Still
272 Circular Solar Still
273 Extruded Plastic Solar Still
274 Concentric Tube Solar Still
28 A Typical Solar Distillation Plant
3 Theoretical Analysis of Simple Solar Stills
31 Heat and Mass Transfer in Solar Stills
311 Inside the Solar Still
312 Outside the Solar Still
32 Solar Radiation Balance
321 Transmission through Top Cover
322 Absorption in the Top Cover
33 Energy Balance Equations
34 Solution Procedure
4 Performance of Solar Stills
41 Single Basin Solar Stills
42 Inclined Solar Stills
43 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
44 Solar Earth Water Stills
45 Plastic Solar Stills
46 Case Studies
461 Australia
462 Greek Islands
463 India
47 Suggested Practices for Installing Solar Stills
Development in Simple Solar Stills 169
Hassan ES Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Modified Simple (Passive) Stills
21 Basin Still
211 Single Slope versus Double Slope Basin Stills
212 Basin Still with Cover Cooling
213 Basin Still with Treated Cover Surface
214 Basin Still with Additional Condenser
215 Basin Still with Black DyeMuddy Water
22 Wick Stills
221 Single-wick Stills
222 Multi-wick Stills
223 Wick versus Basin Stills
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvii
224 Combined Wick-Basin Stills
23 Other Stills Configurations
231 Vertical Microporous Evaporator Still
232 Cascade Solar Still
233 Still Integrated with Greenhouse
3 Externally Heated (Active) Solar Stills
31 Introduction
32 Stills Coupled to a Solar Collector
321 Direct and Indirect Heating
322 Use of Dye and Cover Cooling
323 Other Solar Heaters
33 Stills Coupled with Solar Concentrator
34 The Use of Waste Heat in Solar Stills
4 Other Types of Solar Distillation Systems
41 Water Recovery from Air
Multi-Effect Solar Stills 197
HES Fath Al-Jubail 31951 Saudi Arabia
1 Why Multi Effect
2 Double Effect Basin Stills
21 Double Basins Stills
22 Double Effect Tilted Stills
23 Purging Vapor to a Second Effect
3 Multi-Effect Multi-Wick Stills
4 Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
41 Introduction
42 Mass Diffusion
43 Comparison between Diffusion and Basin Stills
44 Description of Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
45 Analysis and Performance Considerations
5 Other Distillation Systems
51 Stacked Tray Stills
52 Multi-Effect Humidification-Dehumidification
Materials for Construction of Solar Stills 218
TA Lawand and J Ayoub Brace Research Institute Canada
1 Introduction
2 General Specifications of Solar Stills
3 Transparent Cover
4 Basin Liner
5 Solar Still Frame
6 Sealants
7 Insulation
8 Auxiliaries - Piping Pumping and Reservoirs
Reverse Osmosis by Solar Energy 225
W Bucher DLR German Aerospace Research Establishment Cologne Germany
1 Introduction
2 Basic Parameters and Energy Demand for Osmosis
21 Physical Properties of Hyperfiltration
22 Energy required for the RO Process
3 Solar Power Conversion Systems
31 Solar Conversion Principles
32 Technical Data of Solar Energy Conversion Methods
33 RO Plant Operation Utilizing Variable Energy Sources
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxviii
4 Reverse Osmosis System Configuration and Operation Aspects
41 Process Design of RO Desalination Systems
42 Procedural Steps and Data for Water Treatment and Energy Consumption
43 Components of RO -Desalination
431 Membranes and Modules
432 High Pressure Pumps
433 Pressure Regulating Devices
5 Solar Powered Desalination Units
51 Specific Figures or RO Systems
52 Solar Power Concepts for RO Desalination
53 Operational Experience with Solar driven RO Systems
6 Costs
61 Specific Cost Figures for the Plant Components
62 Water Delivery Cost
Availability of Solar Radiation and Its Estimation 265
VG Belessiotis Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems National Center for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun and the Radiation Emitted
21 The Physics of the Sun
22 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
3 The Extraterrestrial Radiation
31 What is the Solar Constant
32 Variations of the Extraterrestrial Radiation
33 The Black-body Emittance and Absorptance
34 Blackbody Absorbers - Application to Desalination
4 The Co-ordinate Systems The Basic Solar Angles
41 The Earth-Sun Relationships
42 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Sky
43 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Celestial Sphere
44 Earth-Sun Geometric Relationship
45 Time and its Units - Day Length
46 Terrestrial Solar Radiation
461 Estimation of Radiation Availability
462 Average Radiation Values - Clearness Index
463 Clear Sky Radiation
464 Sky Radiation
47 Atmospheric Factors Affecting Radiation
5 Computation of Insolation at the Earths Surface
51 Insolation Data
52 Measurement of Solar Radiation
53 Models for Solar Radiation
54 Where the Models Apply
55 Tilted Surfaces - Absorptance of Solar Radiation
551 Fixed Tilted Surfaces
552 Tracking Surfaces
6 Applications of Solar Radiation
7 Impact of Solar Energy to the Environment
Economics of Small Solar-Assisted Multiple-Effect Seawater Distillation Plants 296
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Configurations
3 Design and Sizing Considerations
31 Thermal Energy Requirement
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxix
32 Pumping Requirements
33 Collector Performance
34 Sizing Thermal Collector Area
35 Sizing the PV System
351 Sizing the PV Array
4 Economic Ground Rules and Water Cost Optimization
41 Capital Equipment Cost
42 Operating Costs
43 Optimum Cost of Water for each Plant Configuration
5 Results
6 Conclusion
A Solar-Assisted Sea Water Multiple Effect Distillation Plant 15 Years of Operating
Performance (1985-1999) 316
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Basic Design Concept
21 General Plant Description
22 Design Specifications
23 Evaporator Heat Transfer Coefficient
24 Tube Dimensions Heat Transfer Areas and Materials
3 Performance during Commissioning Tests
31 The MES Evaporator
32 The Solar Collector Field
33 The Heat Accumulator
34 Total Plant Performance
4 Performance History
41 The MES Evaporator
42 The Solar Collector Field
43 The Heat Accumulator
431 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
4311 The heat balance method
4312 The direct temperature measurement method
4313 Thermal stratification ratio
44 Total Plant Performance
5 Major Maintenance Activities
51 Equipment Failure and Replacement
52 Acid Cleanings and Silt Removal from Evaporator
6 Evaluation of Water Cost
61 Capital Costs
62 Operation and Maintenance Costs
7 Conclusions
Mathematical Simulation of a Solar Desalination Plant 341
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Description
3 System Operating Conditions
31 Solar Heat Collecting Subsystem
32 Evaporator Subsystem
4 Mathematical Modeling of System Components
41 Solar radiation model
42 Ambient temperature model
43 Solar collector subsystem
431 Effect of shade on solar radiation
432 Effect of dust on transmissivity of glass tubes
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxx
433 Control of heat collecting operation
434 Heat collection by solar collectors
435 Heat loss from piping
4351 Piping specifications
4352 Standard pipe lengths
4353 Heat loss from piping during operation of heat collecting pump
4354 Heat loss from piping while the heat collecting pump is shutdown
4355 Correction of piping heat loss
44 Heat accumulator subsystem
441 Temperature distribution
442 MES evaporator subsystem
5 The Simulation Program
51 Program structure
52 Input and output data
6 Results
7 Conclusions
Index 379
About EOLSS 385
VOLUME VI
Modeling and Design of Solar Energy Systems Including Solar Economics 1
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 F-Chart Method
11 Performance and Design of Liquid-Based Solar Heating Systems
111 Storage Capacity Correction
112 Collector Flow Rate Correction
113 Load Heat Exchanger Size Correction
12 Performance and Design of Air-Based Solar Heating Systems
121 Pebble Bed Storage Size Correction
122 Air Flow Rate Correction
13 Performance and Design of Solar Service Water Systems
14 Thermosiphon Solar Water Heating Systems
15 General Remarks
2 Modeling and Simulation of Solar Energy Systems
21 Simple System Models
211 Pipe Losses
22 F-Chart Program
23 Trnsys Simulation Program
24 Limitations of Simulations
3 Solar Economic Analysis
31 Life Cycle Costing
32 Life Cycle Analysis Method
33 Payback Time
331 Not Discounted Fuel Savings
332 Discounted Fuel Savings
34 Alternative Method
341 System Optimization Using Economic Analysis
35 Uncertainties in Economic Analysis
Solar Energy Power Generation and Desalination Systems 47
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 Global Energy Problems and the Role of Renewables
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxi
11 Energy demand
12 Energy environmental problems and sustainable development
13 Water demand and consumption
14 Water and energy
15 Desalination and energy
16 Renewable energy technologies
2 Solar Collectors
21 Parabolic trough collectors
22 Fresnel collectors
23 Parabolic dish reflector
24 Heliostat field collector
3 Power Generation and Industrial Process Heat Systems
31 Parabolic trough collector systems
32 Power tower systems
33 Dish systems
34 Solar ponds
341 Heat extraction and applications
35 Industrial process heat systems
36 Solar industrial steam generation systems
4 Desalination Processes
41 Direct collection systems
42 Indirect collection systems
421 The multi-stage flash process
422 The multiple-effect distillation process
423 The vapor-compression process
424 Reverse osmosis
425 Electrodialysis
Solar Updraft Power Plant Technology Basic Concepts and Structural Design 94
Francesca Lupi University of Florence Florence Italy
Claudio Borri University of Florence Florence Italy
Wilfried B Kraumltzig Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
Hans-Juumlrgen Niemann Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
1 Solar Updraft Power Technology Introduction and Working Principles
2 History of the Solar Updraft Power Technology
21 Solar Tower Prototype in Manzanares (Spain)
3 Evaluation of Plant Efficiency
31 The Collector
32 The Chimney
33 The Turbines
34 Electric Power Generated by Supps
4 The Collector
5 Actions on Solar Updraft Towers
6 Wind Loading on Solar Updraft Towers
61 Wind Flow Structure in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer at High Altitudes
611 Boundary Layer Meteorology
612 The Ekman Spiral
613 Theoretical Considerations on the Mean Wind and Turbulence in the Ekman Layer
62 Modeling of the Wind Load on Solar Towers
621 Mean Wind Load
622 Response to Wind Turbulence
623 Fluctuating Wind Load
624 Equivalent Static Wind Pressures
625 Vortex Excitation
626 Other Effects The Effect of the Efflux
63 Wind Load on the Collector Roof
7 Structural Behavior of Solar Updraft Towers
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxii
71 Structural Elements of Solar Tower Shells
72 Some Typical Response Characteristics of Solar Tower Shells Vibration and Instability
Behavior
73 Non-Linear Tower Response
8 Structural Optimization of Solar Updraft Towers
81 The Role of the Stiffening Rings in the Structural Design of Solar Towers
82 Strategies of Optimization
9 Technology of Construction
Renewable Energy Potential in The Arab Region 162
Mohammed Mostafa El-Khayat General Manager of Planning New and Renewable Energy Authority
NREA Cairo Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Research Problem and Objectives
111 Research Problem
12 Research Objectives
2 Energy Demand
3 The Current Situation of Renewable Energy
31 Hydropower
32 Wind Energy
33 Solar Energy
34 Biomass and Geothermal Energy
4 Strategies
5 Institutional and Regulatory Framework
6 Main Policies and Incentives
7 RE Policies and Incentives Profiles
71 Algeria
72 Egypt
73 Jordan
74 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
75 Lebanon
76 Libya
77 Morocco
78 Palestine
79 Sudan
710 Syria
711 Tunisia
712 United Arab Emirates
713 Yemen
8 Financing Schemes and Investment Opportunities
9 Motivations and Barriers of Renewable Energy
10 Renewable Energy Initiatives
101 Arabian Initiatives
102 DESERTEC
11 Potential of Renewable Energy in the Region
12 The proposed mechanisms to enhance and accelerate the rate of using RE applications
13 The situation of localizing RE technologies
14 RE and climate change in Arab countries
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
198
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiii
22 Humidifying with Cooling and Dehumidifying Processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in HD Desalination Process
25 Overview on Some Desalination HD Projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process Description
32 The Condenser in the SWGH
321 Different Condenser Layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the Condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of Condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot Plant
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH Project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot Plant
522 Performances of the Pilot Plant
53 The SWGH Project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot Plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Evolution of Photovoltaic Materials for Renewable Energy Development 262
Abdelilah Slaoui InESS ndash CNRS ndash University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
Jef Poortmans IMEC Leuven Belgium
Marko Topic University of Ljubljana Faculty of Elec Eng Ljubljana Slovenia
Gavin Conibeer ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence UNSW Sydney Australia
1 General Introduction
2 Photovoltaic Materials and Technologies State of the Art
21 Crystalline Silicon
22 Thin Films
221 Amorphous Silicon
222 Nanocrystalline and Microcrystalline Silicon
223 Polycrystalline Silicon
224 Copper Indium Selenide Its alloys and Related Chalcopyrites
225 Cadmium Telluride
226 Materials for Photochemical Solar Cells
227 Materials for Organic Solar Cells
3 Next Generation Solar Cells
31 Introduction
32 Multiple energy level approaches
33 Multiple Exciton Generation solar cells
34 Intermediate Band (IB) cells
35 Hot carrier cells
4 Conclusions and Perspectives
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiv
Wind and Solar Renewable Energy Potential Resources Estimation 302
Philippe Drobinski Institut Pierre Simon LaplaceLaboratoire de Meacuteteacuteorologie Dynamique CNRSEcole
Polytechnique Palaiseau France
1 Renewable Wind and Solar Energies The Context
11 An Economical and Environmental Necessity
12 Energy Definitions and Units
2 Basic Knowledge in Geophysics for Energy Resource Evaluation
21 Earth Energy Budget and Atmospheric Motion
22 Near Surface Wind
23 Impacts of Clouds and Aerosols on Surface Solar Radiation
3 Wind Energy Resource
31 Wind Energy A Brief History
32 Wind Energy Resources Evaluation
33 Wind Energy Installed Capacity in the World
4 Solar Energy Resources
41 Solar Energy An Introduction
42 Worldwide Solar Heat
5 Methods for Wind and Solar Energy Resources Forecast
Index 353
About EOLSS 361
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvi
14 Preliminary Sizing of the Receiver
15 Overall System Optimization
Configuration Theoretical Analysis and Performance of Simple Solar Stills 98
A Kumar Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources Solar Energy Center New Delhi India
1 Introduction
2 Configuration of Simple Solar Stills
21 Basic Principle
22 Classification
23 Single Basin Solar Stills
24 Inclined Solar Stills
241 Basin Type Solar Stills
242 Wick Type Solar Stills
25 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
26 Solar Earth Water Stills
27 Plastic Solar Stills
271 Life Raft Solar Still
272 Circular Solar Still
273 Extruded Plastic Solar Still
274 Concentric Tube Solar Still
28 A Typical Solar Distillation Plant
3 Theoretical Analysis of Simple Solar Stills
31 Heat and Mass Transfer in Solar Stills
311 Inside the Solar Still
312 Outside the Solar Still
32 Solar Radiation Balance
321 Transmission through Top Cover
322 Absorption in the Top Cover
33 Energy Balance Equations
34 Solution Procedure
4 Performance of Solar Stills
41 Single Basin Solar Stills
42 Inclined Solar Stills
43 Multi-Basin Solar Stills
44 Solar Earth Water Stills
45 Plastic Solar Stills
46 Case Studies
461 Australia
462 Greek Islands
463 India
47 Suggested Practices for Installing Solar Stills
Development in Simple Solar Stills 169
Hassan ES Fath El-Banna for Desalination and Energy Technology Alexandria Egypt
1 Introduction
2 Modified Simple (Passive) Stills
21 Basin Still
211 Single Slope versus Double Slope Basin Stills
212 Basin Still with Cover Cooling
213 Basin Still with Treated Cover Surface
214 Basin Still with Additional Condenser
215 Basin Still with Black DyeMuddy Water
22 Wick Stills
221 Single-wick Stills
222 Multi-wick Stills
223 Wick versus Basin Stills
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvii
224 Combined Wick-Basin Stills
23 Other Stills Configurations
231 Vertical Microporous Evaporator Still
232 Cascade Solar Still
233 Still Integrated with Greenhouse
3 Externally Heated (Active) Solar Stills
31 Introduction
32 Stills Coupled to a Solar Collector
321 Direct and Indirect Heating
322 Use of Dye and Cover Cooling
323 Other Solar Heaters
33 Stills Coupled with Solar Concentrator
34 The Use of Waste Heat in Solar Stills
4 Other Types of Solar Distillation Systems
41 Water Recovery from Air
Multi-Effect Solar Stills 197
HES Fath Al-Jubail 31951 Saudi Arabia
1 Why Multi Effect
2 Double Effect Basin Stills
21 Double Basins Stills
22 Double Effect Tilted Stills
23 Purging Vapor to a Second Effect
3 Multi-Effect Multi-Wick Stills
4 Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
41 Introduction
42 Mass Diffusion
43 Comparison between Diffusion and Basin Stills
44 Description of Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
45 Analysis and Performance Considerations
5 Other Distillation Systems
51 Stacked Tray Stills
52 Multi-Effect Humidification-Dehumidification
Materials for Construction of Solar Stills 218
TA Lawand and J Ayoub Brace Research Institute Canada
1 Introduction
2 General Specifications of Solar Stills
3 Transparent Cover
4 Basin Liner
5 Solar Still Frame
6 Sealants
7 Insulation
8 Auxiliaries - Piping Pumping and Reservoirs
Reverse Osmosis by Solar Energy 225
W Bucher DLR German Aerospace Research Establishment Cologne Germany
1 Introduction
2 Basic Parameters and Energy Demand for Osmosis
21 Physical Properties of Hyperfiltration
22 Energy required for the RO Process
3 Solar Power Conversion Systems
31 Solar Conversion Principles
32 Technical Data of Solar Energy Conversion Methods
33 RO Plant Operation Utilizing Variable Energy Sources
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxviii
4 Reverse Osmosis System Configuration and Operation Aspects
41 Process Design of RO Desalination Systems
42 Procedural Steps and Data for Water Treatment and Energy Consumption
43 Components of RO -Desalination
431 Membranes and Modules
432 High Pressure Pumps
433 Pressure Regulating Devices
5 Solar Powered Desalination Units
51 Specific Figures or RO Systems
52 Solar Power Concepts for RO Desalination
53 Operational Experience with Solar driven RO Systems
6 Costs
61 Specific Cost Figures for the Plant Components
62 Water Delivery Cost
Availability of Solar Radiation and Its Estimation 265
VG Belessiotis Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems National Center for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun and the Radiation Emitted
21 The Physics of the Sun
22 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
3 The Extraterrestrial Radiation
31 What is the Solar Constant
32 Variations of the Extraterrestrial Radiation
33 The Black-body Emittance and Absorptance
34 Blackbody Absorbers - Application to Desalination
4 The Co-ordinate Systems The Basic Solar Angles
41 The Earth-Sun Relationships
42 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Sky
43 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Celestial Sphere
44 Earth-Sun Geometric Relationship
45 Time and its Units - Day Length
46 Terrestrial Solar Radiation
461 Estimation of Radiation Availability
462 Average Radiation Values - Clearness Index
463 Clear Sky Radiation
464 Sky Radiation
47 Atmospheric Factors Affecting Radiation
5 Computation of Insolation at the Earths Surface
51 Insolation Data
52 Measurement of Solar Radiation
53 Models for Solar Radiation
54 Where the Models Apply
55 Tilted Surfaces - Absorptance of Solar Radiation
551 Fixed Tilted Surfaces
552 Tracking Surfaces
6 Applications of Solar Radiation
7 Impact of Solar Energy to the Environment
Economics of Small Solar-Assisted Multiple-Effect Seawater Distillation Plants 296
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Configurations
3 Design and Sizing Considerations
31 Thermal Energy Requirement
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxix
32 Pumping Requirements
33 Collector Performance
34 Sizing Thermal Collector Area
35 Sizing the PV System
351 Sizing the PV Array
4 Economic Ground Rules and Water Cost Optimization
41 Capital Equipment Cost
42 Operating Costs
43 Optimum Cost of Water for each Plant Configuration
5 Results
6 Conclusion
A Solar-Assisted Sea Water Multiple Effect Distillation Plant 15 Years of Operating
Performance (1985-1999) 316
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Basic Design Concept
21 General Plant Description
22 Design Specifications
23 Evaporator Heat Transfer Coefficient
24 Tube Dimensions Heat Transfer Areas and Materials
3 Performance during Commissioning Tests
31 The MES Evaporator
32 The Solar Collector Field
33 The Heat Accumulator
34 Total Plant Performance
4 Performance History
41 The MES Evaporator
42 The Solar Collector Field
43 The Heat Accumulator
431 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
4311 The heat balance method
4312 The direct temperature measurement method
4313 Thermal stratification ratio
44 Total Plant Performance
5 Major Maintenance Activities
51 Equipment Failure and Replacement
52 Acid Cleanings and Silt Removal from Evaporator
6 Evaluation of Water Cost
61 Capital Costs
62 Operation and Maintenance Costs
7 Conclusions
Mathematical Simulation of a Solar Desalination Plant 341
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Description
3 System Operating Conditions
31 Solar Heat Collecting Subsystem
32 Evaporator Subsystem
4 Mathematical Modeling of System Components
41 Solar radiation model
42 Ambient temperature model
43 Solar collector subsystem
431 Effect of shade on solar radiation
432 Effect of dust on transmissivity of glass tubes
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxx
433 Control of heat collecting operation
434 Heat collection by solar collectors
435 Heat loss from piping
4351 Piping specifications
4352 Standard pipe lengths
4353 Heat loss from piping during operation of heat collecting pump
4354 Heat loss from piping while the heat collecting pump is shutdown
4355 Correction of piping heat loss
44 Heat accumulator subsystem
441 Temperature distribution
442 MES evaporator subsystem
5 The Simulation Program
51 Program structure
52 Input and output data
6 Results
7 Conclusions
Index 379
About EOLSS 385
VOLUME VI
Modeling and Design of Solar Energy Systems Including Solar Economics 1
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 F-Chart Method
11 Performance and Design of Liquid-Based Solar Heating Systems
111 Storage Capacity Correction
112 Collector Flow Rate Correction
113 Load Heat Exchanger Size Correction
12 Performance and Design of Air-Based Solar Heating Systems
121 Pebble Bed Storage Size Correction
122 Air Flow Rate Correction
13 Performance and Design of Solar Service Water Systems
14 Thermosiphon Solar Water Heating Systems
15 General Remarks
2 Modeling and Simulation of Solar Energy Systems
21 Simple System Models
211 Pipe Losses
22 F-Chart Program
23 Trnsys Simulation Program
24 Limitations of Simulations
3 Solar Economic Analysis
31 Life Cycle Costing
32 Life Cycle Analysis Method
33 Payback Time
331 Not Discounted Fuel Savings
332 Discounted Fuel Savings
34 Alternative Method
341 System Optimization Using Economic Analysis
35 Uncertainties in Economic Analysis
Solar Energy Power Generation and Desalination Systems 47
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 Global Energy Problems and the Role of Renewables
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxi
11 Energy demand
12 Energy environmental problems and sustainable development
13 Water demand and consumption
14 Water and energy
15 Desalination and energy
16 Renewable energy technologies
2 Solar Collectors
21 Parabolic trough collectors
22 Fresnel collectors
23 Parabolic dish reflector
24 Heliostat field collector
3 Power Generation and Industrial Process Heat Systems
31 Parabolic trough collector systems
32 Power tower systems
33 Dish systems
34 Solar ponds
341 Heat extraction and applications
35 Industrial process heat systems
36 Solar industrial steam generation systems
4 Desalination Processes
41 Direct collection systems
42 Indirect collection systems
421 The multi-stage flash process
422 The multiple-effect distillation process
423 The vapor-compression process
424 Reverse osmosis
425 Electrodialysis
Solar Updraft Power Plant Technology Basic Concepts and Structural Design 94
Francesca Lupi University of Florence Florence Italy
Claudio Borri University of Florence Florence Italy
Wilfried B Kraumltzig Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
Hans-Juumlrgen Niemann Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
1 Solar Updraft Power Technology Introduction and Working Principles
2 History of the Solar Updraft Power Technology
21 Solar Tower Prototype in Manzanares (Spain)
3 Evaluation of Plant Efficiency
31 The Collector
32 The Chimney
33 The Turbines
34 Electric Power Generated by Supps
4 The Collector
5 Actions on Solar Updraft Towers
6 Wind Loading on Solar Updraft Towers
61 Wind Flow Structure in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer at High Altitudes
611 Boundary Layer Meteorology
612 The Ekman Spiral
613 Theoretical Considerations on the Mean Wind and Turbulence in the Ekman Layer
62 Modeling of the Wind Load on Solar Towers
621 Mean Wind Load
622 Response to Wind Turbulence
623 Fluctuating Wind Load
624 Equivalent Static Wind Pressures
625 Vortex Excitation
626 Other Effects The Effect of the Efflux
63 Wind Load on the Collector Roof
7 Structural Behavior of Solar Updraft Towers
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxii
71 Structural Elements of Solar Tower Shells
72 Some Typical Response Characteristics of Solar Tower Shells Vibration and Instability
Behavior
73 Non-Linear Tower Response
8 Structural Optimization of Solar Updraft Towers
81 The Role of the Stiffening Rings in the Structural Design of Solar Towers
82 Strategies of Optimization
9 Technology of Construction
Renewable Energy Potential in The Arab Region 162
Mohammed Mostafa El-Khayat General Manager of Planning New and Renewable Energy Authority
NREA Cairo Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Research Problem and Objectives
111 Research Problem
12 Research Objectives
2 Energy Demand
3 The Current Situation of Renewable Energy
31 Hydropower
32 Wind Energy
33 Solar Energy
34 Biomass and Geothermal Energy
4 Strategies
5 Institutional and Regulatory Framework
6 Main Policies and Incentives
7 RE Policies and Incentives Profiles
71 Algeria
72 Egypt
73 Jordan
74 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
75 Lebanon
76 Libya
77 Morocco
78 Palestine
79 Sudan
710 Syria
711 Tunisia
712 United Arab Emirates
713 Yemen
8 Financing Schemes and Investment Opportunities
9 Motivations and Barriers of Renewable Energy
10 Renewable Energy Initiatives
101 Arabian Initiatives
102 DESERTEC
11 Potential of Renewable Energy in the Region
12 The proposed mechanisms to enhance and accelerate the rate of using RE applications
13 The situation of localizing RE technologies
14 RE and climate change in Arab countries
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
198
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiii
22 Humidifying with Cooling and Dehumidifying Processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in HD Desalination Process
25 Overview on Some Desalination HD Projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process Description
32 The Condenser in the SWGH
321 Different Condenser Layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the Condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of Condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot Plant
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH Project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot Plant
522 Performances of the Pilot Plant
53 The SWGH Project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot Plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Evolution of Photovoltaic Materials for Renewable Energy Development 262
Abdelilah Slaoui InESS ndash CNRS ndash University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
Jef Poortmans IMEC Leuven Belgium
Marko Topic University of Ljubljana Faculty of Elec Eng Ljubljana Slovenia
Gavin Conibeer ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence UNSW Sydney Australia
1 General Introduction
2 Photovoltaic Materials and Technologies State of the Art
21 Crystalline Silicon
22 Thin Films
221 Amorphous Silicon
222 Nanocrystalline and Microcrystalline Silicon
223 Polycrystalline Silicon
224 Copper Indium Selenide Its alloys and Related Chalcopyrites
225 Cadmium Telluride
226 Materials for Photochemical Solar Cells
227 Materials for Organic Solar Cells
3 Next Generation Solar Cells
31 Introduction
32 Multiple energy level approaches
33 Multiple Exciton Generation solar cells
34 Intermediate Band (IB) cells
35 Hot carrier cells
4 Conclusions and Perspectives
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiv
Wind and Solar Renewable Energy Potential Resources Estimation 302
Philippe Drobinski Institut Pierre Simon LaplaceLaboratoire de Meacuteteacuteorologie Dynamique CNRSEcole
Polytechnique Palaiseau France
1 Renewable Wind and Solar Energies The Context
11 An Economical and Environmental Necessity
12 Energy Definitions and Units
2 Basic Knowledge in Geophysics for Energy Resource Evaluation
21 Earth Energy Budget and Atmospheric Motion
22 Near Surface Wind
23 Impacts of Clouds and Aerosols on Surface Solar Radiation
3 Wind Energy Resource
31 Wind Energy A Brief History
32 Wind Energy Resources Evaluation
33 Wind Energy Installed Capacity in the World
4 Solar Energy Resources
41 Solar Energy An Introduction
42 Worldwide Solar Heat
5 Methods for Wind and Solar Energy Resources Forecast
Index 353
About EOLSS 361
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxvii
224 Combined Wick-Basin Stills
23 Other Stills Configurations
231 Vertical Microporous Evaporator Still
232 Cascade Solar Still
233 Still Integrated with Greenhouse
3 Externally Heated (Active) Solar Stills
31 Introduction
32 Stills Coupled to a Solar Collector
321 Direct and Indirect Heating
322 Use of Dye and Cover Cooling
323 Other Solar Heaters
33 Stills Coupled with Solar Concentrator
34 The Use of Waste Heat in Solar Stills
4 Other Types of Solar Distillation Systems
41 Water Recovery from Air
Multi-Effect Solar Stills 197
HES Fath Al-Jubail 31951 Saudi Arabia
1 Why Multi Effect
2 Double Effect Basin Stills
21 Double Basins Stills
22 Double Effect Tilted Stills
23 Purging Vapor to a Second Effect
3 Multi-Effect Multi-Wick Stills
4 Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
41 Introduction
42 Mass Diffusion
43 Comparison between Diffusion and Basin Stills
44 Description of Multi-Effect Diffusion Stills
45 Analysis and Performance Considerations
5 Other Distillation Systems
51 Stacked Tray Stills
52 Multi-Effect Humidification-Dehumidification
Materials for Construction of Solar Stills 218
TA Lawand and J Ayoub Brace Research Institute Canada
1 Introduction
2 General Specifications of Solar Stills
3 Transparent Cover
4 Basin Liner
5 Solar Still Frame
6 Sealants
7 Insulation
8 Auxiliaries - Piping Pumping and Reservoirs
Reverse Osmosis by Solar Energy 225
W Bucher DLR German Aerospace Research Establishment Cologne Germany
1 Introduction
2 Basic Parameters and Energy Demand for Osmosis
21 Physical Properties of Hyperfiltration
22 Energy required for the RO Process
3 Solar Power Conversion Systems
31 Solar Conversion Principles
32 Technical Data of Solar Energy Conversion Methods
33 RO Plant Operation Utilizing Variable Energy Sources
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxviii
4 Reverse Osmosis System Configuration and Operation Aspects
41 Process Design of RO Desalination Systems
42 Procedural Steps and Data for Water Treatment and Energy Consumption
43 Components of RO -Desalination
431 Membranes and Modules
432 High Pressure Pumps
433 Pressure Regulating Devices
5 Solar Powered Desalination Units
51 Specific Figures or RO Systems
52 Solar Power Concepts for RO Desalination
53 Operational Experience with Solar driven RO Systems
6 Costs
61 Specific Cost Figures for the Plant Components
62 Water Delivery Cost
Availability of Solar Radiation and Its Estimation 265
VG Belessiotis Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems National Center for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun and the Radiation Emitted
21 The Physics of the Sun
22 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
3 The Extraterrestrial Radiation
31 What is the Solar Constant
32 Variations of the Extraterrestrial Radiation
33 The Black-body Emittance and Absorptance
34 Blackbody Absorbers - Application to Desalination
4 The Co-ordinate Systems The Basic Solar Angles
41 The Earth-Sun Relationships
42 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Sky
43 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Celestial Sphere
44 Earth-Sun Geometric Relationship
45 Time and its Units - Day Length
46 Terrestrial Solar Radiation
461 Estimation of Radiation Availability
462 Average Radiation Values - Clearness Index
463 Clear Sky Radiation
464 Sky Radiation
47 Atmospheric Factors Affecting Radiation
5 Computation of Insolation at the Earths Surface
51 Insolation Data
52 Measurement of Solar Radiation
53 Models for Solar Radiation
54 Where the Models Apply
55 Tilted Surfaces - Absorptance of Solar Radiation
551 Fixed Tilted Surfaces
552 Tracking Surfaces
6 Applications of Solar Radiation
7 Impact of Solar Energy to the Environment
Economics of Small Solar-Assisted Multiple-Effect Seawater Distillation Plants 296
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Configurations
3 Design and Sizing Considerations
31 Thermal Energy Requirement
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxix
32 Pumping Requirements
33 Collector Performance
34 Sizing Thermal Collector Area
35 Sizing the PV System
351 Sizing the PV Array
4 Economic Ground Rules and Water Cost Optimization
41 Capital Equipment Cost
42 Operating Costs
43 Optimum Cost of Water for each Plant Configuration
5 Results
6 Conclusion
A Solar-Assisted Sea Water Multiple Effect Distillation Plant 15 Years of Operating
Performance (1985-1999) 316
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Basic Design Concept
21 General Plant Description
22 Design Specifications
23 Evaporator Heat Transfer Coefficient
24 Tube Dimensions Heat Transfer Areas and Materials
3 Performance during Commissioning Tests
31 The MES Evaporator
32 The Solar Collector Field
33 The Heat Accumulator
34 Total Plant Performance
4 Performance History
41 The MES Evaporator
42 The Solar Collector Field
43 The Heat Accumulator
431 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
4311 The heat balance method
4312 The direct temperature measurement method
4313 Thermal stratification ratio
44 Total Plant Performance
5 Major Maintenance Activities
51 Equipment Failure and Replacement
52 Acid Cleanings and Silt Removal from Evaporator
6 Evaluation of Water Cost
61 Capital Costs
62 Operation and Maintenance Costs
7 Conclusions
Mathematical Simulation of a Solar Desalination Plant 341
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Description
3 System Operating Conditions
31 Solar Heat Collecting Subsystem
32 Evaporator Subsystem
4 Mathematical Modeling of System Components
41 Solar radiation model
42 Ambient temperature model
43 Solar collector subsystem
431 Effect of shade on solar radiation
432 Effect of dust on transmissivity of glass tubes
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxx
433 Control of heat collecting operation
434 Heat collection by solar collectors
435 Heat loss from piping
4351 Piping specifications
4352 Standard pipe lengths
4353 Heat loss from piping during operation of heat collecting pump
4354 Heat loss from piping while the heat collecting pump is shutdown
4355 Correction of piping heat loss
44 Heat accumulator subsystem
441 Temperature distribution
442 MES evaporator subsystem
5 The Simulation Program
51 Program structure
52 Input and output data
6 Results
7 Conclusions
Index 379
About EOLSS 385
VOLUME VI
Modeling and Design of Solar Energy Systems Including Solar Economics 1
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 F-Chart Method
11 Performance and Design of Liquid-Based Solar Heating Systems
111 Storage Capacity Correction
112 Collector Flow Rate Correction
113 Load Heat Exchanger Size Correction
12 Performance and Design of Air-Based Solar Heating Systems
121 Pebble Bed Storage Size Correction
122 Air Flow Rate Correction
13 Performance and Design of Solar Service Water Systems
14 Thermosiphon Solar Water Heating Systems
15 General Remarks
2 Modeling and Simulation of Solar Energy Systems
21 Simple System Models
211 Pipe Losses
22 F-Chart Program
23 Trnsys Simulation Program
24 Limitations of Simulations
3 Solar Economic Analysis
31 Life Cycle Costing
32 Life Cycle Analysis Method
33 Payback Time
331 Not Discounted Fuel Savings
332 Discounted Fuel Savings
34 Alternative Method
341 System Optimization Using Economic Analysis
35 Uncertainties in Economic Analysis
Solar Energy Power Generation and Desalination Systems 47
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 Global Energy Problems and the Role of Renewables
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxi
11 Energy demand
12 Energy environmental problems and sustainable development
13 Water demand and consumption
14 Water and energy
15 Desalination and energy
16 Renewable energy technologies
2 Solar Collectors
21 Parabolic trough collectors
22 Fresnel collectors
23 Parabolic dish reflector
24 Heliostat field collector
3 Power Generation and Industrial Process Heat Systems
31 Parabolic trough collector systems
32 Power tower systems
33 Dish systems
34 Solar ponds
341 Heat extraction and applications
35 Industrial process heat systems
36 Solar industrial steam generation systems
4 Desalination Processes
41 Direct collection systems
42 Indirect collection systems
421 The multi-stage flash process
422 The multiple-effect distillation process
423 The vapor-compression process
424 Reverse osmosis
425 Electrodialysis
Solar Updraft Power Plant Technology Basic Concepts and Structural Design 94
Francesca Lupi University of Florence Florence Italy
Claudio Borri University of Florence Florence Italy
Wilfried B Kraumltzig Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
Hans-Juumlrgen Niemann Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
1 Solar Updraft Power Technology Introduction and Working Principles
2 History of the Solar Updraft Power Technology
21 Solar Tower Prototype in Manzanares (Spain)
3 Evaluation of Plant Efficiency
31 The Collector
32 The Chimney
33 The Turbines
34 Electric Power Generated by Supps
4 The Collector
5 Actions on Solar Updraft Towers
6 Wind Loading on Solar Updraft Towers
61 Wind Flow Structure in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer at High Altitudes
611 Boundary Layer Meteorology
612 The Ekman Spiral
613 Theoretical Considerations on the Mean Wind and Turbulence in the Ekman Layer
62 Modeling of the Wind Load on Solar Towers
621 Mean Wind Load
622 Response to Wind Turbulence
623 Fluctuating Wind Load
624 Equivalent Static Wind Pressures
625 Vortex Excitation
626 Other Effects The Effect of the Efflux
63 Wind Load on the Collector Roof
7 Structural Behavior of Solar Updraft Towers
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxii
71 Structural Elements of Solar Tower Shells
72 Some Typical Response Characteristics of Solar Tower Shells Vibration and Instability
Behavior
73 Non-Linear Tower Response
8 Structural Optimization of Solar Updraft Towers
81 The Role of the Stiffening Rings in the Structural Design of Solar Towers
82 Strategies of Optimization
9 Technology of Construction
Renewable Energy Potential in The Arab Region 162
Mohammed Mostafa El-Khayat General Manager of Planning New and Renewable Energy Authority
NREA Cairo Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Research Problem and Objectives
111 Research Problem
12 Research Objectives
2 Energy Demand
3 The Current Situation of Renewable Energy
31 Hydropower
32 Wind Energy
33 Solar Energy
34 Biomass and Geothermal Energy
4 Strategies
5 Institutional and Regulatory Framework
6 Main Policies and Incentives
7 RE Policies and Incentives Profiles
71 Algeria
72 Egypt
73 Jordan
74 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
75 Lebanon
76 Libya
77 Morocco
78 Palestine
79 Sudan
710 Syria
711 Tunisia
712 United Arab Emirates
713 Yemen
8 Financing Schemes and Investment Opportunities
9 Motivations and Barriers of Renewable Energy
10 Renewable Energy Initiatives
101 Arabian Initiatives
102 DESERTEC
11 Potential of Renewable Energy in the Region
12 The proposed mechanisms to enhance and accelerate the rate of using RE applications
13 The situation of localizing RE technologies
14 RE and climate change in Arab countries
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
198
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiii
22 Humidifying with Cooling and Dehumidifying Processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in HD Desalination Process
25 Overview on Some Desalination HD Projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process Description
32 The Condenser in the SWGH
321 Different Condenser Layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the Condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of Condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot Plant
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH Project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot Plant
522 Performances of the Pilot Plant
53 The SWGH Project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot Plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Evolution of Photovoltaic Materials for Renewable Energy Development 262
Abdelilah Slaoui InESS ndash CNRS ndash University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
Jef Poortmans IMEC Leuven Belgium
Marko Topic University of Ljubljana Faculty of Elec Eng Ljubljana Slovenia
Gavin Conibeer ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence UNSW Sydney Australia
1 General Introduction
2 Photovoltaic Materials and Technologies State of the Art
21 Crystalline Silicon
22 Thin Films
221 Amorphous Silicon
222 Nanocrystalline and Microcrystalline Silicon
223 Polycrystalline Silicon
224 Copper Indium Selenide Its alloys and Related Chalcopyrites
225 Cadmium Telluride
226 Materials for Photochemical Solar Cells
227 Materials for Organic Solar Cells
3 Next Generation Solar Cells
31 Introduction
32 Multiple energy level approaches
33 Multiple Exciton Generation solar cells
34 Intermediate Band (IB) cells
35 Hot carrier cells
4 Conclusions and Perspectives
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiv
Wind and Solar Renewable Energy Potential Resources Estimation 302
Philippe Drobinski Institut Pierre Simon LaplaceLaboratoire de Meacuteteacuteorologie Dynamique CNRSEcole
Polytechnique Palaiseau France
1 Renewable Wind and Solar Energies The Context
11 An Economical and Environmental Necessity
12 Energy Definitions and Units
2 Basic Knowledge in Geophysics for Energy Resource Evaluation
21 Earth Energy Budget and Atmospheric Motion
22 Near Surface Wind
23 Impacts of Clouds and Aerosols on Surface Solar Radiation
3 Wind Energy Resource
31 Wind Energy A Brief History
32 Wind Energy Resources Evaluation
33 Wind Energy Installed Capacity in the World
4 Solar Energy Resources
41 Solar Energy An Introduction
42 Worldwide Solar Heat
5 Methods for Wind and Solar Energy Resources Forecast
Index 353
About EOLSS 361
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxviii
4 Reverse Osmosis System Configuration and Operation Aspects
41 Process Design of RO Desalination Systems
42 Procedural Steps and Data for Water Treatment and Energy Consumption
43 Components of RO -Desalination
431 Membranes and Modules
432 High Pressure Pumps
433 Pressure Regulating Devices
5 Solar Powered Desalination Units
51 Specific Figures or RO Systems
52 Solar Power Concepts for RO Desalination
53 Operational Experience with Solar driven RO Systems
6 Costs
61 Specific Cost Figures for the Plant Components
62 Water Delivery Cost
Availability of Solar Radiation and Its Estimation 265
VG Belessiotis Laboratory for Solar and Other Energy Systems National Center for Scientific
Research Demokritos Greece
1 Introduction
2 The Sun and the Radiation Emitted
21 The Physics of the Sun
22 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
3 The Extraterrestrial Radiation
31 What is the Solar Constant
32 Variations of the Extraterrestrial Radiation
33 The Black-body Emittance and Absorptance
34 Blackbody Absorbers - Application to Desalination
4 The Co-ordinate Systems The Basic Solar Angles
41 The Earth-Sun Relationships
42 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Sky
43 Angles Describing the Position of the Sun in the Celestial Sphere
44 Earth-Sun Geometric Relationship
45 Time and its Units - Day Length
46 Terrestrial Solar Radiation
461 Estimation of Radiation Availability
462 Average Radiation Values - Clearness Index
463 Clear Sky Radiation
464 Sky Radiation
47 Atmospheric Factors Affecting Radiation
5 Computation of Insolation at the Earths Surface
51 Insolation Data
52 Measurement of Solar Radiation
53 Models for Solar Radiation
54 Where the Models Apply
55 Tilted Surfaces - Absorptance of Solar Radiation
551 Fixed Tilted Surfaces
552 Tracking Surfaces
6 Applications of Solar Radiation
7 Impact of Solar Energy to the Environment
Economics of Small Solar-Assisted Multiple-Effect Seawater Distillation Plants 296
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Configurations
3 Design and Sizing Considerations
31 Thermal Energy Requirement
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxix
32 Pumping Requirements
33 Collector Performance
34 Sizing Thermal Collector Area
35 Sizing the PV System
351 Sizing the PV Array
4 Economic Ground Rules and Water Cost Optimization
41 Capital Equipment Cost
42 Operating Costs
43 Optimum Cost of Water for each Plant Configuration
5 Results
6 Conclusion
A Solar-Assisted Sea Water Multiple Effect Distillation Plant 15 Years of Operating
Performance (1985-1999) 316
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Basic Design Concept
21 General Plant Description
22 Design Specifications
23 Evaporator Heat Transfer Coefficient
24 Tube Dimensions Heat Transfer Areas and Materials
3 Performance during Commissioning Tests
31 The MES Evaporator
32 The Solar Collector Field
33 The Heat Accumulator
34 Total Plant Performance
4 Performance History
41 The MES Evaporator
42 The Solar Collector Field
43 The Heat Accumulator
431 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
4311 The heat balance method
4312 The direct temperature measurement method
4313 Thermal stratification ratio
44 Total Plant Performance
5 Major Maintenance Activities
51 Equipment Failure and Replacement
52 Acid Cleanings and Silt Removal from Evaporator
6 Evaluation of Water Cost
61 Capital Costs
62 Operation and Maintenance Costs
7 Conclusions
Mathematical Simulation of a Solar Desalination Plant 341
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Description
3 System Operating Conditions
31 Solar Heat Collecting Subsystem
32 Evaporator Subsystem
4 Mathematical Modeling of System Components
41 Solar radiation model
42 Ambient temperature model
43 Solar collector subsystem
431 Effect of shade on solar radiation
432 Effect of dust on transmissivity of glass tubes
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxx
433 Control of heat collecting operation
434 Heat collection by solar collectors
435 Heat loss from piping
4351 Piping specifications
4352 Standard pipe lengths
4353 Heat loss from piping during operation of heat collecting pump
4354 Heat loss from piping while the heat collecting pump is shutdown
4355 Correction of piping heat loss
44 Heat accumulator subsystem
441 Temperature distribution
442 MES evaporator subsystem
5 The Simulation Program
51 Program structure
52 Input and output data
6 Results
7 Conclusions
Index 379
About EOLSS 385
VOLUME VI
Modeling and Design of Solar Energy Systems Including Solar Economics 1
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 F-Chart Method
11 Performance and Design of Liquid-Based Solar Heating Systems
111 Storage Capacity Correction
112 Collector Flow Rate Correction
113 Load Heat Exchanger Size Correction
12 Performance and Design of Air-Based Solar Heating Systems
121 Pebble Bed Storage Size Correction
122 Air Flow Rate Correction
13 Performance and Design of Solar Service Water Systems
14 Thermosiphon Solar Water Heating Systems
15 General Remarks
2 Modeling and Simulation of Solar Energy Systems
21 Simple System Models
211 Pipe Losses
22 F-Chart Program
23 Trnsys Simulation Program
24 Limitations of Simulations
3 Solar Economic Analysis
31 Life Cycle Costing
32 Life Cycle Analysis Method
33 Payback Time
331 Not Discounted Fuel Savings
332 Discounted Fuel Savings
34 Alternative Method
341 System Optimization Using Economic Analysis
35 Uncertainties in Economic Analysis
Solar Energy Power Generation and Desalination Systems 47
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 Global Energy Problems and the Role of Renewables
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxi
11 Energy demand
12 Energy environmental problems and sustainable development
13 Water demand and consumption
14 Water and energy
15 Desalination and energy
16 Renewable energy technologies
2 Solar Collectors
21 Parabolic trough collectors
22 Fresnel collectors
23 Parabolic dish reflector
24 Heliostat field collector
3 Power Generation and Industrial Process Heat Systems
31 Parabolic trough collector systems
32 Power tower systems
33 Dish systems
34 Solar ponds
341 Heat extraction and applications
35 Industrial process heat systems
36 Solar industrial steam generation systems
4 Desalination Processes
41 Direct collection systems
42 Indirect collection systems
421 The multi-stage flash process
422 The multiple-effect distillation process
423 The vapor-compression process
424 Reverse osmosis
425 Electrodialysis
Solar Updraft Power Plant Technology Basic Concepts and Structural Design 94
Francesca Lupi University of Florence Florence Italy
Claudio Borri University of Florence Florence Italy
Wilfried B Kraumltzig Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
Hans-Juumlrgen Niemann Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
1 Solar Updraft Power Technology Introduction and Working Principles
2 History of the Solar Updraft Power Technology
21 Solar Tower Prototype in Manzanares (Spain)
3 Evaluation of Plant Efficiency
31 The Collector
32 The Chimney
33 The Turbines
34 Electric Power Generated by Supps
4 The Collector
5 Actions on Solar Updraft Towers
6 Wind Loading on Solar Updraft Towers
61 Wind Flow Structure in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer at High Altitudes
611 Boundary Layer Meteorology
612 The Ekman Spiral
613 Theoretical Considerations on the Mean Wind and Turbulence in the Ekman Layer
62 Modeling of the Wind Load on Solar Towers
621 Mean Wind Load
622 Response to Wind Turbulence
623 Fluctuating Wind Load
624 Equivalent Static Wind Pressures
625 Vortex Excitation
626 Other Effects The Effect of the Efflux
63 Wind Load on the Collector Roof
7 Structural Behavior of Solar Updraft Towers
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxii
71 Structural Elements of Solar Tower Shells
72 Some Typical Response Characteristics of Solar Tower Shells Vibration and Instability
Behavior
73 Non-Linear Tower Response
8 Structural Optimization of Solar Updraft Towers
81 The Role of the Stiffening Rings in the Structural Design of Solar Towers
82 Strategies of Optimization
9 Technology of Construction
Renewable Energy Potential in The Arab Region 162
Mohammed Mostafa El-Khayat General Manager of Planning New and Renewable Energy Authority
NREA Cairo Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Research Problem and Objectives
111 Research Problem
12 Research Objectives
2 Energy Demand
3 The Current Situation of Renewable Energy
31 Hydropower
32 Wind Energy
33 Solar Energy
34 Biomass and Geothermal Energy
4 Strategies
5 Institutional and Regulatory Framework
6 Main Policies and Incentives
7 RE Policies and Incentives Profiles
71 Algeria
72 Egypt
73 Jordan
74 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
75 Lebanon
76 Libya
77 Morocco
78 Palestine
79 Sudan
710 Syria
711 Tunisia
712 United Arab Emirates
713 Yemen
8 Financing Schemes and Investment Opportunities
9 Motivations and Barriers of Renewable Energy
10 Renewable Energy Initiatives
101 Arabian Initiatives
102 DESERTEC
11 Potential of Renewable Energy in the Region
12 The proposed mechanisms to enhance and accelerate the rate of using RE applications
13 The situation of localizing RE technologies
14 RE and climate change in Arab countries
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
198
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiii
22 Humidifying with Cooling and Dehumidifying Processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in HD Desalination Process
25 Overview on Some Desalination HD Projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process Description
32 The Condenser in the SWGH
321 Different Condenser Layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the Condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of Condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot Plant
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH Project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot Plant
522 Performances of the Pilot Plant
53 The SWGH Project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot Plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Evolution of Photovoltaic Materials for Renewable Energy Development 262
Abdelilah Slaoui InESS ndash CNRS ndash University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
Jef Poortmans IMEC Leuven Belgium
Marko Topic University of Ljubljana Faculty of Elec Eng Ljubljana Slovenia
Gavin Conibeer ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence UNSW Sydney Australia
1 General Introduction
2 Photovoltaic Materials and Technologies State of the Art
21 Crystalline Silicon
22 Thin Films
221 Amorphous Silicon
222 Nanocrystalline and Microcrystalline Silicon
223 Polycrystalline Silicon
224 Copper Indium Selenide Its alloys and Related Chalcopyrites
225 Cadmium Telluride
226 Materials for Photochemical Solar Cells
227 Materials for Organic Solar Cells
3 Next Generation Solar Cells
31 Introduction
32 Multiple energy level approaches
33 Multiple Exciton Generation solar cells
34 Intermediate Band (IB) cells
35 Hot carrier cells
4 Conclusions and Perspectives
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiv
Wind and Solar Renewable Energy Potential Resources Estimation 302
Philippe Drobinski Institut Pierre Simon LaplaceLaboratoire de Meacuteteacuteorologie Dynamique CNRSEcole
Polytechnique Palaiseau France
1 Renewable Wind and Solar Energies The Context
11 An Economical and Environmental Necessity
12 Energy Definitions and Units
2 Basic Knowledge in Geophysics for Energy Resource Evaluation
21 Earth Energy Budget and Atmospheric Motion
22 Near Surface Wind
23 Impacts of Clouds and Aerosols on Surface Solar Radiation
3 Wind Energy Resource
31 Wind Energy A Brief History
32 Wind Energy Resources Evaluation
33 Wind Energy Installed Capacity in the World
4 Solar Energy Resources
41 Solar Energy An Introduction
42 Worldwide Solar Heat
5 Methods for Wind and Solar Energy Resources Forecast
Index 353
About EOLSS 361
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxix
32 Pumping Requirements
33 Collector Performance
34 Sizing Thermal Collector Area
35 Sizing the PV System
351 Sizing the PV Array
4 Economic Ground Rules and Water Cost Optimization
41 Capital Equipment Cost
42 Operating Costs
43 Optimum Cost of Water for each Plant Configuration
5 Results
6 Conclusion
A Solar-Assisted Sea Water Multiple Effect Distillation Plant 15 Years of Operating
Performance (1985-1999) 316
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Authority Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 Basic Design Concept
21 General Plant Description
22 Design Specifications
23 Evaporator Heat Transfer Coefficient
24 Tube Dimensions Heat Transfer Areas and Materials
3 Performance during Commissioning Tests
31 The MES Evaporator
32 The Solar Collector Field
33 The Heat Accumulator
34 Total Plant Performance
4 Performance History
41 The MES Evaporator
42 The Solar Collector Field
43 The Heat Accumulator
431 Heat loss from the heat accumulator
4311 The heat balance method
4312 The direct temperature measurement method
4313 Thermal stratification ratio
44 Total Plant Performance
5 Major Maintenance Activities
51 Equipment Failure and Replacement
52 Acid Cleanings and Silt Removal from Evaporator
6 Evaluation of Water Cost
61 Capital Costs
62 Operation and Maintenance Costs
7 Conclusions
Mathematical Simulation of a Solar Desalination Plant 341
Ali M El-Nashar Water and Electricity Department Abu Dhabi UAE
1 Introduction
2 System Description
3 System Operating Conditions
31 Solar Heat Collecting Subsystem
32 Evaporator Subsystem
4 Mathematical Modeling of System Components
41 Solar radiation model
42 Ambient temperature model
43 Solar collector subsystem
431 Effect of shade on solar radiation
432 Effect of dust on transmissivity of glass tubes
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxx
433 Control of heat collecting operation
434 Heat collection by solar collectors
435 Heat loss from piping
4351 Piping specifications
4352 Standard pipe lengths
4353 Heat loss from piping during operation of heat collecting pump
4354 Heat loss from piping while the heat collecting pump is shutdown
4355 Correction of piping heat loss
44 Heat accumulator subsystem
441 Temperature distribution
442 MES evaporator subsystem
5 The Simulation Program
51 Program structure
52 Input and output data
6 Results
7 Conclusions
Index 379
About EOLSS 385
VOLUME VI
Modeling and Design of Solar Energy Systems Including Solar Economics 1
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 F-Chart Method
11 Performance and Design of Liquid-Based Solar Heating Systems
111 Storage Capacity Correction
112 Collector Flow Rate Correction
113 Load Heat Exchanger Size Correction
12 Performance and Design of Air-Based Solar Heating Systems
121 Pebble Bed Storage Size Correction
122 Air Flow Rate Correction
13 Performance and Design of Solar Service Water Systems
14 Thermosiphon Solar Water Heating Systems
15 General Remarks
2 Modeling and Simulation of Solar Energy Systems
21 Simple System Models
211 Pipe Losses
22 F-Chart Program
23 Trnsys Simulation Program
24 Limitations of Simulations
3 Solar Economic Analysis
31 Life Cycle Costing
32 Life Cycle Analysis Method
33 Payback Time
331 Not Discounted Fuel Savings
332 Discounted Fuel Savings
34 Alternative Method
341 System Optimization Using Economic Analysis
35 Uncertainties in Economic Analysis
Solar Energy Power Generation and Desalination Systems 47
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 Global Energy Problems and the Role of Renewables
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxi
11 Energy demand
12 Energy environmental problems and sustainable development
13 Water demand and consumption
14 Water and energy
15 Desalination and energy
16 Renewable energy technologies
2 Solar Collectors
21 Parabolic trough collectors
22 Fresnel collectors
23 Parabolic dish reflector
24 Heliostat field collector
3 Power Generation and Industrial Process Heat Systems
31 Parabolic trough collector systems
32 Power tower systems
33 Dish systems
34 Solar ponds
341 Heat extraction and applications
35 Industrial process heat systems
36 Solar industrial steam generation systems
4 Desalination Processes
41 Direct collection systems
42 Indirect collection systems
421 The multi-stage flash process
422 The multiple-effect distillation process
423 The vapor-compression process
424 Reverse osmosis
425 Electrodialysis
Solar Updraft Power Plant Technology Basic Concepts and Structural Design 94
Francesca Lupi University of Florence Florence Italy
Claudio Borri University of Florence Florence Italy
Wilfried B Kraumltzig Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
Hans-Juumlrgen Niemann Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
1 Solar Updraft Power Technology Introduction and Working Principles
2 History of the Solar Updraft Power Technology
21 Solar Tower Prototype in Manzanares (Spain)
3 Evaluation of Plant Efficiency
31 The Collector
32 The Chimney
33 The Turbines
34 Electric Power Generated by Supps
4 The Collector
5 Actions on Solar Updraft Towers
6 Wind Loading on Solar Updraft Towers
61 Wind Flow Structure in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer at High Altitudes
611 Boundary Layer Meteorology
612 The Ekman Spiral
613 Theoretical Considerations on the Mean Wind and Turbulence in the Ekman Layer
62 Modeling of the Wind Load on Solar Towers
621 Mean Wind Load
622 Response to Wind Turbulence
623 Fluctuating Wind Load
624 Equivalent Static Wind Pressures
625 Vortex Excitation
626 Other Effects The Effect of the Efflux
63 Wind Load on the Collector Roof
7 Structural Behavior of Solar Updraft Towers
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxii
71 Structural Elements of Solar Tower Shells
72 Some Typical Response Characteristics of Solar Tower Shells Vibration and Instability
Behavior
73 Non-Linear Tower Response
8 Structural Optimization of Solar Updraft Towers
81 The Role of the Stiffening Rings in the Structural Design of Solar Towers
82 Strategies of Optimization
9 Technology of Construction
Renewable Energy Potential in The Arab Region 162
Mohammed Mostafa El-Khayat General Manager of Planning New and Renewable Energy Authority
NREA Cairo Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Research Problem and Objectives
111 Research Problem
12 Research Objectives
2 Energy Demand
3 The Current Situation of Renewable Energy
31 Hydropower
32 Wind Energy
33 Solar Energy
34 Biomass and Geothermal Energy
4 Strategies
5 Institutional and Regulatory Framework
6 Main Policies and Incentives
7 RE Policies and Incentives Profiles
71 Algeria
72 Egypt
73 Jordan
74 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
75 Lebanon
76 Libya
77 Morocco
78 Palestine
79 Sudan
710 Syria
711 Tunisia
712 United Arab Emirates
713 Yemen
8 Financing Schemes and Investment Opportunities
9 Motivations and Barriers of Renewable Energy
10 Renewable Energy Initiatives
101 Arabian Initiatives
102 DESERTEC
11 Potential of Renewable Energy in the Region
12 The proposed mechanisms to enhance and accelerate the rate of using RE applications
13 The situation of localizing RE technologies
14 RE and climate change in Arab countries
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
198
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiii
22 Humidifying with Cooling and Dehumidifying Processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in HD Desalination Process
25 Overview on Some Desalination HD Projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process Description
32 The Condenser in the SWGH
321 Different Condenser Layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the Condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of Condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot Plant
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH Project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot Plant
522 Performances of the Pilot Plant
53 The SWGH Project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot Plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Evolution of Photovoltaic Materials for Renewable Energy Development 262
Abdelilah Slaoui InESS ndash CNRS ndash University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
Jef Poortmans IMEC Leuven Belgium
Marko Topic University of Ljubljana Faculty of Elec Eng Ljubljana Slovenia
Gavin Conibeer ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence UNSW Sydney Australia
1 General Introduction
2 Photovoltaic Materials and Technologies State of the Art
21 Crystalline Silicon
22 Thin Films
221 Amorphous Silicon
222 Nanocrystalline and Microcrystalline Silicon
223 Polycrystalline Silicon
224 Copper Indium Selenide Its alloys and Related Chalcopyrites
225 Cadmium Telluride
226 Materials for Photochemical Solar Cells
227 Materials for Organic Solar Cells
3 Next Generation Solar Cells
31 Introduction
32 Multiple energy level approaches
33 Multiple Exciton Generation solar cells
34 Intermediate Band (IB) cells
35 Hot carrier cells
4 Conclusions and Perspectives
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiv
Wind and Solar Renewable Energy Potential Resources Estimation 302
Philippe Drobinski Institut Pierre Simon LaplaceLaboratoire de Meacuteteacuteorologie Dynamique CNRSEcole
Polytechnique Palaiseau France
1 Renewable Wind and Solar Energies The Context
11 An Economical and Environmental Necessity
12 Energy Definitions and Units
2 Basic Knowledge in Geophysics for Energy Resource Evaluation
21 Earth Energy Budget and Atmospheric Motion
22 Near Surface Wind
23 Impacts of Clouds and Aerosols on Surface Solar Radiation
3 Wind Energy Resource
31 Wind Energy A Brief History
32 Wind Energy Resources Evaluation
33 Wind Energy Installed Capacity in the World
4 Solar Energy Resources
41 Solar Energy An Introduction
42 Worldwide Solar Heat
5 Methods for Wind and Solar Energy Resources Forecast
Index 353
About EOLSS 361
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxx
433 Control of heat collecting operation
434 Heat collection by solar collectors
435 Heat loss from piping
4351 Piping specifications
4352 Standard pipe lengths
4353 Heat loss from piping during operation of heat collecting pump
4354 Heat loss from piping while the heat collecting pump is shutdown
4355 Correction of piping heat loss
44 Heat accumulator subsystem
441 Temperature distribution
442 MES evaporator subsystem
5 The Simulation Program
51 Program structure
52 Input and output data
6 Results
7 Conclusions
Index 379
About EOLSS 385
VOLUME VI
Modeling and Design of Solar Energy Systems Including Solar Economics 1
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 F-Chart Method
11 Performance and Design of Liquid-Based Solar Heating Systems
111 Storage Capacity Correction
112 Collector Flow Rate Correction
113 Load Heat Exchanger Size Correction
12 Performance and Design of Air-Based Solar Heating Systems
121 Pebble Bed Storage Size Correction
122 Air Flow Rate Correction
13 Performance and Design of Solar Service Water Systems
14 Thermosiphon Solar Water Heating Systems
15 General Remarks
2 Modeling and Simulation of Solar Energy Systems
21 Simple System Models
211 Pipe Losses
22 F-Chart Program
23 Trnsys Simulation Program
24 Limitations of Simulations
3 Solar Economic Analysis
31 Life Cycle Costing
32 Life Cycle Analysis Method
33 Payback Time
331 Not Discounted Fuel Savings
332 Discounted Fuel Savings
34 Alternative Method
341 System Optimization Using Economic Analysis
35 Uncertainties in Economic Analysis
Solar Energy Power Generation and Desalination Systems 47
Soteris A Kalogirou Cyprus University of Technology Limassol Cyprus
1 Global Energy Problems and the Role of Renewables
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxi
11 Energy demand
12 Energy environmental problems and sustainable development
13 Water demand and consumption
14 Water and energy
15 Desalination and energy
16 Renewable energy technologies
2 Solar Collectors
21 Parabolic trough collectors
22 Fresnel collectors
23 Parabolic dish reflector
24 Heliostat field collector
3 Power Generation and Industrial Process Heat Systems
31 Parabolic trough collector systems
32 Power tower systems
33 Dish systems
34 Solar ponds
341 Heat extraction and applications
35 Industrial process heat systems
36 Solar industrial steam generation systems
4 Desalination Processes
41 Direct collection systems
42 Indirect collection systems
421 The multi-stage flash process
422 The multiple-effect distillation process
423 The vapor-compression process
424 Reverse osmosis
425 Electrodialysis
Solar Updraft Power Plant Technology Basic Concepts and Structural Design 94
Francesca Lupi University of Florence Florence Italy
Claudio Borri University of Florence Florence Italy
Wilfried B Kraumltzig Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
Hans-Juumlrgen Niemann Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
1 Solar Updraft Power Technology Introduction and Working Principles
2 History of the Solar Updraft Power Technology
21 Solar Tower Prototype in Manzanares (Spain)
3 Evaluation of Plant Efficiency
31 The Collector
32 The Chimney
33 The Turbines
34 Electric Power Generated by Supps
4 The Collector
5 Actions on Solar Updraft Towers
6 Wind Loading on Solar Updraft Towers
61 Wind Flow Structure in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer at High Altitudes
611 Boundary Layer Meteorology
612 The Ekman Spiral
613 Theoretical Considerations on the Mean Wind and Turbulence in the Ekman Layer
62 Modeling of the Wind Load on Solar Towers
621 Mean Wind Load
622 Response to Wind Turbulence
623 Fluctuating Wind Load
624 Equivalent Static Wind Pressures
625 Vortex Excitation
626 Other Effects The Effect of the Efflux
63 Wind Load on the Collector Roof
7 Structural Behavior of Solar Updraft Towers
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxii
71 Structural Elements of Solar Tower Shells
72 Some Typical Response Characteristics of Solar Tower Shells Vibration and Instability
Behavior
73 Non-Linear Tower Response
8 Structural Optimization of Solar Updraft Towers
81 The Role of the Stiffening Rings in the Structural Design of Solar Towers
82 Strategies of Optimization
9 Technology of Construction
Renewable Energy Potential in The Arab Region 162
Mohammed Mostafa El-Khayat General Manager of Planning New and Renewable Energy Authority
NREA Cairo Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Research Problem and Objectives
111 Research Problem
12 Research Objectives
2 Energy Demand
3 The Current Situation of Renewable Energy
31 Hydropower
32 Wind Energy
33 Solar Energy
34 Biomass and Geothermal Energy
4 Strategies
5 Institutional and Regulatory Framework
6 Main Policies and Incentives
7 RE Policies and Incentives Profiles
71 Algeria
72 Egypt
73 Jordan
74 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
75 Lebanon
76 Libya
77 Morocco
78 Palestine
79 Sudan
710 Syria
711 Tunisia
712 United Arab Emirates
713 Yemen
8 Financing Schemes and Investment Opportunities
9 Motivations and Barriers of Renewable Energy
10 Renewable Energy Initiatives
101 Arabian Initiatives
102 DESERTEC
11 Potential of Renewable Energy in the Region
12 The proposed mechanisms to enhance and accelerate the rate of using RE applications
13 The situation of localizing RE technologies
14 RE and climate change in Arab countries
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
198
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiii
22 Humidifying with Cooling and Dehumidifying Processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in HD Desalination Process
25 Overview on Some Desalination HD Projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process Description
32 The Condenser in the SWGH
321 Different Condenser Layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the Condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of Condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot Plant
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH Project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot Plant
522 Performances of the Pilot Plant
53 The SWGH Project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot Plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Evolution of Photovoltaic Materials for Renewable Energy Development 262
Abdelilah Slaoui InESS ndash CNRS ndash University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
Jef Poortmans IMEC Leuven Belgium
Marko Topic University of Ljubljana Faculty of Elec Eng Ljubljana Slovenia
Gavin Conibeer ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence UNSW Sydney Australia
1 General Introduction
2 Photovoltaic Materials and Technologies State of the Art
21 Crystalline Silicon
22 Thin Films
221 Amorphous Silicon
222 Nanocrystalline and Microcrystalline Silicon
223 Polycrystalline Silicon
224 Copper Indium Selenide Its alloys and Related Chalcopyrites
225 Cadmium Telluride
226 Materials for Photochemical Solar Cells
227 Materials for Organic Solar Cells
3 Next Generation Solar Cells
31 Introduction
32 Multiple energy level approaches
33 Multiple Exciton Generation solar cells
34 Intermediate Band (IB) cells
35 Hot carrier cells
4 Conclusions and Perspectives
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiv
Wind and Solar Renewable Energy Potential Resources Estimation 302
Philippe Drobinski Institut Pierre Simon LaplaceLaboratoire de Meacuteteacuteorologie Dynamique CNRSEcole
Polytechnique Palaiseau France
1 Renewable Wind and Solar Energies The Context
11 An Economical and Environmental Necessity
12 Energy Definitions and Units
2 Basic Knowledge in Geophysics for Energy Resource Evaluation
21 Earth Energy Budget and Atmospheric Motion
22 Near Surface Wind
23 Impacts of Clouds and Aerosols on Surface Solar Radiation
3 Wind Energy Resource
31 Wind Energy A Brief History
32 Wind Energy Resources Evaluation
33 Wind Energy Installed Capacity in the World
4 Solar Energy Resources
41 Solar Energy An Introduction
42 Worldwide Solar Heat
5 Methods for Wind and Solar Energy Resources Forecast
Index 353
About EOLSS 361
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxi
11 Energy demand
12 Energy environmental problems and sustainable development
13 Water demand and consumption
14 Water and energy
15 Desalination and energy
16 Renewable energy technologies
2 Solar Collectors
21 Parabolic trough collectors
22 Fresnel collectors
23 Parabolic dish reflector
24 Heliostat field collector
3 Power Generation and Industrial Process Heat Systems
31 Parabolic trough collector systems
32 Power tower systems
33 Dish systems
34 Solar ponds
341 Heat extraction and applications
35 Industrial process heat systems
36 Solar industrial steam generation systems
4 Desalination Processes
41 Direct collection systems
42 Indirect collection systems
421 The multi-stage flash process
422 The multiple-effect distillation process
423 The vapor-compression process
424 Reverse osmosis
425 Electrodialysis
Solar Updraft Power Plant Technology Basic Concepts and Structural Design 94
Francesca Lupi University of Florence Florence Italy
Claudio Borri University of Florence Florence Italy
Wilfried B Kraumltzig Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
Hans-Juumlrgen Niemann Ruhr-University of Bochum Bochum Germany
1 Solar Updraft Power Technology Introduction and Working Principles
2 History of the Solar Updraft Power Technology
21 Solar Tower Prototype in Manzanares (Spain)
3 Evaluation of Plant Efficiency
31 The Collector
32 The Chimney
33 The Turbines
34 Electric Power Generated by Supps
4 The Collector
5 Actions on Solar Updraft Towers
6 Wind Loading on Solar Updraft Towers
61 Wind Flow Structure in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer at High Altitudes
611 Boundary Layer Meteorology
612 The Ekman Spiral
613 Theoretical Considerations on the Mean Wind and Turbulence in the Ekman Layer
62 Modeling of the Wind Load on Solar Towers
621 Mean Wind Load
622 Response to Wind Turbulence
623 Fluctuating Wind Load
624 Equivalent Static Wind Pressures
625 Vortex Excitation
626 Other Effects The Effect of the Efflux
63 Wind Load on the Collector Roof
7 Structural Behavior of Solar Updraft Towers
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxii
71 Structural Elements of Solar Tower Shells
72 Some Typical Response Characteristics of Solar Tower Shells Vibration and Instability
Behavior
73 Non-Linear Tower Response
8 Structural Optimization of Solar Updraft Towers
81 The Role of the Stiffening Rings in the Structural Design of Solar Towers
82 Strategies of Optimization
9 Technology of Construction
Renewable Energy Potential in The Arab Region 162
Mohammed Mostafa El-Khayat General Manager of Planning New and Renewable Energy Authority
NREA Cairo Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Research Problem and Objectives
111 Research Problem
12 Research Objectives
2 Energy Demand
3 The Current Situation of Renewable Energy
31 Hydropower
32 Wind Energy
33 Solar Energy
34 Biomass and Geothermal Energy
4 Strategies
5 Institutional and Regulatory Framework
6 Main Policies and Incentives
7 RE Policies and Incentives Profiles
71 Algeria
72 Egypt
73 Jordan
74 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
75 Lebanon
76 Libya
77 Morocco
78 Palestine
79 Sudan
710 Syria
711 Tunisia
712 United Arab Emirates
713 Yemen
8 Financing Schemes and Investment Opportunities
9 Motivations and Barriers of Renewable Energy
10 Renewable Energy Initiatives
101 Arabian Initiatives
102 DESERTEC
11 Potential of Renewable Energy in the Region
12 The proposed mechanisms to enhance and accelerate the rate of using RE applications
13 The situation of localizing RE technologies
14 RE and climate change in Arab countries
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
198
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiii
22 Humidifying with Cooling and Dehumidifying Processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in HD Desalination Process
25 Overview on Some Desalination HD Projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process Description
32 The Condenser in the SWGH
321 Different Condenser Layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the Condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of Condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot Plant
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH Project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot Plant
522 Performances of the Pilot Plant
53 The SWGH Project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot Plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Evolution of Photovoltaic Materials for Renewable Energy Development 262
Abdelilah Slaoui InESS ndash CNRS ndash University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
Jef Poortmans IMEC Leuven Belgium
Marko Topic University of Ljubljana Faculty of Elec Eng Ljubljana Slovenia
Gavin Conibeer ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence UNSW Sydney Australia
1 General Introduction
2 Photovoltaic Materials and Technologies State of the Art
21 Crystalline Silicon
22 Thin Films
221 Amorphous Silicon
222 Nanocrystalline and Microcrystalline Silicon
223 Polycrystalline Silicon
224 Copper Indium Selenide Its alloys and Related Chalcopyrites
225 Cadmium Telluride
226 Materials for Photochemical Solar Cells
227 Materials for Organic Solar Cells
3 Next Generation Solar Cells
31 Introduction
32 Multiple energy level approaches
33 Multiple Exciton Generation solar cells
34 Intermediate Band (IB) cells
35 Hot carrier cells
4 Conclusions and Perspectives
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiv
Wind and Solar Renewable Energy Potential Resources Estimation 302
Philippe Drobinski Institut Pierre Simon LaplaceLaboratoire de Meacuteteacuteorologie Dynamique CNRSEcole
Polytechnique Palaiseau France
1 Renewable Wind and Solar Energies The Context
11 An Economical and Environmental Necessity
12 Energy Definitions and Units
2 Basic Knowledge in Geophysics for Energy Resource Evaluation
21 Earth Energy Budget and Atmospheric Motion
22 Near Surface Wind
23 Impacts of Clouds and Aerosols on Surface Solar Radiation
3 Wind Energy Resource
31 Wind Energy A Brief History
32 Wind Energy Resources Evaluation
33 Wind Energy Installed Capacity in the World
4 Solar Energy Resources
41 Solar Energy An Introduction
42 Worldwide Solar Heat
5 Methods for Wind and Solar Energy Resources Forecast
Index 353
About EOLSS 361
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxii
71 Structural Elements of Solar Tower Shells
72 Some Typical Response Characteristics of Solar Tower Shells Vibration and Instability
Behavior
73 Non-Linear Tower Response
8 Structural Optimization of Solar Updraft Towers
81 The Role of the Stiffening Rings in the Structural Design of Solar Towers
82 Strategies of Optimization
9 Technology of Construction
Renewable Energy Potential in The Arab Region 162
Mohammed Mostafa El-Khayat General Manager of Planning New and Renewable Energy Authority
NREA Cairo Egypt
1 Introduction
11 Research Problem and Objectives
111 Research Problem
12 Research Objectives
2 Energy Demand
3 The Current Situation of Renewable Energy
31 Hydropower
32 Wind Energy
33 Solar Energy
34 Biomass and Geothermal Energy
4 Strategies
5 Institutional and Regulatory Framework
6 Main Policies and Incentives
7 RE Policies and Incentives Profiles
71 Algeria
72 Egypt
73 Jordan
74 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
75 Lebanon
76 Libya
77 Morocco
78 Palestine
79 Sudan
710 Syria
711 Tunisia
712 United Arab Emirates
713 Yemen
8 Financing Schemes and Investment Opportunities
9 Motivations and Barriers of Renewable Energy
10 Renewable Energy Initiatives
101 Arabian Initiatives
102 DESERTEC
11 Potential of Renewable Energy in the Region
12 The proposed mechanisms to enhance and accelerate the rate of using RE applications
13 The situation of localizing RE technologies
14 RE and climate change in Arab countries
Water Desalination by Humidification and Dehumidification of Air Seawater Greenhouse Process
198
Karim Bourouni Mohamed Thameur Chaibi and Ali Al Taee UR EBSS Ecole Nationale drsquoIngeacutenieurs de
Tunis BP 37 1002 Le Belveacutedegravere Tunisie INGREF
1 Introduction
2 Desalination Process by Humidification and Dehumidification
21 Moist Air
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiii
22 Humidifying with Cooling and Dehumidifying Processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in HD Desalination Process
25 Overview on Some Desalination HD Projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process Description
32 The Condenser in the SWGH
321 Different Condenser Layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the Condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of Condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot Plant
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH Project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot Plant
522 Performances of the Pilot Plant
53 The SWGH Project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot Plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Evolution of Photovoltaic Materials for Renewable Energy Development 262
Abdelilah Slaoui InESS ndash CNRS ndash University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
Jef Poortmans IMEC Leuven Belgium
Marko Topic University of Ljubljana Faculty of Elec Eng Ljubljana Slovenia
Gavin Conibeer ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence UNSW Sydney Australia
1 General Introduction
2 Photovoltaic Materials and Technologies State of the Art
21 Crystalline Silicon
22 Thin Films
221 Amorphous Silicon
222 Nanocrystalline and Microcrystalline Silicon
223 Polycrystalline Silicon
224 Copper Indium Selenide Its alloys and Related Chalcopyrites
225 Cadmium Telluride
226 Materials for Photochemical Solar Cells
227 Materials for Organic Solar Cells
3 Next Generation Solar Cells
31 Introduction
32 Multiple energy level approaches
33 Multiple Exciton Generation solar cells
34 Intermediate Band (IB) cells
35 Hot carrier cells
4 Conclusions and Perspectives
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiv
Wind and Solar Renewable Energy Potential Resources Estimation 302
Philippe Drobinski Institut Pierre Simon LaplaceLaboratoire de Meacuteteacuteorologie Dynamique CNRSEcole
Polytechnique Palaiseau France
1 Renewable Wind and Solar Energies The Context
11 An Economical and Environmental Necessity
12 Energy Definitions and Units
2 Basic Knowledge in Geophysics for Energy Resource Evaluation
21 Earth Energy Budget and Atmospheric Motion
22 Near Surface Wind
23 Impacts of Clouds and Aerosols on Surface Solar Radiation
3 Wind Energy Resource
31 Wind Energy A Brief History
32 Wind Energy Resources Evaluation
33 Wind Energy Installed Capacity in the World
4 Solar Energy Resources
41 Solar Energy An Introduction
42 Worldwide Solar Heat
5 Methods for Wind and Solar Energy Resources Forecast
Index 353
About EOLSS 361
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiii
22 Humidifying with Cooling and Dehumidifying Processes
23 Using Humidification Dehumidification (HD) Process in Desalination
24 Heat and Mass Transfer in HD Desalination Process
25 Overview on Some Desalination HD Projects
3 Seawater Greenhouse Process (SWGH) Principles and Fundamentals
31 Process Description
32 The Condenser in the SWGH
321 Different Condenser Layouts in SWGH
322 Cooling the Condenser
33 The Evaporator (Humidifier) in the SWGH
34 The planting area in the SWGH
35 Construction and Materials
36 Energy Requirements
37 Economics and Applications
4 Design of SWGH
41 Simplified Model of Heat and Mass Transfer inside the SWGH
42 Efficiency of the Evaporative cooling
43 Design of Condensers
44 Venting System
45 Detailed Thermodynamic Model for SWGH
5 Overview on the installed SWGH projects Case Studies
51 Case Study 1 The SWGH project in Tenerife
511 Description of the Pilot Plant
512 Performances of the SWGH
52 Case Study 2 The SWGH Project in UAE
521 Description of the Pilot Plant
522 Performances of the Pilot Plant
53 The SWGH Project in Oman
531 Description of the Pilot Plant
532 Performances of the SWGH
6 Conclusion
Evolution of Photovoltaic Materials for Renewable Energy Development 262
Abdelilah Slaoui InESS ndash CNRS ndash University of Strasbourg Strasbourg France
Jef Poortmans IMEC Leuven Belgium
Marko Topic University of Ljubljana Faculty of Elec Eng Ljubljana Slovenia
Gavin Conibeer ARC Photovoltaics Centre of Excellence UNSW Sydney Australia
1 General Introduction
2 Photovoltaic Materials and Technologies State of the Art
21 Crystalline Silicon
22 Thin Films
221 Amorphous Silicon
222 Nanocrystalline and Microcrystalline Silicon
223 Polycrystalline Silicon
224 Copper Indium Selenide Its alloys and Related Chalcopyrites
225 Cadmium Telluride
226 Materials for Photochemical Solar Cells
227 Materials for Organic Solar Cells
3 Next Generation Solar Cells
31 Introduction
32 Multiple energy level approaches
33 Multiple Exciton Generation solar cells
34 Intermediate Band (IB) cells
35 Hot carrier cells
4 Conclusions and Perspectives
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiv
Wind and Solar Renewable Energy Potential Resources Estimation 302
Philippe Drobinski Institut Pierre Simon LaplaceLaboratoire de Meacuteteacuteorologie Dynamique CNRSEcole
Polytechnique Palaiseau France
1 Renewable Wind and Solar Energies The Context
11 An Economical and Environmental Necessity
12 Energy Definitions and Units
2 Basic Knowledge in Geophysics for Energy Resource Evaluation
21 Earth Energy Budget and Atmospheric Motion
22 Near Surface Wind
23 Impacts of Clouds and Aerosols on Surface Solar Radiation
3 Wind Energy Resource
31 Wind Energy A Brief History
32 Wind Energy Resources Evaluation
33 Wind Energy Installed Capacity in the World
4 Solar Energy Resources
41 Solar Energy An Introduction
42 Worldwide Solar Heat
5 Methods for Wind and Solar Energy Resources Forecast
Index 353
About EOLSS 361
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION AND PHOTOENERGY SYSTEMS - Contents
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) xxxiv
Wind and Solar Renewable Energy Potential Resources Estimation 302
Philippe Drobinski Institut Pierre Simon LaplaceLaboratoire de Meacuteteacuteorologie Dynamique CNRSEcole
Polytechnique Palaiseau France
1 Renewable Wind and Solar Energies The Context
11 An Economical and Environmental Necessity
12 Energy Definitions and Units
2 Basic Knowledge in Geophysics for Energy Resource Evaluation
21 Earth Energy Budget and Atmospheric Motion
22 Near Surface Wind
23 Impacts of Clouds and Aerosols on Surface Solar Radiation
3 Wind Energy Resource
31 Wind Energy A Brief History
32 Wind Energy Resources Evaluation
33 Wind Energy Installed Capacity in the World
4 Solar Energy Resources
41 Solar Energy An Introduction
42 Worldwide Solar Heat
5 Methods for Wind and Solar Energy Resources Forecast
Index 353
About EOLSS 361