solid waste management utilities - global reporting initiative · 2013-05-16 · solid waste...

Sustainability Topics for Sectors: What do stakeholders want to know?

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT UTILITIES

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This table shows a list of topics identified as relevant by different stakeholder groups. They can be considered as stakeholders’ suggestions or requests for topics to be monitored or disclosed by organizations.

Additional information about the project can be found at https://www.globalreporting.org/reporting/sector-guidance/Topics-Research/Pages/default.aspx

50 – Solid Waste Management Utilities

39 Topics

Companies that collect, treat, dispose, recycle and manage waste.

Sustainability Category

Topic Topic Specification (if available)

Explanation Reference(s)1 Constituency

Environmental Energy consumption

Renewable energy

Measures taken to use technologies that are able to take advantage of renewable energy, such as solar water heaters for autoclave steam generators. Renewable energy is generated from sustainable energy resources, which assists in avoiding depletion of natural resources for future generations, reducing air emissions and water consumption.

527 Civil Society Organization

Waste treatment processes

Energy sources are in the form of electricity, diesel and other fuel oils, kerosene, natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), coal, local fuels, etc. Energy consumption has a direct effect on operational costs and can increase exposure to fluctuations in energy supply and prices. The environmental footprint of an


https://www.globalreporting.org/reporting/sector-guidance/Topics-Research/Pages/default.aspx




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organization is shaped in part by its choice of energy sources. The consumption of non-renewable fuels is usually the main contributor to GHG emissions. Hence, the consumption of purchased electricity, heating, cooling, and steam contributes to an organization's energy indirect GHG emissions.

Water consumption

Waste treatment processes

Water is used in the treatment process itself (such as steam-based technologies or chemical treatment) or in air pollution control devices (such as wet scrubbers). Water is becoming more and more a scarce and valuable resource as population and consumption rise. Many human factors influence the availability of water. It is therefore important to become aware of the water consumed for treating (for example) 1 kg of waste.


Emissions to air Capture, conversion and use of Landfill Gas (LFG)

Measures taken to capture, convert and use Landfill Gas (LFG), which consists of methane, CO2 and non-methane organic compounds, as an energy source instead of allowing LFG to escape into the air and contribute to global warming. Methane emissions can result from the decay of organic matter in municipal solid waste landfills in the form of landfill gas (LFG). LFG is created from the decomposition of organic matter in a municipal solid waste (MSW) landfill. This gas consists of about 50 percent CH4, about 50 percent CO2, and a small amount of non-methane organic compounds (NMOCs). Methane (CH4), the second most important manmade greenhouse gas (GHG) after carbon dioxide (CO2), is responsible for more than a




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third of total anthropogenic climate forcing. It is also the second most abundant GHG accounting for 14 percent of global GHG emissions. Methane is considered a “short-term climate forcer,” meaning that it has a relatively short lifespan in the atmosphere, approximately 12 years. While methane is in the atmosphere for a shorter period of time and is emitted in smaller quantities than CO2, its ability to trap heat in the atmosphere, which is called its “global warming potential,” is 21 times greater than that of CO2.

Waste collection activity

Measures aiming at the reduction of traffic load and emissions caused by waste collection activities. Even if the share of waste transportation is quite low in comparison to the transportation of cargo, the collection activities within densely populated areas lead to a high traffic load and considerable emissions of exhaust gas pollution, such as CO2, which affect human health and the environment.


Total CO2, NOx, SOx, VOC emissions in million tonnes

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Emissions to air - Bioaerosols and aerosolized dust

(e.g., bacteria and fungi, endotoxins and glucans, viruses, yeasts, secondary metabolites including mycotoxins)

Bioaerosols have many components, and can be airborne solid or liquid particles of biological origin, which may contain microorganisms ranging in size from 0.5 to 100+ microns. They may be present as clumps, aggregates or as single cells, all of which may or may not be attached to particles of other material. Microorganism growth is associated with waste due to the breakdown of the organic fraction within the waste stream. These become bioaerosols once aerosolised, usually as a component of dust, although direct correlations between concentrations of dust and bioaerosol components are not always found. Measurement of bioaerosols is often carried out by monitoring for the presence of viable microorganisms (bacteria and fungi), which are quantified as colony forming units based on their ability to grow in the laboratory (expressed as cfu/m3). In terms of occupational health, a conservative concentration of 104 cfu/m3 as a guidance level for waste management facilities was proposed. The Danish Working Environment Service proposed that levels in excess of 1 x 106-109 cfu/m3 could cause respiratory problems and it was reported that concentrations of viable microorganisms above 106 cfu/m3 have been linked to hypersensitivity pneumonitis (allergic alveolitis) complaints, e.g. Farmers’ Lung. The risk of exposure to aerosolised dust and therefore to bioaerosols is a growing research area within waste




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management. The potential health implications of bioaerosols in relation to waste have been acknowledged for some time (Pahren 1987). The composition of bioaerosols released from waste facilities has been found to contain (but are not limited to) bacteria and fungi (viable e.g. live and dead), endotoxins and glucans (cellular wall components with toxicological properties), viruses, yeasts, and also, potentially, secondary metabolites including mycotoxins. Bioaerosols and their components have been linked to infection (via pathogens in viable microorganisms), allergic type reactions, such as mucous membrane irritations, respiratory complaints such as chronic bronchitis and asthma, and skin irritations. They have also been linked to systemic toxic effects, with the term ‘Organic Dust Toxic Syndrome’ referring to exposure to certain components such as endotoxins and glucans and specific effects such as fever, chills, headaches, excessive tiredness and flu-like symptoms that resolve on removal from exposure.

Emissions to air - Furan and dioxin emissions

Incineration and co-incineration processes

Measures taken to manage dioxin and furan emissions. Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds (DLC) are by-products of various industrial processes, and are commonly regarded as highly toxic compounds that are environmental pollutants and persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Furan is a colorless, flammable, highly volatile liquid with




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a boiling point close to room temperature. It is soluble in common organic solvents, including alcohol, ether and acetone, but is insoluble in water. It is toxic and may be carcinogenic. Furan is used as a starting point to other specialty chemicals. The main sources of dioxins are incineration and chemical industry Chlorinated dioxins and furans can cause severe health problems, including: • Cancer • Endocrine disruption • Endometriosis • Neurological damage • Birth defects and impaired child development • Reproductive system damage • Immune system damage Because dioxins and furans break down slowly, they endure in the environment for long periods of time. Like many organohalogens, they bioaccumulate in animals’ fatty tissue. The highest concentrations are found in animals at the top of the food chain, including humans.

Emissions to air - GHG emissions

Incineration and co-incineration processes

Measures taken to reduce GHG emissions during incineration or co-incineration of waste Controlled burning in waste incinerators generates CO2 emissions. Where incinerators generate energy, GHG may also be credited. Where incinerators do not

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generate energy, they will be net energy users, which will also contribute to their total GHG emissions. Advanced thermal treatment technologies, such as gasification and pyrolysis, may emit fewer emissions compared to mass-burn incineration. However, these are emerging technologies and cannot be considered ‘established’ technologies for the treatment of bulk mixed waste. GHG emissions contribute to global warming and hence, affect humankind and the environment.

Landfill sites Another challenge concerns the management of greenhouse gases from landfills: companies that use technologies to capture methane produced by decomposing waste and use it to generate energy will emerge as sector leaders.


Management and reduction strategies

Measures to save or reduce GHG emissions through several activities, such as: - Avoiding the use of primary materials for manufacturing through waste avoidance and material recovery (i.e. the GHG emissions associated with the use of primary materials – mostly energy-related – are avoided) - Producing energy that substitutes or replaces energy derived from fossil fuels (i.e. the emissions arising from the use of waste as a source of energy are generally lower than those produced from fossil fuels). - Storing carbon in landfills (i.e. carbon-rich materials that are largely recalcitrant in anaerobic landfill conditions, such as plastics and wood) and through

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application of compost to soils. The waste sector can assist in mitigating global warming, as the waste sector is capable of generating a net GHG benefit through, for example, waste avoidance, material recovery, and energy recovery.

Wastewater management

Cleaning of exhaust gases or fly ash from incineration or co-incineration processes

Treatment and reuse of wastewater resulting from cleaning of exhaust gases or fly ash from incineration or co-incineration plants. Wastewater resulting from the cleaning of exhaust gases needs to be treated outside of the incineration or co-incineration plant at a treatment plant intended only for the treatment of this sort of wastewater. Discharging the wastewater to the aquatic environment without passing it through this specific treatment plant can lead to water pollution, as it contains quite a high level of salts and various harmful heavy metals and dioxins. EU Directive

160 Business

Waste management processes

Recycling, reuse and/or recovery of waste

Recycling' means any recovery operation by which waste materials are reprocessed into raw materials, products or substances whether for the original or other purposes. ‘Re-use’ means any operation by which products or components that are not waste are used again for the same purpose for which they were conceived. ´Recovery’ means any operation the principal result of which is waste serving a useful purpose by replacing

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other materials which would otherwise have been used to fulfil a particular function, or waste being prepared to fulfil that function, in the plant or in the wider economy. It is important to recycle and to regard waste as a resource in order to prevent, reduce, and in so far, eliminate pollution or nuisance resulting from waste. The demand on energy and resources is usually lower to produce a good from a recycled material as a pure raw material is already available (e.g. metal not ore) and there is no need to start from the beginning (e.g. dig for ore to refine metal cars in order to make beverage cans). For example, aluminium (Al, atomic number 13) is a strong, lightweight metal that has become the dominant non-ferrous metal in use today. Because aluminous minerals are very stable, large amounts of energy are required to reduce these compounds to metal. Aluminium recycling, which is the process of re-melting the metal, is very important, because recycling scrap aluminum requires only 5% of the energy used to make new aluminum and the quality of the recycled aluminum is almost as good as new aluminum (about 90%). EU Directive

Waste & disposal services need to ensure the appropriate treatment for the many different types of waste. Facilitating the reuse and recycling of end-oflife products are the main challenges for the sector.




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Solid residues management

Post incineration

Measures taken to manage solid residues after incineration. Solid residues include sterilized plastics, unshredded needles or incinerator ash. Managing solid residues from the incineration process is very important, as solid residues may have great health, safety and environmental risks. Some residues, such as sterilized plastics, have lower health/safety and environmental risks, compared to other residues, such as unshredded needles or incinerator ash.


Special waste type management

Hazardous waste

Hazardous wastes are materials that are known or tested to exhibit one or more of the following four hazardous traits: - ignitability (i.e., flammable) - reactivity - corrosivity - toxicity - Listed hazardous wastes are materials specifically listed by regulatory authorities as a hazardous waste which are from non-specific sources, specific sources, or discarded chemical products. - radioactivity Hazardous waste affects human health and cause water, air and soil pollution. The operator of the incineration or co-incineration plant needs information about the physical and chemical

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composition of the waste for the purpose of verifying compliance with the permit requirements (i.e. waste capacity of the incineration or co-incineration plant, categories of waste which may be treated), taking precautions for handling the hazardous waste, and evaluating the waste's suitability for the intended incineration process. EU Directive

Healthcare equipment waste

Healthcare waste is all the waste generated as by-products of healthcare facilities, medical laboratories and biomedical research facilities, as well as waste from minor or scattered sources. The material constituents of healthcare waste are mainly paper and other cellulosic materials, plastics, glass, metal, and food waste, with a small percentage of pathological waste (anatomical or body parts, tissues, organs, etc.) and placenta from child birth. Hence, healthcare waste often includes sharps, non-sharps, blood, body parts, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, medical devices and radioactive materials. Improper treatment and disposal of healthcare waste pose serious hazards of disease transmission due to exposures to infectious agents among waste pickers, waste workers, health workers, patients, and the community in general.

355, 527 Civil Society Organization

Plastic waste Plastic, a valuable material, can generate significant positive, or negative, impacts on economy, environment and society. Plastic should be treated as a resource and




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managed judiciously. A disclosure on management approach for plastics, including governance, strategy, risks, opportunities, considering: opportunities for "upstream (source)" policies regarding product redesign, increasing recycled content, implementing reclaim and/or reuse, and "downstream (waste management)" policies and practices to facilitate any reclaim/reuse programs, implement high recovery rates for recycling, implement sustainable separation, recycling, composting, waste-to-fuel and/or other policies; and proactive policies to protect health of stakeholders, the environment and society for plastics that are directly harmful to stakeholders, or indirectly through plastics being wasted/littered. Performance indicators regarding the types and volumes of plastics being used, collected, and/or distributed downstream; the portion that is made of post-consumer-recycled, bio-based, biodegradable, compostable, and/or oxobiodegradable material; these volumes broken down by end of life disposition. Most can be captured through the existing GRI framework (e.g. GRI G3 EC9, EN1, EN2, EN22), but commentary is needed to ensure disclosers appreciate the materiality of plastic; other questions can be added to the framework. Refer to the Plastic Disclosure Project (www.plasticdisclosure.org) for more details. PDP will align its questions to GRI G4 once finalised to assist organisations in disclosing to PDP and GRI easily.



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Plastic can have significant positive, or negative, impacts on the economy, environment and society: Economics: There are significant cost savings available to organisations that treat plastic as a resource (e.g. through redesign, use of recycled content, reclaiming, etc.) and risks of increased direct costs (regulation, liability, cost of capital, insurance) to organisations that do not lead in this area as well as indirect economic costs to impacted industries (e.g. food production, tourism) Environment: Plastics that are wasted or littered become extremely harmful to the environment, which will have a material effect on biodiversity and the global food chain, both nearby and far outside the local area of operations Society: Some plastics are harmful to stakeholders during manufacture, use and/or disposal (e.g. due to phthalates, BPA), impact the wellbeing of society (e.g. effect of litter on community spirit and their interest in sustainability). Living communities, overseen by municipalities and universities; and the waste management schemes implemented by them and solid waste utilities, have an enormous impact on plastic's potential benefit or harm. While a valuable invention, which benefits society in many ways, the negative impacts associated with society's growing use of plastic are not fully recognised. Roughly 85% of plastic used in products and packaging is not recycled, and most plastic produced in the last 60 years still remains in the environment today. Discarded



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plastics persist in the environment for dozens or hundreds of years, accumulating across the globe, often out of sight of the producers and users. The direct physical impacts of plastic are significant to the organisation in increased costs or missed opportunities, and related economies (e.g. over $1.2bn in annual damages to ocean-related industries in Asia-Pacific), the environment through harming habitats and species, and to stakeholders health when exposed to the chemical ingredients; and are magnified if fragmentation of the plastic occurs, making it available for ingestion to additional species, who adsorb the chemical ingredients and/or the toxins carried on the plastic. These negative impacts could be avoided and turned into positive impacts, if plastic was treated as a resource to be managed judiciously.

Scrap tire waste A scrap tire is a tire which can no longer be used for its original purpose, due to wear or damage, If improperly handled, scrap tires can be a threat to the environment. Tires exposed to the elements can hold water and be a breeding space for mosquitoes that carry disease. Tire piles can be set on fire through arson or accident. These fires are difficult to put out, and produce heavy smoke and toxic run off to waterways. Tire piles can also harbor other vermin, such as rats and snakes.

126, 448 Business

Leachate management

Landfill sites The breakdown of biodegradable waste in landfill sites may release chemicals such as heavy metals resulting in run-off called leachate. Measures taken to manage leachate.




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An average municipal landfill site can produce up to 150 m³ of leachate a day, which equates to the amount of fresh water that an average household consumes in a year. This liquid can contaminate local groundwater and surface water and soil, which could pose a risk to public health and the environment.

Odor management

Landfill sites Measures taken to manage the odor, resulting from the waste at the landfill. Odour consists of a complex mix of chemicals in gaseous form that can be detected by the olfactory sensors of the nose. In waste management, production of odours is linked to microbial decomposition of the organic fraction, although packaging materials and household products such as detergents have also been associated with odour in kerbside waste containers. Within this mix are volatile organic compounds (VOCs). VOCs are organic compounds which easily vaporise in normal atmospheric conditions. Typical odorous compounds including VOCs which are associated with waste include chloro-organics, hydrogen sulphide (rotten eggs), mercaptans (rotten vegetation e.g. cabbage) and amines (fishy smells). The issue of odors is significant to the workers. It is also a concern when there are residences or commercial facilities adjacent to the landfill site. Human response to odours is highly subjective; different people find different odours offensive, and at different




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concentrations. Odours are also quite difficult to quantify as they consist of many different individual components and the complex mix cannot be easily predicted. There is a large body of research indicating that, where odour is present, there is an associated perception that health risks are increased. Some authors report that individuals may develop an odour hypersensitivity that is not accompanied by an enhanced ability to discriminate different odours and that if an odour is perceived as a ‘negative’ odour, it is more likely to be associated with health effects than a ‘positive’ odour.

Social Labor management relations

Utilities are highly dependent on a number of stakeholders to conduct their business, including: Local communities: Not In My Back-Yard attitude is quite strong when it comes to building power plants, waster or water treatment facilities, or transmission lines. Our Head of Utilities referred to this as the ‘banana issue’, Build Absolutely Nothing Near Anything, which is faced by the sector. Regulators: are key stakeholders when it comes to installation permits and the setting of tariffs. Employees: on average, 35% to 45% of the workforce will reach retirement age within the next five years. Companies such as RWE AG have set up plans to address this challenge.

479 Business

Occupational health and safety management

Education and training on health and safety issues

Employees should be able to easily access information on health and safety, including the health and safety manager or team, health and safety meetings, training and safety bulletins, and manuals.

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It is important to keep employees updated about health and safety issues.

Waste collection Particular safety and health areas that should be considered are: 1. Musculoskeletal injuries from handling receptacles of waste and recyclables. 2. Slips and trips. 3. Transport movements, particularly reversing and the risks of 'struck by injury' to both workers and members of the public. Report rules or guidelines that deal with waste handling and working security in this field to improve working conditions, such as: • No manual lifting and carrying of containers or bags • No manual loading of containers of bags onto collection vehicle • No stairs or steps • Maximum pulling/towing force for containers: 200 Newton • If impossible to avoid carrying the maximum to be lifted are 75-litre bags (max. 20 bags per person and day) • Regular vaccinations • Personal protective equipment e.g. high-visibility clothing and cut-resistant clothing. • Personal hygiene and on-board hand washing facilities. Regardless of the work, accidents are normally caused by poor organization and supervision, inadequate tools and




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equipment, poor planning, and lack of skills and competence among workers, supervisors and managers. Collection activities account for the majority of accidents within the industry due to, for example, transport movements or exposure to hazardous substances.

Occupational health and safety risks

Bioaerosols Bioaerosols have many components, and can be airborne solid or liquid particles of biological origin, which may contain microorganisms ranging in size from 0.5 to 100+ microns. They may be present as clumps, aggregates or as single cells, all of which may or may not be attached to particles of other material. Microorganism growth is associated with waste due to the breakdown of the organic fraction within the waste stream. These become bioaerosols once aerosolised, usually as a component of dust, although direct correlations between concentrations of dust and bioaerosol components are not always found. In terms of occupational health, a conservative concentration of 104 cfu/m3 as a guidance level for waste management facilities was proposed. The Danish Working Environment Service proposed that levels in excess of 1 x 106-109 cfu/m3 could cause respiratory problems and it was reported that concentrations of viable microorganisms above 106 cfu/m3 have been linked to hypersensitivity pneumonitis (allergic alveolitis) complaints, e.g. Farmers’ Lung. In terms of direct health effects, little research has been carried out to establish ‘safe’ levels of bioaerosols to




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which an individual can be exposed, and it was observed that the dose-response relationships remain unclear. This is partly due to the fact that there are many different species of viable (live) bioaerosols, but also because there are many components, such as endotoxins, glucans and mycotoxins that can have immunotoxic effects. Bioaerosols and their components have been linked to infection (via pathogens in viable microorganisms), allergic type reactions, such as mucous membrane irritations, respiratory complaints such as chronic bronchitis and asthma, and skin irritations. They have also been linked to systemic toxic effects, with the term ‘Organic Dust Toxic Syndrome’ referring to exposure to certain components such as endotoxins and glucans and specific effects such as fever, chills, headaches, excessive tiredness and flu-like symptoms that resolve on removal from exposure.

Noise The reporting organization needs to carry out a risk assessment in order to assess the risks resulting from noise (e.g. from trommels, separation magnets, eddy current separators and moving vehicles can all contribute to noise levels and damage hearing). Risk assessments should aim to: - eliminate the main risks identified wherever reasonably practicable; - assess the risks if they cannot be eliminated; and - reduce the risks that remain by implementing risk-reducing techniques. Noise can damage the workers' hearing.

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Odor Odour consists of a complex mix of chemicals in gaseous form that can be detected by the olfactory sensors of the nose. In waste management, production of odours is linked to microbial decomposition of the organic fraction, although packaging materials and household products such as detergents have also been associated with odour in kerbside waste containers. Within this mix are volatile organic compounds (VOCs). VOCs are organic compounds which easily vaporise in normal atmospheric conditions. Typical odorous compounds including VOCs which are associated with waste include chloro-organics, hydrogen sulphide (rotten eggs), mercaptans (rotten vegetation e.g. cabbage) and amines (fishy smells). In kerbside waste containers, high levels of alkanes, alkylbenzenes and terpenes have been reported as being responsible for undesirable odours. Human response to odours is highly subjective; different people find different odours offensive, and at different concentrations. Odours are also quite difficult to quantify as they consist of many different individual components and the complex mix cannot be easily predicted. There is a large body of research indicating that, where odour is present, there is an associated perception that health risks are increased. Some authors report that individuals may develop an odour hypersensitivity that is not accompanied by an enhanced ability to discriminate different odours and that if an odour is perceived as a ‘negative’ odour, it is more likely to be associated with health effects than a ‘positive’ odour.




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In terms of occupational issues, some studies have reported that odorous compounds are linked to possible health outcomes, particularly gastrointestinal symptoms in collectors. As some VOCs have been shown to increase with longer waste storage intervals, it is possible that in waste collectors a cumulative effect may occur e.g. over time from several hundred containers.

Local community engagement

New plant instalment

Utilities are highly dependent on a number of stakeholders to conduct their business, including: Local communities: Not In My Back-Yard attitude is quite strong when it comes to building power plants, waste or water treatment facilities, or transmission lines. Our Head of Utilities referred to this as the ‘banana issue’, Build Absolutely Nothing Near Anything, which is faced by the sector.

479 Business

Landfill site location

Impacts on local communities and land

Policies and measures taken to avoid sighting of waste disposal sites in residential areas. With the gradual exhaustion of previous landfilling/dumping sites and the ever increasing generation of waste in urban areas, landfills are sometimes sighted in the middle of a sprawling residential suburb/area, which can affect human health and lead to water and air pollution. Furthermore, assets such as land and houses around the dump sites lose value due to the presence of the leachate odour, rodents and flies.




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Other Closing of landfill sites

Impacts on environment and human health

When a decision has been taken to close a dumpsite, several key questions typically arise: what method to use, who is going to pay, and what new waste disposal method to use. There are in principle 3 methods available to close an open dump: 1. Closing by covering the waste (in-place method) 2. Closing by removing the waste from the site (evacuation/mining method) 3. Closing by upgrading the dump to a controlled dumping site or sanitary landfill (up-grading method) Choosing the method for closing open dump sites is important, because in general open dumpsites have a great impact on the environment, such as groundwater and air pollution, and have an impact on public safety and health due to, for example, odors. Each method has advantages and disadvantages for the environment or human health, which need to be taken into consideration. For example, closing by removing the waste from the site (evacuation/mining method) might be combined with sorting the waste for recovery of recyclables. However, this may also lead to odour issues locally, which will need to be appropriately managed.


Corporate governance

Gender participation on governance bodies

GOVERNANCE / EUROPE: boardroom lady boom: is it possible without quotas? On 22 June, the CapitalCom agency published its 2011 survey into the boardroom gender mix of CAC 40 companies, with fairly encouraging results: the




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proportion of women on the board has doubled in recent years, from 10.5% in 2009 to 20.8% in 2011. In January, the French parliament adopted legislation imposing quotas for the proportion of women on the board of major companies. Under the measures, the development of female board membership is mandatory and gradual: 20% for listed groups, public companies of an administrative, industrial and commercial nature by January 2014, rising to 40% by January 2017. The law also stipulates that companies with no women present on their board must appoint at least one within six months of it being on the statute books (voted on 13 January 2011). In France, some 2,000 companies are affected (the 650 largest listed firms and companies with more than 500 employees and those generating sales in excess of €50bn). In terms of sanctions for noncompliance, appointments that run counter to the parity principles are to be declared null and void and attendance fees are to be temporarily suspended. At the European level and at the instigation of the Vice-president of the European Commission, Viviane Reding, the European parliament will decide in March 2012 on whether to adopt common legislation on this matter (a mandatory proportion of women in decision-making positions of 30% in 2015 and 40% in 2020). This will depend on the level of improvement seen based on the selfregulation of European companies, in accordance with the equality initiative adopted by the European



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Commission in December 2010 and the European parliament resolution of 17 January 2008 calling for the Commission and member states to promote a balance between women and men on company boards, particularly where member states are shareholders. Europe as a whole illustrates the degree of hesitation between a soft-law approach and conventional legislation (quotas in this instance), but it is clear from the experience at national level that the second method tends to get much better results.

International, national or local solid waste management regulations and/or laws

Regulatory requirements for solid waste management depend on the legal framework and regulatory infrastructure of each country Firstly, collect the laws and acts pertaining to Solid Waste Management (SWM). There could be direct laws or acts addressing either overall SWM or a particular aspect of its chain, say, recycling and recovery. Environmental protection laws and acts usually cover SWM at national and local level along with a possibility of other laws, such as provision of public services, covering all or some aspects of it. The policies addressing various economic sectors, such as industries and agriculture, and also the specific laws for healthcare facilities, construction and demolition activities may, directly or indirectly, contain specific clauses on SWM. Laws or acts on SWM may or may not cover hazardous waste management. In that case, some of the separate laws and acts addressing hazardous waste management could be:




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I. Environmental Protection Law/Act II. Hazardous Waste Management Law/Act III. Recycling or Resource Recovery Law/Act IV. Clean Air Act – Incineration, Landfill gases V. Public Services Act – Solid Waste Management Secondly, collect information on all the relevant regulations which may include various standards covering every stage of existing solid waste management chain. The standards may also be available for technology and infrastructure, for example construction and operation of landfills and incinerators. Some examples of regulations or standards could be: I. Regulations on production and consumption – upstream measures II. Regulations on segregation of recyclable and non-recyclable waste III. Regulations on electronics waste IV. Regulations pertaining to extended producer’s responsibility V. Regulations on handling of hazardous waste VI. Regulations on collection and transportation of industrial waste VII. Regulations on construction and operation of landfills VIII. Regulations on construction and operation of incinerators IX. Regulations on construction and operation of composting plant At international level, various multilateral and bilateral



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treaties and agreements, including Basel Convention, are available. National policies may have more than one perspective: they may help to improve SWM with respect to local conditions and/or they may assist to comply with international treaties and agreements. Furthermore, local policies could have an importance as in many countries, SWM is a local issue dealt by local governments. Providing information about local, national and international laws and regulations is important, because policies are translated into regulatory and economic instruments for their implementation. The former, also known as command and control, specify the standards or limits to be followed and the latter, also known as market-based instruments, provide incentives and disincentives. There may also be some voluntary instruments agreed by the stakeholders. Regulatory, economic and voluntary instruments may be available either in general or for every stage of solid waste management chain.

Stakeholder relations to conduct business

Active engagement with the sector’s many stakeholders is an indispensable precondition for quick project approvals and the creation of a certain degree of confidence and transparency.


Treatment process innovation

As many countries still rely on landfills for their waste disposal, a priority for the sector is the introduction of alternative and innovative treatment processes to complement exhausted landfill capacities


Waste collection Traffic load Measures aiming at the reduction of traffic load caused by waste collection activities.




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Even if the share of waste transportation is quite low in comparison to the transportation of cargo, the collection activities within densely populated areas lead to a high traffic load, which affect human health and the environment due to noise, emissions of exhaust gases, dust and odor.

Transport efficiency

At the same time, the efficiency of transport equipment and logistics processes has a significant financial and environmental impact


Waste scavengers

Health and safety management

Measures taken to improve health of waste scavengers include, for example: - Prior to taking any concrete action, an open discussion with the waste scavengers ought to take place, in which they can communicate their needs as they perceive them - Provision of protective clothes and equipment - Some form of water supply at the site - A roofed facility for waste sorting could be considered, with conveyor belts or tables at waist height, where all the municipal solid waste is delivered for sorting and the residues then sent onto the dump Waste scavengers are part of the "informal recycling sector". They store the materials recovered by sort/type and subsequently sell them to the site operator or to the intermediate buyers who come to the site from the city or to local junkshops that may be located on or near to the dumpsite. The site operator and intermediate buyers usually sell the materials recovered further to the




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processing businesses, although the intermediate buyers may also do some of the simpler processing themselves. Waste scavengers at dumpsites, as well as other informal stakeholders, significantly contribute to solid waste management, as they save the municipalities money by recycling materials that would otherwise need to be handled through the formal sector. They also make a positive contribution to resource management through the recovery of valuable materials from the waste stream. However, the safety of waste scavengers, particularly at dumpsites, is very poor. Waste scavenging commences already during the unloading of lorries. The sight is not uncommon of young men climbing on the waste being unloaded from the lorry with the trailer still raised in the tipping position. Often, there are machines present at the site to spread (and compact) the waste. Waste scavengers search through high piles of waste in the close proximity of machines. There is a constant potential for injury from slips, trips and falls. As scavengers hardly ever use any protective clothing such as boots, gloves and masks, they often get cut by sharp objects like needles and broken glass, as well as bitten by dogs and rats. In addition to the safety issues mentioned, there are frequent incidents of violence as well. In terms of health risk analysis, waste scavengers are exposed to numerous hazards: various hazardous substances including infectious waste from hospitals, smoke and fumes from burning waste, unhygienic



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conditions in general, as well as harsh weather conditions. In addition, they spend most of the time working in a bent position, which is bad by any ergonomic standard. The consequences of such practices are obvious and well documented: waste scavengers suffer from chronic backache, coughs and general weakness. Their skin and eyes are irritated and infected. They often have diarrhea, parasites and hepatitis. In addition, scavengers live under inadequate conditions (often at the dumpsite where they work) and lack access to healthcare provision and social security.

Landfill sites Waste scavenging is directly linked (in different ways) to waste segregation at source, collection and disposal. It is important to understand these links in order to identify the existing potential for improvements within the system. Waste scavengers at dumpsites are part of, what is commonly referred to as, the informal sector in solid waste management. Other informal stakeholders include itinerant buyers of discarded products (from door to door), street waste scavengers (at the kerb-side or from containers) and waste scavengers at transfer stations. Waste scavenging at waste dumpsites occurs all over the world and particularly in Africa, Asia, Latin America and parts of Europe. Dumpsites around the world are the workplace of thousands of men, women and children who sort through the waste in search of valuable materials. Waste scavengers, particularly those at dumpsites, are a very vulnerable social group and are often held in low esteem by others in society.




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Waste selection systems

The way in which waste materials are collected. The selection of an appropriate collection system depends on the following characteristics: • Waste composition • Existing collection system • Existing waste preparation and disposal system • Willingness of the population to cooperate and pay • Processing opportunities • Marketing opportunities The way, in which waste materials are collected (and subsequently sorted), is extremely important within waste management systems. It accounts for 60 to 80% of the total costs of waste disposal, as waste collection determines which waste management options can subsequently be used (e.g. recyclables have to be treated differently than plastic waste) and most importantly the objectives of waste collection systems are waste removal with a minimum of resource use and environmental impact with adherence to hygienic and health standards.


Waste trafficking

Hazardous waste

Measures taken to avoid waste trafficking (i.e. hazardous waste - often hazardous e-waste -is exported from OECD countries to non-OECD countries in order to avoid stricter treatment standards or to exploit low wages in the receiver country) At international level, transboundary shipments of waste are governed by the UN via the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal. The aim of the Convention is




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to protect human health and the environment from adverse effects caused by wastes, especially hazardous wastes, and the transboundary shipments of these wastes. The Convention also covers proper management of these wastes. It underlines that transboundary shipments of hazardous wastes to developing countries, many of which are incapable of handling such waste, do not constitute environmentally sound management as required by the Convention. Export of hazardous wastes from OECD countries to non-OECD countries is specifically prohibited according to the export ban amendment to the Convention. Hazardous waste (especially e-waste) has damaging effects on the environment and can cause serious health problems for those employed in the disposal process.

1 All references can be found at https://www.globalreporting.org/reporting/sector-guidance/Topics-Research/Pages/default.aspx




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References

All references can be found at https://www.globalreporting.org/reporting/sector-guidance/Topics-Research/Pages/default.aspx

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