some aspects of chinese-philippine relations: a study in international relations by jovito r....

7/27/2019 Some Aspects of Chinese-Philippine Relations: A Study in International Relations By Jovito R. Salonga, Yale Law Sc

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choolMYRES S. MCDOUGAL

Sterling Professor ofLaw Emeritus June 15, 1998

Dear Former Student:It is with great sadness that I must inform you that Professor Myres S. McDougal died onI May 7th. Mac had a great fondness for his students through his years of teaching and whilefollowing their career paths. In view of this, I thought you might enjoy having a copy of a paperyou submitted to Mac while at the Yale Law School.Best wishcs.

Sincerely yours,

. |"ffi--olWYale Law S

Cheryl A. DeFilippoAssistant to the late Mlrres S. McDougal

Enclosure

p.o. Box zo82t5, NEw HAvEN, coNNEcrrcur o6izo-82r5 TELEpHoNE 2oJ 432-485o FAcsli\rlLE 2613 432-7247. COUitIER ApDBESS I2Z w4,LL STREET, NEW HAVEN, coNNEcTIcUT o65I1

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fJOX,IE ASPECTS OliIii{.ATIOI'IS: A

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BJ'l ovj-to H, Sa.longaYaIe La'1.,r uchool-

dune1948lerm }aper for.Lnternational Lavr(3 units) underProf . rr.I\icUougal


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lntroduction Iuefinition 6Post ltortern nppraisal Ifit,laims end uounterclaj-ns 2,?j(ecent .$vents and Attemptat Rnalysis

r'legal AspectsThe Treatyt4+ocss to, the

'ihe Shape ofu'thingsalteconnend ation

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tntrciduction : Iuefinition 6Post rtortero '.npprelsal Iolaims end Counterclaims 2,2Hecent .nvents and l\ttemPtat analysisLegal lspects

The TreatYAccess to the'various velues,ihe Shape of 'lhingsHecommend a.tion

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B{ vray of introduction:-,j,he Republlc of the ?hilippi_nes is aboutto conplete its second year of rirro.epenctence.r In

many respects, it is a nevfcouer in trre f.ield ofinternational relati-ons. Lts peopie have been x-posed to the ruthr-ess lmpacis of two great wars.rhey have prosecuted, innrrmerabre rgvolts agaliistt're' al-len' rulin64 elit,es: !iestern and oriental.-tofiner-Ly consicle::ecl Dy the Spernish ilvuo.er as alrarrorpuous mass or d.lvergent raciaL origrls, t4e-u'i-t-lpi'os wil'r ro be considered tod.ay a peopre,bound. by a cotudon neritage, united by corunon uf1_bols and slogans. 1'he last r,var enotionalized anddrarnatized. the syirrools, the traditions, the flag,and the J-eaders vmich gave unity to ttre group anddlstinguished it lrom other groups. t,h home, theschool, the private pressure organization take greatpalns in inspirlng awe and reverence toward. the newnation-state. rts youth is condi-tionecl to a definiteallegiance-' no longer to the ,ali-enr ruring cIass,the clan, the province, or the ci_ty, but to the'rFiliplno nation" demanding a loyalty above alr_other loyalties.


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Obsessed with a sense of rnationalinjusticer,the masses have throvrn their support to rnovements,leaders, and slogans that promote'the riligroep,identity and importance, rhis advanced. for:n ofethnocentrism has manut'actured a new brand ot 'pa-trlots, and theroesr , whose rwlsdom and. patriotism,must 'be gauged. by tne amount of hostility shourn to-rvards all tout-groups| .

In so far as 'nationality' is mad.e to depend onraclal- teet, only the naive can take the criterionwith any degree of s'eriousness. 'Ihe ,I'llipino. oftod"ay, lvith some insignificant exceptions, 1s of rua-layan-rndonesia$. orlgln, with recognizable uhinqseIor lvrongoloid characteristics. tHacial pru'ityt isadmlttedly nonexlstent anong the nations of thev,iorld. ''Haces can be clessiried only in the crudest

'nand most unscientific fashion.61. Prof. Keesing describes the rtypical tr'ilipinottnow ernerging in the J-slands to be isomewhere betweenthe early negrltos and fnd.onesia.&.s ano the mestizos(-E'ilipinos with recognizable uhlnese or wtriFG?latcli.aracteristics ) of iVlanil-a. tt Early lndones j-an in'::nigrsntsf'rom southern Hsj-a, comi-ng to the lslands thousancls of r:years &gor mingled lvith the pygroy aboriginals, novi fastdisappearing, who shor^ied. both rvegroid and Ntongoloid af-'f inities. rater amj-val-s (comnronly krrovrn as rlralays )showi-ng strong tvtongoloid affinltles, in turn mi-ngledwith the rndonesians. se Keesing, relix u., The rhilip-pines: A Nation in the lraking (1937); nAmong Philippinelialays" writes anthrophologist beyerr "every grad.ationcan be found from an alno$t pure tndonesia.n to a purernongoloio type. ,uure blends constitute a ninority every-t/h.ere. . . the l,uzon Christians are pred.ominantlg !1grr-goloiO, vrh11e both the uhristian ard Ivioro groups to rthesouth of Luuon are predominantly lnd.onesian." Beyer, H.0t1ey, Population of the r'hilippine lslands in 191-6 (1917p)


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-3-Becnuse of the acuteness of the language pro-

bl-em in tlie rhilipifnes, none have serj-ously sug-gesteci that language be the basis of t-hilippine na-tionality. Stf neither race nor language can serve as acriterion, what should be the test of natj-onality'iPresumably, tlre doctrinaire rvil-l point to the pro-visions of the rhillppine uonstitution, r^rhich enume-rate the persons rvho can be consictered citizens ofthe }hilippines. 'L'he formalistic fornulatlon foundin the uoustitution is not helpl'uI , 4t any reite toone who merely lvants to lsrorv the deI.'inition of tshi-lippine rnationalt, stripped. of legailistic verbiage.rn point of fact, tlre formul-ation merely preservesthe exlsting value deprlvations anc| j-ndulgences,

2. $ee the valuabLe studies make by r.,enedict,xuth: Race, $clence and Polities, L9401 Barzunrtr.Race: A Study in rilodern superstltlonl rhompson, E.Race xelations and" the Hace Problem (1959); Radin, P.The nacial rryth (1954) ; Boaz, "8. Race, language and.uulture (1940). Apologists for tne existence of an.Aryen r6rce and hence o1' t'eutonic stt-periority- Gobin-eau, Essai sur ltinegalite cles races humaines (1884);Of . Stoddardr Ehe Rising 't'ide of uol-or, 1920f nacialxealities in lurope lI92'4),3. there are approximately e7 clj-l'ferent J.anigllages and dial-ects spoken. Ivtore th.an 90 per cent ofthe lnhnbitants, however, are found" lvltliin eight ornine languages. rrThese people coroprise aLrrost the en-tire uhristian popuitit j-on of the lirchipelago, thosevrho have the r,rerlavrn-i,jpanish-rrnericr-in culture lvhich 1sclistinctively'Irilipinot . The remaining langua.ges and.their subclivisions are those, roughly, of tire halfmillion f,iloros ( the I'rioltalunedans of the southern island"s)ancl a somewhat larger number of tlte semi-ci-vilized pa-gans r,.rho are scatterecl through jungle ano nourrtainareas throughout the Archipelago.r' H. Otley beyer, Po-pulation of the Philippine Islaarls in 19L6 (l'ianila,1917)see also Uecilio Lopez, Tlre language situation in ther,hilippine rslands (IvlaniLa, :l-951) .

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-4-and therefore perpetuates, if it does not increase,the existing dlscriminations.

rt 1s on the ba.rsis of this unseientific defini-,'", tion that the relati-ons of the lhillppines ancl its

people with the rchineser and other ra-l-ienr groupsare maintained and conducted.. preswiably, j_n a rvorlddivided into nation-.states inrrabltecl by peoples vrhosedevotion ancl allegiance to the tribaL totem have aneccLeslastical t1nge, the d.efinition arncl the supposed.lylogical derivations encl d.istinctions that arise frornit, csnnot be helped.

-But that sad conrirentrry on our present-da;r sys-tem canno! rule out any steitement of preferences, Meneverryvrhere, no matter horv rprimitiver the societtesto rrhi-ch they berong, are struggllng to achieve baslcvalues- power, wealth, respect, rectitud.e, well-being, affection, and skil-l- through institutionsappl.1ed to resourc"".4 rhe equita.ble clistributionof these values 9n a grobal level j-s manrs great con-"u."r today. rf he fails 1n that task, he rnay ]ose hisIasj" cirance of rebuil-dlng rvireit is even no.rrv a d.evers-tated, broken tverld

wian must face the necessities of his &go Hevril-L have to reexanine the functamenterrs of hls be-l-iefs. The institutionalized. forms and procedures

4. Lessrvell and i,icDougal, Legal Educationand ?\rblic Fo11cy: Frofessional Training in thej-\rblie Interest 52 (Iviarch L94f ) y.l.J.ZOf et seq.


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-6-vhis foruears have conceived and erected lvil-L have tobe refashioned to serve his demands and expectations.'I'hanks to his skill- in the manipulation of thingsand 1n the teciuri-que of analysis, he is able to bearrlvitness to the assaults thrust upon his parochlalconcepts. H may soon realize- if he has not fuIlyappreci-ated the i:nplicatj-ons of his olvn acts- thathe must plan and utilize.productive resources on noless than a global scale. rlanning on a .Lesser scerlehas faiLed and will fail. It has bred stupid con-flicts and unnecessary wars. 'l'o plan f or whett is con-ced.eci to be one worl-d iniplies and unclerscores thebasic need for a real- wor-ld organization. that inturn implies the ellr,iination of trltlal- jealousi-es,rn-vths, and slogans. These are stertements of prefe-rences. I'lo alternative is here offered. from a long-tenn perspective, because there cem be none in avrorld that has shrunk in slze, through mants or''rndoing.

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' -6-iJy way of .definltion: -

Any d.iscussion of reLationship beti,veen membersof different tnatlon-groupsr wodld be unintelligibleand, eonfusing without clarifylng the referential- useLrl' the verbal syrnbol trelatlonsr. One who attachespor/ver to v'rords tengrossed. on perrchnentt vri-lr'havea definition d.ifferent 1'rom that whiclr night con-ceivably be used'by a confessed. reali-st. rhe fornrervrill- give a meerning erubod.ieri. in cert,trin forrnulas andd.octrines I the Latter will clet'1ne the tertrr in thelight of vrhat society, as representecl by all its in-stitutions, actually Ooe", and pay 1ittle, if any,attentlon to the d.escription by t.tre pa.rticular insti-tution of ',vhat it is doing. .

To clte a current example: Very recently, therhilippines and uhina entered into a ,treaty of a:nity;rundoubtedly airned at curoing the aLreged discrinrina-tory treatment acoorded the citi-zens of china by ther.roverrunent of the rhilipplnes. rliany ti:.ought that thetreaty, glorlfierl by the exchange of rituar operations,sound.ed ihe death lcrelL of all- runferirr acts. perpetratedagainst the '|uhinese, in the lhil-ippines. rrardly hadthe shouts of applause from rLlhlnese' cluarters anrLtheir. local sympathizers died d.orrn and tJre angry de:nunci-ations fron rpatriotiLr groups subsid.ed than therhllippine Denate approved. a bil-l prohibiting ralien_


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-7-ownedt retsriL stores afteS Lgb4. ,l,here is no questlonthat the bill r,vas directly airned at the ruhi_neser who,as ivill be shorur La,ter, have dominaterL the retailtrad.e ]-n the Fhilippines for centuri.es. 'rhe proponentsol tire 0i11, however, did not speak of tire measure intrtat rigiit. rn the 'ame of rnerti-onal. soliclarity, r rself-def'enser r otrg tintegral nationa.li-smr, the bill waspass ec1. The proponents l,iere applaudecl. rire r uhines eelenen'bs, rlre stilr belvilclered.7l they cannot see nolvthe operational slgnit'icailce of the treaty. ,l,he sug_gestion is irnplicit in this excrnltle.

An a-dequate definition of rrelationsr r,vill not0e one of mere legalistic fonrruLation lvhich merelybegs the question; neither wllr- thert consist orerety orfact-gatfrering insuLated. frorn a scheme o1' analysis andinterpretation. 'rhe term rrelationsr connotes therivhoLe conplex of attitud.es, values, habits, ancl beha-viour patternsrS which infl-uence the concluct of one.agroup toivarcLs another. To stucly it is to analyzepolitical behaviour and polver relati-ons. f t lvil-ldemand an examination of past events and a predictionof rvhat rnay come.

7, Dee .g. the statenents col_l_ected in theissues of -nookien Times, leading, r0fiineser newspaperin ruianila, fron $ra$ 1 - rlray gO, 1948.B. A useful text, e.!., suggests such a treatmenti'ol.lle stud.y of vrorld. polltics. uchuman, lnternationalPoLitics (1941, 3rd. ed. ) .


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This is an amoitlous- nay, &r exnaustingJ'task. 'Ihis brief study will tlrerefore seeki inrather broad outl ines, to f'urnish a frameworkfor the analysls ancl interpretation of all- theevents in f,uture ruhinese-lhilippine' relatiollS.Jt 1s here attempted to make a realistlc, if notobjective, study of the factual context in rvhichtneir relatj-ons have been carried on, the coun-tervail-ing d"o:rantl-s put forwerrd by the two rna-tion-groups', and the stanciards invokecl and ma-nipulated. by th-ose lvho are 1n the polr/er positi-ons,

The approaoh to this probl-em- a problemrvhich has been rightly consiclered. one of themost clelicate and perplexing problems confront-ing the young Republic- has alreeidy been indi-cated. The veilidity of thett approach' tvill- bejud.ged harshly by the extrerne 'nationalists andpatrlots t who have risen to positions of in-fluence by exploiting a weary people, siclc ofrr,rar and economic i.nsecurity' But that need' not r'd.eter us.

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-9-Post Morte-tl Apprais.al9

Scientific research has shorrn that for morethan seven centuries, the ,hinese h.ave been coning'co tire yhilipplnes f'or purposes of tracl,e.lo Au fari,is can be ascerteiined, their rel-ations rj.uring thef irst tlrree of the seven centuri-es ryere.congenlalancl srrtisfrictory to both groups. Uhen the Spanisirconqulstj{


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r1s\, at their or.nr expellse, ancl. fortheir otvn personal puiposes. unl_iket!" explorers, conquerors, nissiona_ries, and traders of ucciAenteiL peo_pleg, they did not seeti to extend thepolitical dorninlon o1. their sovereignsor the spiritual realrn of any clrurcd.lor did^they depencl u])on sotaier orpriest for tjre proteciion oI. ttrelrpersons or accori4:lishment o1, tjreiraimg. rt l-1

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'r'he u''anish adninistratio' of' the isr-ancismerely served to expencl vhinese irri.luerrce Lipou tlreeconoui-c; arld social structure of tire cori.r.rrru'ity. rhefact that the castir-riern, by a riberirr_ ac*ninlstra_tio' of the s*rord ancl tlre protective help of thecrossr could make it possible fol- everyorle to reside1n comparative Se,fety encouragecl the gro\,fbn o1. the*,hinese population 1n many porti-ons oi. r,uzon andthe visayan fslands. 'r'he vhinese unclertoolc to ca*yon the gregt bulk of the retail ancr rvrrolesale tradeof the 1sl-anrls, supplying a variety of skil_Ied La_bor particularly 1n the regioris supporting rvrar.ila.As early as 1605, holever, ttre ecoironic success oftlre vhinese tracier" evo.Keo ir'it*tiou ancr colr.si-derr_r-

or-e hosti-Llty frou botir ttre rur-er arrci the ruled. rnthat year, 25r000 uhinese- ar-rrrost tlle entlre com-rtunity ot' 'alien, traders- t\rere kll_lect in one v1o_-' :'i: - : :: I ii I I : - :: :: : _ : : -: : _ : : : : :i _ : : _ t: : I I I I _ii 1 I :

1footnotes eontinued)the t.hilippir.res,r_ {vvasirington, _l?9gi ; cf , Bart:ols,rristory oi' the rhll-1ppi,,6s, fS_vS;'nupi"t o1, therhilJ-ppiue -onunission, rrartltaff IgOO, irol. X.11. ffayden, rhe yhiLiplrir.ies: A Study 1ri ra_

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-l-1-nor of any retaliatory measure undertalien by Nhs.,h.inese governnent. sven thenr so pervasive wasthe hold of tne ,alj-en' trader upon the econornlc}il'e oL' tne country that after the strlt'e, so afarnous Dpanish hiStorian records, the buslness oft,re conununity rras at a sternd.stil-l- ancl fooo. a-nd otherrrecessitles and. conveniences or' l-it'e lvere scarcely

I?,o lJta lrrr 01e .The outourst rvas to De f'oJ.lotreci by perioclical'

purgings and. vioJ.ent massacres, But the tide of im-rnigratiori coutiuued unabatect, insplte .ot' restric-tions irirposeo Dy o"btlr opani-sh and vhinese J.av'rs. A1-trrough tne oulk of tne im,niigrants . r,vere poor and. iJ--Literate, they shorveo pioneer qualities of ph{"icaLend.ura.nce, thril't, and abiJ-ity to rvorK hard..tt ,n"perioa of tne lergest inunigrati"on was cluring theclose 01' tne nineteentlr cenl,ury, after the -hinesegovernroent rai-secl trie belIr on adgratiotrrtn al.thoughthe Spanish goverrxnent souglrt to narrorv tneir acti-vities by imposing economic restrictlons of every15.tcind. and d etail.

The free intermarriage 'tvlth !-iliplno womenduring the tlvo precectlng centurles resulted in tne

(footnotes contiitued)tional ijevelopruent (J-9421 695.IZ. Morga, cited. by ,rayd.en, op.cit.', supra note11. 694; also'see tsaranett, The uhinese j-u ooutheas-tern .$sia and the rhilippillesr 'rhe annals, vo1. 225(rdarch. ]-9+3) 42-+3.15, o nayd.n, op. cit. r 7O0i florn, Orphans of

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-12-emergence oI. a J-arge gro*p of. citizens of r,hinesebr'ooo tnat hes been absoroed into t'e genererl po-pulertion of the country. rrom tlr:Ls group, rvhich. r";5 i:ee[ conservatively estj-riratecl at ]r10re than ai:i1ii"rr16 of rvhat is noty a total_ population off9. C66rBO0, come the nost capable, prosperousand polrierlul elements of the rilipino people .,,r7rn the first generati.on, the vhinese colring to1i-ve in the rhilippiries v/ere

'otusually assirni_lateo' 'But in rnost i'sta'ces, tiie clri-Lclre.u ofvhinese r.athers ancl .eilipirro lu.ottrers beciure -E,ili_plnos. jndeecl, 1.erv of then ueturnecl to ']rina andt.ire najority ioe'tifieo trrenselves ivit' t'e iocalpopulace' r'his group tras produced trre outstancri'gleaders of toclay rot o'ly i. trercie anci inciustry

uut i' tlie competitive f ie-Lds of potitics a'd pu-bLic ad^railistration. 18The lmpJ.antation of .rlnerican sovereigntyincreased. ttte nuinbel oI. resiue0t uhinese and con_siderabry improveci trelr econonlc posltiori ancl in_

11::::::_c1esp*e the restricrive ueasures adol;recl.,,- r rootrrJi;;-;;;;;;;;;;---the Paci'ic (J94tj i;t;-;t seg, i cr.. .i,asker, esian the uove t19abl; rroiter, ,fiipi"os"lno ,r,heir,,ountry 1 19441 .!4' oen.ett.r-,^t!u yFin;-sg il oout'eesteru rrsia,3"Srrl3-rhilinoines, iz.i--rne ^n iiJ"il,r";;;;ie?Bi*Lb. porter, ^philippine r&ergency 11941 ) 46_4giaydeu, op.cit, 69+, 66b;--'16. rhere has 6een ,ro ol.l.icial coullt 01. thisarricular sroup; inoeed it is con6eJJJ*to oe vir_ualiy impo5slbj6 t;;ui"*oru ny-""y-.Jielrrr.ic pro_


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-15-The nerv sovereign projected. its excrusi-onary iruui-gratiou r-aws into the -car .sast, by pronibiting fur-ther uhlnese immigration into the lhilippines.lg';:*f, il*ough methods, ranging from subtre practicesLo brazen strategems, their ranlcs increased, cau_sin6 considerabr-e alarm to -uhilipp.i'e offlciar_.om.lrr l-g3r-, the -thlllpplne lnsular uollector o1. vustcrosstated publicly th*t unress the irregal entry of the0hinese (referring ohviousry to that group of lmmigrantuhinese coming from -euki-en, usnton, and some parts ofsoutheast i.sla) oould be checked, there ,,,rour-d be onemillion of' them in the rhilippines in LO years , ZOrt is admittedly a well-nigh impossibr_e tasrr to ad-ministerythe imnigration policies el,ficiently ind tho-roughly, without a great army of immigratlon person_nel which the goverrunent cannot vrell afford.. ahe moreimportant reasons for this concLusion are: (f ) tfrePhllippines has a vast, uneven shoreline maki'64 thetask of poricing a dlfficur-t and forrnidable enter-prise; l2) the natives, particularly the u'ini.ormeclrnon-uhristianr tri-bes inhabiting the coastar_ tor.rns,manlfest no interest in the enforcement of those('footaooes continued. from precedlng page)cedure. 'nut see. estimate rnade in lorter, rrrlrippinelTerg-ency (1941) +ar+S; .crorn., Olphans of the yaci_fic (19411 I43. '17. ttaydenr op. cit. , gb.18. r'he 'hlnese mestizo (chlnese-&alayan mirbure )has bee' a favorite-G@ of criticisi-ar,"ir,g elec_tion spmpaiss. rn the iresidenii;i. ."rnutE"--Br"idis-+0,-t'resident U. Osmefrar-a Lhinese mesti.zo. vras vilified.as such through sub'Lle and ctevffiuations. tsora d etaiL ed d idqu; Ji on -of--irre- Ji

"" tibti]"'J"u .B erns t ein,rtre Phlllppine otory l].g+i-j .


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-)-4_lestrictive Itea,surcs; (f ) c1r-ie to outsjria n,.^^^.--.^'-cre _pltessul'es,nrainl]r co*nected r"itr'blre rlse o1' politiceir- influe.cer,-'rrcl irroney, iilegel iril,iil{::ation jl, s becn proteci;ed. ancl2?erlCOiir.'ageCi . l_n the ten yeilrs bei,ore tjie inatugura_tion ot' the uol.l'ion14/eart* Govr.rx:reilt in r_g85, the an_nual- arrival 01. uhinese ir,u,tigrants (accorciiufl to oI._1'1cirrl records ancl lrence ref'e::ri'g rrr.i'ly to legiti_mate itiurigratlonJ averageo nearl;r BrL,O0 and non_iuur,.i_qrants nearly l-0r0OO. Th a.\rsr.if.t: erni_greition l,iassliently over l0O in the r.irst e"o.1p vdro, by lav,,,entitrert tgorerrrain eincl r,r:sicie i'cle1.i'itely inthe lhilippines. L,rrtest recorLls j.ncli-cate ltrat thereare uore than 20Lj'000 uhinese tod.ay, roughl/ Iiiof,e than1 per- centi-un oI' the total- piri_l_1ppir1e populaii on.rn

( i'ootnotes continuecl )_19. 1,jris r,r,as qorie in l-g02. Uritical_ ot: theolicy o1''the unj-ter.t states torvarci ;i;; long_su1.i,erinpiiifi::;:' ;;-.i6o r'ir ers u'cLer '.iie - st


19/86

-15_Al-thouqir during llre 1rs5ys of the tilrerj-cen ad_roi'istration irr''igratio' r'estrlctio's 1y,;r _r_r,pos{i,very rel'r irrpositiolis. on iireir econo,',ic e cilvity lyerel-aid clorrm o'.rce they iti,ci rr: i-rreci p.trrrsicai_ eccess i;o iheter'i:'itory. I'hey 'vere riot subJ ected to rne regal dls_abllities ot' t'e spanish crays, einci thoug'6 severar-'cases o1' cor::uption and brlbery il,'er.e r;roup-ht to liglrt,the i;hinese ctict trot have.bo pa5. ts tnllc.1l illlcit trioute to rrrinor potltical_ eutjror,ities as t.he1, ui, ciurrng

the upairish regir.e. r?i'Jo crassrr says a I'orriler /\lriericanafuninistrator, 'rti6s be'ei'ittecl uor.e directly 1.roru theestablish:rient o1' re-r-atively ho'est ar.(l e1.1.icie't go_veqrnuent; ilone has erccluired e larger proportionateshala crf the increased ll,ei-rl-th o.rl t,tre country.* 25\rn r9r'0, the 'iri'ese uolsur *"rr".,,,to estirirated.the lnvest*erists of his cou'"[r.yrle' iir .L.ire i,'i]-ippinesai being roughly Z0l-,000, i,,00 pesos (or 1p1UU, bUU, OOO )being d.istr.ibuted as l.ol_lovrs :Retail rrierchancirsilrg. .,. .tj0 uij_l_ion pesosl,lilolesale trrercha.nciisiii63. . SO r ,rLurnber.................. pO t? ,ttse1nking................. 10 ,r nDistil-1 eries............ b r, ,Oigars and uigaret.tes... 5 r ,,Soap t:nd toileT,ry.... ... 1 rr rrReal- estate ernci alloiher i-nvestltents........BO r fiP.a. i:.K. ii*,";;;-;;;;-;;;;;;i-;;;;;;;, -;-;;;;;;-submj_tte


20/86

-16-rlowever inaccurate tire esti_uate rrterythe distribution indicate


21/86

-t7 -stand. tnree big uhlrie.se iraLnirs; one o1. r.rhicii is olrrred.by the t,hinese ivational uovcr.ru.ient. Itr 1o1:ral- tiroes,there vrere approi;irlatery r-s, ooo vhines" or""".,rir,rre: :i';'- i.ndustrlal f i::mr in tire r,h-irippines. ,r,.trere acti_vr uies vfere ]oultit'arious :1. li.r the great rice regions, liice l\jueva ifci ja,r:uJ-iicilll, fair]panga aud- r'l ngasinan, uriirtese 1;.,l'gely fi-nance 1;ire proclucti-on 01'';,his basic l,ooci crop ar1(1 to aconsi-cierairie cieqree control iis r'i 1ri'g ciisi,rioution.

or'or !he wi,,r, the1r o,,,;ned. 7S Ijef..centr-un oI. .t;he ricetrtir]-s.p.. In the retail_ tracie, ,,,,,irile ab.ut .irillf of 'hetotar i-.vr.:;t.irierts in l-gBB r^ris .uilipirro, i.rtrr about s\,ib1'ras uhi,Lese, the r-a'bter took iri over |rah. oi the {,;rossrecelpts of 'r,he traoe, .'.,;hite .eilipinos took on.l_.. one

thir$. 't'he J-aprnese {iccoun:becl l,or tjre ciir.r.et.ence.3, I'ire 'etair ti'a.re Jra.s been a.r-r'os-i; i.irioliy i'uhinese irands ttrror;]hour, rrie. tslanos. ,1,rre;,, cut anciriil-L 'early 40 per.cen'bu-rir. oi' i.tle tir.roel- anlrllally puton the mar.icei..4. Jn r;he cocorut i.ciustry, 'he uhinese have beenin the business of' cor-recti.'g eopra 1,rom the n'tivesa:and ni've + gnin trre clryi'g, g::u.riri'g, ino e:rportlngof' this product.5. 1'tite rei;rp itrdustry,'btre urtirie:: r:l:v ac-r,ed.es midctli;rn, buylng 1'rofi the 10il-cIass -cilrpiflogrowers e.nd sell1ng u'e procluce to the larr;er *ealers,


22/86

---4F gli+:,F;I IO

'-L']re fol-lororirrs table indicates ihe .i.i"-",-oution o1.re:1 property crecl-:lrcc1 r'or taxation in 'tIre rlriliprrinesitt 1958, c-lassii'ied accorcting to nationerlity. lt shov,,s'rt].rt rvhile rriore tharr nineiy per--eentun o1, trre lanci, e,!-c|-rsive of tne pubric cior;rain rvas 1n the ha.nu.s of the -ui-liplrros, lliore tiran ?5 rJer 'centurn a,s Li'Jly clecl-arations 1!et:eL i-Leo Dy uhi-nese as by l iripino business corporatiorrs.'r'ire irol-d.i-ngs 01' these corrrperni_es i:rre chler.ly .ooLr cororler_29cial Lnci rcsldentiaL si_tes .

Tivo";

glilII3'l

r'.'/pe ofot',nerShipvolpll t S andlissn I s-totalrus irtes scorp I ng -total--u'ilipino/llrieri ca,rr;palishuhitresed epe.ltes er:idivt-cluii Is -Loterl.u iJ-ipilos,,hirres e>paniardsli'ielicansJ elenes e

rax d.e-cJ-arations

5rl:i5or0905,322, o2020, 915f) (JEEtu,t)J.)6 , 711:2,0_Lb

Perc e.l-s(rvo.,; Af ea

588,924

346 rOL7:121r 096:LO6 rt7'73,70, 9t.I:7 ,496:33,052:

Itssessed

3t-r;", O'.sO rZ,lO

i'b7 ,4o'/ ,28094, 558 r b40tJSrL]36 r/+IO46,3ij4r'OBO16,2.32,98013, iibg ,97Q

zg,a4B; zz,4uTlB r lbJT: i-5,699

7 ,4O93 t'i241, O7oL r2I7165

8 r 590:5 1257:1,560:I ,876:41LI4 r7 2,2, b3B4r697,386l-6,592

2 r3:-g4,626Bb8

7,96,J r 2597 ,?69 r 66857 ,630

29,09364, 86530 ,47 2

!,,/92,:877,5001, tjgS ,406 r46040,803 ,7IO, ?4r 425r 710I9 ,425,5507 ,696, gg0

l-t is not, sugeestecl itere01' Ajiiericrn iutelage, tlie Jot

'citai; during tne l,,ho.l_e perd-od01- the vhinese trts altogetlrer

:.!tl:1

is.riitt;i/::::ll:'r'l;.,1'r

brigilt. t'heir eco'onic succe,ssr evolreo ir::i.bat10'ii'd rn_


23/86

-19-tagonisrir l'rori tlre Less energetic.local topu.j-ation andttreir representatives in thetiigher council_s. ,1,r1 rea-i{'.'}ns 1'or t;his attiuuoe ivilj- be inquirecl into later.',rrNaeks upon tlre uhinese 1'!'e1'e a recurrina f eature ofr,.ilippine-uirinese rel_erti-ons. l,hroughout the periocl ofA:ierican ru-le, tlre resident uliinese have been periodi_ca11y (lespoil-ed. ancl kept i.urd.er t'ire. ,r,ire rilost seriousantl-uirinese outbreak since l-BgB occrlrr.ed in lgp4, r,ireiu;recliate cause wer.s i TLUjror, l,ouncl latel5r 16 be en_tirely baseles::, t]rat a nruirber of .uilipino stucients hadbeen rrill-ed by vhinese in raongkonj and \ieinton. rhisbrour:ht to i;tre surferce i'anteistj-c stories. ,r,ire f.irstoutbrealc,:Jcul'red. i-n uabanatuan, .r.,ilrevi ucija, 7.2,ril-esnorth of J'ianiler, r,rhicir hiis been r. center l.of. uh_inesecontror- over r,ire llusinesri i lL*. r-r"1.icul ture or. ii /{r,eatri-ce -'ecio'. uhinese we' r,iobbeci, their s.i,ores rootecl,and sorrte o1.' thent \/ere kil_leci. ,t_.l}e salne scenes 1^/e1.e re_enacied in ttranil-a e;nc1, on a l-esser scele, in other .,hinese30centers. -------:?9. source of statistics: &(. Arrrerican uhi:rr1bs*. o1.uoiaEerc e .l ournal (t.,rani1a ) t.tcto ber, l-940 , E .30. ,r,he lirlrerican Governor Genera_r irad to interveneto restore orcler. 'r-'ne uonstanurary ivers oruerecr to c1uelrali rlots . Jee .i1ayd en, ,ip. c it. 7os. vv yu31.. 'Lhe rvrernila leirly. Bui--Letinr &[ ;rirLerican ne',/s_pPrper, reported tha.t tire riot orlgiirated f'rot* a Oisputebetvreen a vhinese storekeeper ancl a lilipino cust-m'er,rshich c evelop.ed into a f igirt. -i,rolr. ii=-i=s,.re oi -i=irl r,19;"1, 'l're euote: 'rThe f.ieht attracteci, t,ne attenlion ufe.le:'ge grogp or' .r:ilipinos, l':ho-r,ra""n;o.-r"on one ,_hinesest.ore io another, arneo. r.:ittr c]-ubs ancl stones. -fi,ey-en_tered the stores lno cestloyeo oroi;erty. rvhile the :iroo_blng took pr.cu. llu i;iunicipar i'o'ce oi"oan Fe,blo r,nras un_eDle to cio anything.,, Later issues reportea thai the


24/86

i:i,:,ii.:,t".irI5reF:.

r\tf exaJnple, /jIOTel:ypical peillcrn,511931. 52,l'ne sookkeeping rict of J-g2l_, and its succes_sqrs afl'orcled an exanple ot' the posslbilltles ofstubl;orn political conf'lict, internal and inter-national,v;lri-cn are lnlrerent i,n the existing sltuation. .rtrisstatute, enacteci by 1;he yiril-ippine r,es;i-slature overthe protests 01' tne ulri-nese comr,iunlty, prohibited rrler-ehants ooing business in the vtrilippines, froir:. keeplngany account books ez.cept in the r:,nglislr or opanj-shIanguage or .in a local- d.iaIect. rhe rteasure 1i/as ad.-nitteclly airnect eit the 1brOcu' sniaLl vhinese shopKeeperswho, according to lhe legislators, lraci been anrrually )defraudlng the govermnent out o1' mil-l-ions of taxesbecauqe t'ilipino ot'f icia.ls v,/ere unerble to chectc tireiroooks. I(1'ootnotes contlnued)uonstaouJ.ary solcliers vrer'e rusheci. I'rorn neal'b1r posts,'to restore orcter ancl irvert further clashes bet\,?ee.[r,,, ilipiiros and vfl j-rles e. i' oev e 8.1 days elapl ecl, lrowvr;beI'o.r:e 'trre vhinese nercha.nts darect to reopen inelrstores. flie r;-rob \nras estillateci b.J' tlie vorrstabulary tohave numbered 2.OOO lilipinos.32. rict No. 3292, uecelrber. 2, l-9p6. uee iilso i;heIttv.laniorandurn negarci.ing Act uo. 2ll72 ot' the ririlippiner,egislatut-e, Kno',nm as the oookkeeping t,avrr r, (lgZi 1,and the undateo irielloranduii pl'esented to ttre uniteciSti:tes uongress by 1'epf esetrtatives or' ,;the vhinesevhamber o1' uolr]l:.rc oi' rlrenila, a-.trd- all the ,,hinese re-sidents in tire rtrilipplne rsl-arlcrs. "

-20-serious ttran tlie average , out ofvias the san tsabl-o nj-ot of ,.ir"u&Ty,


25/86

;ji.!.i:ri:iil';t'iiH,F;9iY"*B]

llre uhineSe, on t.fle Ol,liel'1l.{llld, (icnounced the l-arV 1Sbeirig vicious pl'osjecution. rhey d.eclared i;itat it rvasertrlcteo to r.rreerk up tlreir business, to colLrpei- everysiiiall vhinese store.l(eeper to errploy a .ui-lipiltoclerk and. give tireir rrilipino conpetitors' actual- orpotenti-al, access to t,heir t::acie secrets. tthen thequestlon or' the constitutional-ity ot' this statute

14, "4vl)was squarrely reri-sed, -blre uni'bed Stittes buplel,l.evourt, clisregarding the constrlictj-on iiiven b]t tlre.vlrilippine Supreille- uourt, held theit tlte elll'orciiiIlt o1',r,tre statute wo.ul-d. seriolrsly eubirrrass t hinese nercha.nts as $o clrive nrany c.rf tlrei,i out of' business.lhere 1./as -iro cioubt in the llincl o1' the wourt tirat thefiscal- ueasure trvas d.irected. agai-nst tire -hinese, asevidenced by the recorcis o1' the legislative proceed-ings. 'r'he United otates Duprerile voullt sericl that theplain Lanquage of tire staiute cietlied. to .,hinese il.er-chanis due process Eincl equal protection of uhe latvs.oaj-ci tire cOU:L't: ttflire rJril-illpiite trCVTll-Irint riiay ii.itkevely reasonable requirertent of 1ts ta;ipayers to keeprecord.s of their busj-ness trausirctiotts in -u,nglish orepanish or !ilipino. dlalect blr liJhich an rrdequerte lriea-sure of rvltat 1s oue fror.^ ilieir j-n iireetinil the cost of

35. 27L U.S. 500 ( l9A'5 ).


26/86

goverirrieflt can be hed-, " but this statut rjos ioof ar, acco::tiirlf.r to tire court. tt'r'l'e are clea.r1y o1

l.li,l:-l tiret iir is rrot r.ritnin t,lre police pol,rer oftirethe

ririppine legislature, becaruse it vrou-Lcr be oppres-sir,e and albi-brerry to pr:oliiOit erl-1 virinese lrerciianisl'.rorii uraintaining a set of books iri the vllinese lt n-guage, and in tlre vhinese cna.r"acters and. thus ltreventtlreu from keeplng advi-secj. oi' tire status 01 L.heir bris-i-ness and directing its conduct. . . . ',iti.rout tiiemsuch tnercrii:nts would i:e e pr (iy i,o i l.-L lciuus or fraud.

r,and lviihout possibillty of erclopt,ing erny :rEr.r'e poJ-icy .,,34tllairns arrd uountercl-aims: -

v/hen tiie, bookkeeping act r;as passeci, -andlrhile the cpse assailing its constitutionaliiy lvaspenciing, incliviriuatl uhinese c.lurre c-:u'b rvith the rrsser-tions that lire eriactruen'b oI i,.ire trreasure vrers a cl-earcese of legislative .squeezett, attr-i exprt,ssed tne De-l-iel' that 1f' certain politicians \vere ',i)r.opeury tarencere of ,, , tire l-ar,v rnroulci. Iever rii]ve beeit iti.ss'; ecl . n-spotrsiuJ.e Cnrnese rl,ecla.red that 'biie problerrl \n/e.s be-eoning increasingly serious ci.uring recent years be-cause r:any iiiuuicipal councils utilj-zecr tneir. taxingpol';ers to cliscriuinate against the -linese, especial-}y b3' rihat they terueci ;Ltitnecessat.]r' r-r.^i,osi'ion of cef.-tain ricertse 1'ees. t54. id., at p.


27/86

i:rr .??*:1t.:,' -.23-

:,..:.:,:, , Jt, is palpably impo-ssible to d.eiironstrate how, . ,:.j-.-fr-.fj -"' widespread this practice' i.s, though newspaper r.eports,/ \".: jd '*gJtaims of disgruntled elenents-particularly poLi-

Qa1 agitators-woul-d. have'everyone belipve that itnqs pervaded the whole governnental- structure. Thishas hurt the r,hinese comiiunlty eren riior.: r,oclay,

;t -m?rny nonest and responqiole officiaLs in the govern-iir!. i'. .{.:,,, &ent wiLl uot dare oppose r,lhat they believe to be un-reasonable rneasures oirected chiei'ly against r,ne vhin-

:,,., i: ,*,.itt:.-.,,,,,.'.ege, tor fear that tliey n*ght Iay thenrselves opeu .Loi:r! :iit:{:r::i.' l

:' 35tbe charge that they had beeu tr taken care of r,.rne l'ool(keeping Act ano. its successors aroused

$|;i;.'".s1,.,,., the buslness corrurrunities of the great tracie centers ini",'..;t',-vhina and i,h organized uhinese in the .Ear ilastern co-

::j':i:..,:i.. ' .a.'.:..t,1.,,jr'lonies'of ,.rTe&t uritain .and the Nether.l-and.s ancr in ua-'

i:,,:,1;i{tl;1.r,. r.-r}tl'lfii'.li;i',''-3q- 6n ATna",inr.ln trina-,:^ar6?nnil +.lrrra rnanilr..r-^. Irrirl^^-l,;.,,'' -35r arl American vice-uovernor thus recounts: rrlyheni"'r'i.; the tension over the larv was at its .h.eisht- i;irree r;.lr.r]-t its |.eight, 'Lirree r;i&i-.,". _ ese usrrD-Lvrl' \J v qiJ- lJrL\' ICr!v vvAD Cl t/ l- UU j.f eJ-g1l t/ , (/ItI'ge l;1tri-l'.:. lerg ofthe trouse of Hepresentatives, speaking separeitel.: _"lyr'did uot iresi'i.,ate to ceclare to rrre that the l-alv wasl.,bg,rsb and unjust. ributr?? eaeh of them sald in substance,rwe'd.ere not vote to lepeal it. tf rve do, our l)eoplel:i.i;-!:...:, 'we sc^s Itvu vvus uv aslrsc.I IUo II Wti AUr L}Ul.' j)gL|pag*.,.r;;.rt "'l $iLl say that we ileive oeen brir:ecl by i,he vlri-nese, flay-l,, ,i;l ^1e1' ?l:."1t; 795:. beg glug the aocusatious against, be.-:.:i.':',,xaln otricials indiscrinrinately nacle by the ivra;ila uailypi..i;,!.{;:,,, _'1TS fron ctay to tiay 11945-19116 t , espulia-t.-r-y ."r:"r*-iiaEi{L:i 6r^^'.i^"^ iq -.---i | -t(1 Atiil,t,eJ.ectlons ia .npr1I, 1946.

&

parcte-

l


28/86

-2,4-nad.a. Resolutions ancl petitlons from powerf'u1 poli-tj-cu.l and conrnercial organi-zations, vigorous news-;Rper commentsr'and statenents fro.rri the -hi-nese,soverrunent ltsel-f expressed. resentmgnt, and more, tlianr.re.rely intilnated the possibllity of future reprisal-s.Iieplesentative of tire i,hinese sentj-rnent is the fol--56lon'ing statenent:- )ItThe matter ig. . . . . vagtly tirore tnan 1o-cal., iriore than a doruestic regulatlon. J-t

hds an lnternational character of profoundiliportance. . . . r J-f this law is allowed.to go into efl'ect, it is I'not unreesonable tosuppose that retallatlon will result. uhin_amay pass a law requiring lrmerlc*n merchantsto keep thelr bookp or account i,.. vhinese.That would. be the end of American businessin;..China. r? 37qi

The Chinese at the time feLt and claixled-asthey d.o now in a xtore artieulate ancl vigorous riar-. ;'rrer Birrce they have to deal vr"ith the phllipplne Re-pub11c instead. of the united states of Ameri-ca-thattheir position in the Philippines rvas a legitiraateone, arl.d. that they shouJ-d. not be consld.ered.ra.l_ienr.

ttThe Chinese l\ilercuants are not ne\*/collters.They are a.s lnuch a part of ihe FhilippineIsle,nds as the hills and valleys and. str.earusin that beau't iful a.r'ehipel:i;io. . . . . lVtrenthe Spaniards cmle to the f slrLnds, firsi iq, i1521, they founci Clrinese raerchants dolng allthe comnercial business in tire fsl_e,nds.After a}nost five hundred Jrears, tJre presentdu.y fir:.ds 'i;iie Chinese merchalts doing at Least36. Offlcial .a,relioranoum of the philippine uhineseitegard.i-ng ect l\o. z-972 of the phiripplne Legi-slature.

f

i.r.:$7. id., at 14, -LB.


29/86

tt:t

-25-seventy(70) per-cent of ell ttte c:orrrfler-cial business in the islands. ft ishard.ly possibLe to cal-l iheru. foreigners-

, .... t,hey are part and. parcel of Philippineanlr crllL for publlc service. , .they eon-'.i. stitute the cornrnerclal cl_ass of the Islands,just as tlre -rilipinos are the'o1'ficial and;:'1 farning class. The existe.nce of one 1s just' '' ' as essentia.L as that of the other I'or a pro-'per l'unctioning of the Llfe of the phiLifpineJsLands. trj;ach has'i-ts task to perform.the'officials govern; the farmeis prod"ucelbut it is tne merchants v;ho pay tl:.e bi1ls,because the greater part oI' the taxes for. the maintenance of the uovernnnent comes fromthem. The merchants of the islrinds havebeen (;hlnes.,. . I .",::rii B. e . .'(The uhinese) is more than amerchant'. He carries on the commercial end.of the Phil-ippine industrial l1fe. ,ihese mer_chants, thus scattered throughout the provinces,loan $oney to the .rllipinos to aiO thelr lngrowing _ and . market ing their crops o r1e .exportsthen and. brlnis to them 1n retuin the cocrocli-, ties they need.. r,hinese merchants constitute. tbe nery essence of the cornmercial life of theIsl-ands. No complai.nts are ireard about theird.ealings. they Lrc universally regognlzua-;;h.onest, fair, and square. their reputatlon is' higher than tire'reputatj-on oI' any siull_ar bod.y-'*"of the merchants to be found elsewhere in theworld.. . , r'38.*lgs wil-L be seen later, solrle statelients here are x-

"aeTlatear others are l1o longer true today. irovrevertb.at nay b, the t'act should not be overl-ookecl thatthere were iliore th.an 4rs00ro0o uhinese and. uncieter- :i 'mLne&'-milLlons with part thi-nese; blood r^rho resid.ed. in

58. id., 4-10, pess'inr. e

:i|' :.\,:'a.l.l ti;;':!

$'ic;;;.Lfi:$.Erii'.;l; ,


30/86

-26-the rThole South Asiatic territory prior to theoutbrealc of the rvar in the Pacific'39 TheOhinese therefore regarcled' that any exercj-seof political power aimed' at. ciisplacing them inthe economic l-ife of the PhiLippines rnight en-courage other Orlental peoples to take similarsteps to eljminate al-ien nierchants from their

ia ::.,r:,, national economy. Says the uhi-nese memorandUm:x"ir ' - trrhe uhinese rnerchant is notiii . pecuf lar to the tsirilippirls r uhi-r - - --- --r- ^.-l'5r!,lii-.., : iu"e.mercha"l: :::^:?:iu-llroughoutitd*,,',, - the lsla-nds of oceania; they are in.';'; .rli:;ir::,::,:ri tne UUtCfr EaSt IndieS, tire--Ued'eratedGf"V St'ates, Strai-ts Settlement's,Fren-ch Ind.o-China, and other areasof that quarter of the globe' Asthey do in the PhiliPPines, theY..otrltitrrte ttre conrmercial cl-ass ininu"e l-ocalities, and' have for na-ny centurj.es. Ilany nations hold' so:vbrelgnty over these regions. Irtfii#, no inJtance, other than this, has. ,i:.lirl:.:i']..;:.',. ^)-rr^ ^-^^+ di1^:j.- a: ,:.. i. ..:r.1 / !i::s.r.!r:..i.. ti:i..i i::r n-.v;)!i1r,i,._-. - sovereignty preswred'to enact suchan uttcot scionable and- unend'urable.''llii'. t.i:

i,i:'-'. i:--'u. " 5g.l[he nunbers and' percentages of :1]+::-9?;;,, d.soiii"ili""o -g"i" befoie 1e41 are as fo:-l-ows:,;11,.,---l --' ' - ---- -' Pop.of /" of uhineseii,,,'""_ Countrles . Tota.l Popo : Ohinese : in totaljop.2r000r000l_r2o0roo0

500,000400,000190,000125,000

40.02.o.is s4'I,7l_.3o.7

: ualaya -. 5 r 000 r 000' neth-erla:rds 60 r 000 r 00014, 5Oo ,00025r500r00014,500,000if}fn..rnines 17 ' ooo, oo:i*",i'fbusb flgUres constj.tute a rougi estinate,i.: ---^-- -r^I nlri nooo i n llnrrthen.qtern ltsia ^ 22t 3"r;t;, -gn6 chj-nese in southeastern Asia, 2?'5ilirgas) -65:

lie.e

of straiglttenlngpolnte"d out thatt't'i:' - tt nb'..I'or the purpose merely,u.Puttblstorical facts, it maY be.


31/86

-D-a-'I-

The position of a greeit number of people,leci by bourgeois political leaciers, j-s under-standable. They feel that the Ctoriination of tirebusiness of the country by a por,verful, uuassirni-

{f ootnotes contirtuea )the claim is not historically justiliecl. trnti-tirinese 1'ee1ing, and aritl-uhlnese legislation1ar rri.ore harsh than iras been enacted. in the l,hi-lippines, are rlot ne',,,,' pheiloliener iri. 'bhe re st or;joutheer st errr llsia,In l-740, Chinese r,,/eue massarclecl in gatavia(l,,1acl,lilir, The chinese /\broad , 9) i r,irinese bLooct1.vas shed on various occasj-ons in the Inclies,burma, and- Llalaya. There has been ar persistent,deliberate effort on the part of govermrents inSoutheastern .usia to loosen the hold of the vhi-nese upon the econornic structure of the particu-lar territory, in the interest of rvhat tirey cerl_lI'the native populatiorr". -t{'or exarnple: -l. l_n the r:ritisit ivtalaya, certain irnportantrestrictlons upon uhinese economic arctj-vitiesare .,,rorth noting: a. certain Iar5te areas of land.,called nalay Heservations, r;rrere reserved. for ttrenlalays, "to keep the grorving of rj-ce elclusivelyin tvtalay handsrr. b, inspite of the fact that th-etihrnese cor1stitut9.4O,i9 of the total population,they were not adrnitted into the rilal_ayan civilservicel c, after 1930, severe inrnigra.tion res-trlctions were imposed on the uhinese (see lh.ier-son, L'illLs, ancl Thornpson, Goverrurient anrl i,tatlonal-ism in Soutireast tlsla (J942) B0 et sec1. ).2. In the lletherlands Indies, the uhinese inthe early days couLd Live only in certain specified.dlsi;ricts, could not trerveJ- ivitlior,rt specj-al pe-mits, had to report clerily te l_ocarl officials r,,,hile

en route, and could f ol lor'y only certain predeter-nined routes. A law forbids alienation of LancL toforeigners. A Bureau of Uhlnese affairs tr/as es-tablished. to control- uhinese actj-vities (see -b.ur-{yqff , Progress a.nd r,'ielfare in Southeast .lisia,1942, n. 52).5. In Thailand, the neasllres trift6n bi' the uo-verrunent after 1932 1,,ie1.e far nore severe th.an thosein other countries ancl caused su.ffering iud. lossof livelihood to thousancls of' uhinese. Tire govern-nent required that the 1'hai language should'be--


32/86

'28'larble foreign elenent in a country r';here theder,tocra.tic structure j-s a.s yet f'ar I'ron beingstrong is unclesirable. 't'hey point to the facttir.:tt the uirinese, engilged in the o.isi;ributionof tire basj-c food"stuffs of vlrtuall;r everlrvillege, tov,rt, nnci city, have no interest inLhe goverrunent seve to protect th.ernseLves frontit or to use it, and no o.evotion to the poli-ticirl instltutions of the nritiot.nl the uners-sirnilability of the uhinese is not erltogetherthe fault of the uhinese, hol,rever. It must, beused exclusively 1n a.11 scirools eLncl that eclu-ca.tion should. be "'Ihai in cheire;cter'?. IJV 1940,30 Chinese schools had been cLosed.. In 19b5, alaw requirecl rlce miLl-s to employ at least DqbThai workers. -[n 1936, the business ]iegistra-tion Act l/as passed. requiring all cornnercialund"ertiikirigs 'bo register. In ord,er to enforcethe act, thal- official-s regi_sterecl and inspectedbusinesses. Also in 1936, a rtegistration ofAliens Act was passed requirin,' all- allens tohave special certificates vrith photographs andto report annually . J.n L937 it becenre illegalto coll-ect money for l''rar purposes. I'his affected.the uhinese ivho llac1 coll-ectecl rii.uch money for re-lief in uhina. In L93B the exodus of uhlnese from,I.hailend" stir,rted. l'or their nuisance val-ue, theregulations xyere in that respeci successful. uu-ring l-958r oil effort wiis marie to I'ree ,t,hai rlceplanters from uhlnese contrbl. ,tire Thaj- rticeuompany was forued ancl began to buy rice cli-rect-ly in uecenber of that year. uooperative socie-ties wcre formed to free 'r'hai peisants fro:.n in-debteclness to uhinese. The Government r.,,ent intodirect competition vrith the uhinese in al-l- linesof business. uhinese irrerchatlts ,,.:ere forced. toseIl out to the uoveruirent. Lai;s on accuirinc.Thai cltizen.ship i;ere :-rrcde tro"u-"ii:i"j;"il t"iathe uhinese could not qualify. In I9g9 the Ac-counts Act lvas passerl recluiring thait all account-ing nethocLs be unifonn and giving .the governmentinf'orrrration about ulLine:r.'--. busineises. ft the sarney9er' goverrunent regulerti-ons reclui-rec1 public and.


33/86

*{.LFT:{-L;::aiil.tii]i;i';. .!ili'ti.j,f.,i'.I't:.::ll-!L:t.tll'rb.'ti$1lr:iil"t;t:.a,'I r::.!'.:-#':'&i ,..\:l:','' '::,,:.*i"lfl.l 'I ::rl

-29-pointerl out tha.t this is a recent phenorrenon,i'or in the ol-der d.ays there 'i,,,ras free andr nu-merous inter:narrlage betvreen uhinese and tr'i-lipinos. t'he ever-grol','j-ng sentjrent againstthe uhinese has forced then into isola.ti-on,alld, irl ul'ban pt'oblein area,s, such as lialnil-a,they have concentrated. j-n certain clistrictsfor purposes o1' mutual aid. oncl protectj-on.The justification for exclusionelr]r ancl res-trictive rneisures cannot be for-rnd. in the realmoi' oiological specul-ation, xluch as these po-liticul egitators vrould have us believe.42I'he perplexing problem exists. A tentative so-lution niay be macle jointly by both uhinese.sJtclPhilippine uoverrunents. .rrXtrerne nationallstsin uhj-na, vrith agents tlroughout the yhilippines,:. ------ -----:-_priviite inclustrlr not to ernploy nore than Z5ycaliert lnborers. ue oairnett, op.ci-r,. 'iZ, in pas-si-n. 4L. the varlous rationalizations rnay De foundin norn, 0rphans of the tacific, (l-941-) 144-148;nayden, op. cit.695.

42. $orn, in a bolit appraisal of the pro-blern, r','rites: Itr,'fhyr Vots asl: rnust sornething bedone about the uhinese'r The politician ]rou arequestioning is verA apt to reveal by lris' own eyesand the bone structure of his face that one ofhis ovm ancestors viris uhj-nese. -H'or, r;.rhether thepolitician wil-l adrnit it or not, it is sbvisus-no anthropologist need teJ-l you- that the vhlnese.have brought mental and. pttysicaL vigor to the race.Othenvise that bone structure, that pa"ir of eyes,r.rould not so frequently be seen among the ablest-cillpinos.r'Horn, Orphans of the yaciflc (1941)I12.


34/86

-50-have contributed to the grrivitY-6\ unif iecl, rvorkable approacir toshoul-cl be 1:rosecuted by the tr^io

01' t,ile problem.the problem

43counrTa e3.

jtecent -tirents and an nttemptat /\n3 J-]rs l- s : -Shortly before the rvarr nlany leaditlg ci-

tizens recognized' the need for the -uilipinos tod"evelop the economic efficiency ol the uhineseand perform for the conununity the services per-l'ormed by tlre uhinese. 'I'hey concected' that thevhinese lvere able to gain an irnportant, if notclorninant, position in the econornic l-ife of the--- -;: ;;;;;-;; -;-;;;; ; ;;;;;-;;-;;;-;;;il;;:ing ta.w, the-fo]Lovring should be recounted: In l-926,tfre f,niiippine .legi-slature enacted a nelv bookkeep-ing lalv (Act r\o. 329?') , so drafted as to meet thete]t of constitutlonality, in vie'"v of the oeclsi-on01 the united states Supreme uourt. The oppositlonof the uhinese rnade it inad.visabLe to enforce thlse-t, nor did. amd,ndments passecl 1n l-934 (Act llo.4I?O1, malce the measure v/orkab-l-e. A year a1'ter 1tsinaugrirartion, the nev,,ty esterOlished volmonlveal-thoOveirunent nad-e anottrer illove irL the long d'rarvn crrtstruS;gle. A netrv anendment (uolrunonlirealth ect l\oo l13tnov. Ir l-9:JO) pernritted cortunercial booKs to oe keptfu r la.nguage other than a n:itive language, -urtglishor' spanishr*nut requii'ed- thert all entries thereinshoulO" be translated lnto one o1' the other threerecognized" langr-rages ancl certif iecl to und.er oathby tfie bookkeeper or manager of the conlpsny eon-c-erned-. ln response to a request froin the uhineseuhnmber of Conunerce :na.de after the bill rvas passedbut before it iu-as signed by the Presiuent, UotrIlflon-ilealth President tvl.L.(iuezon suggested- that the Ie-gislature srnend the measure to make ii ei'fectiveione or t'!'io yearsil after its passage. Ufle year ofgrace lvas glanted. The assunption l']'es that the \,hi-ii.ese had recognizecl the neeci for this legisla1iofland vr.:ul-cl cooperate 1n its eni'orcement. See the


35/86

-31-country through their [energ;r, tb.rift, self-controlr. physical and spiritual endurir,ncs,cl:.eerfulness, infinite capacity for hard lvork,purposeful and inborn business capa ci tyu.44'they prudentl-y advocateci disple.cement by 1eg1-iimate means, i.e., through non-political-measures, alainst vrnich the uhinese presrmablyvrouLd. have no ground for protest.

Private .pressure organJ_zations lyerc es:tabllshed, seeking to stiniulate the procluctionand use of goods rrlvlade in the philippirru=,',and soJ.d. by .uiliplnos. i'lational- caupaigns to thisend vrere conducted sj-nce lgg0 by the Ang Ba-gong Katipunan, a nationalist group O""U* OU.$ialruI Roxes, vrho beca.rne ],resiiLent in 1g46. ,Ihecampalgn lt'as niore eff ectively ha::.d1ed r. hor,,rever,by the Nationa1 lcononric protectionism lrssocia-tion. lihen in 1934, the "l'ilipino leacLers \yereempoviered to draft thelr ot',m constitution, theyrrrbte d.ornm in clear language u'hat they concei-vedto be the best r"or"45 of Loosening the irold. ofalien control- upon phllippine econonic lil.e.letter from the Presldent to the Speaker of thelational Assembrg on the"i,ffectivity of the uh1-nese Bookkeeping Larvr'. Sept. 14, 1996. .tiessagesof the l-resident, Vol_. II, irart 1, p. Z4S.

44. See lIayden, op. cit. 200. The ,cartoonsdistributecl by the uepartnent of '*rgricuLture and.corru:.erce effectlvely pointeo this out. (1996-1940).45. See the openly socialist provisions ofthe Philippine uonstitution, infra,


36/86

-32-It should be noted that at the time, the so-called. YeLlow lvirro.c (Japanes")+b was a norearve-inspiring spectre overshad"olvi-ng the fearsof uhlnese d.omination. The commpn"veaLth Govern-ment, under that Oonstltutionr proceed'ed' vi-gorously to lmplement the provisions' $everalbilts presented to the legislature rrere sovrorded as to exclude foreigners llrom certain' fiel-ds of businss. trlarIy in 1940, the t'iationalTrad.ing corporatj-on $ras established. and capita-lized riith government fund.s. 'Ihe presid.ent ofthe corporation publlcly stated that one ofitspurposeswasto'lbrea.kthestrangleho].dofforeign reta.ilersil upon Philippine tracle'47J-n Januaryr 1941-, the rviaoila ttuniclpal roard'passed an ordlnarlce excl-uding all persons fromengaging in any fonn of business j'n th'e publicmarl


37/86

-33-vehement protest vrith the nmerican High uom-nissioner. rhe uhinese representative con-tended that the exclusion was in vlolation of.treatles betlveen the unj-ted, states ancl uhina,end asserted that the thousand.s of uhinese

Icl r heoncerned. rvould. be throrr'ar out of vrork a.rasserted, "as t,rrey travL tire rigirt to 1ive, 48they cannot be depriveii of their rlght to lvorkt'.''The proponents of the mea,sure j-nsisted. thatthe public markets lvere to be di-stlngulsheclfron other trading places. They argued that theuovernrnent had a proprieta.ry interest in publicmarkets, and coul'd .therefore exclud.e those itthought fit to exclude.The American Commissi.on-er ryas synpathetic to the Chinese protest, andsuggested. tirat-

rr. . o . esicle frorn the cluestion.of legerlity, there arises a ques-tion r,vhether the action if te.kenmight not have an unfavorable ef-fect in the field of internation-al relations and al-so a questi-onrvhether the action 1f taken rvouldachi-eve the end rvhich its spon-sors have in contemplation.n +9The suggesti-on tvas brusheicl aslde. Underheavy pressure from private orgarnizatlons, rrrrs-

I - 48. Manila Daily Bul.letin, January 6, 194149. lvlanila Daily Bulletin, December 28, 1940.A typical American attitud.e 1s refLected 1n thisstatement: ttThe use of political power to d.rive .1,them from their age-long occupations in the fslands


38/86

-34-papers, and zealous crusad-ers '!*1o, to some peo-ple, have a way of confus j-ng patriotlsm lvlth pa-rochial sentiments, the boa.rd clecid.ed" to leavethc statute on the books. The action of the boardclid not, however, reflect' the top-level policyfornulation, so cleverly mouthecl by Quezon. Theoff icial- attj-tude nias s9t forth in, l-9SB by thePresid"ent of the Philippines, in an adclress toPhilippine businessmen r

t'One of the aims of my admi-nis-trationril 0,uezon declared, Ithasbeen to grant to the I'lLipinosevery facility they nie.y need" toacquire an j-ncreaslng share inthe business activities of theeountry. Thls policy 1s proutpted.by more cogent reasons than luere-fy a namovi or emotional neition-a.lism. Our natlonal- economy .cannever galn stablLity and strength,unless it is buil-t permanentlyupon the brain and bravm, the rnrorkand" weal-th of our ollrn people.'lBut Filipino businessmen shouldnot asslr.u.e that the goverruuent vrillextend to them speciail privilegesat the expense of public interest,or in disregard of the rights ofAmericans otr foreigners doing le-gitimate busj-ness in the PhilippircsrUnd.er our uonstitution, Americansare entitled to the sarle conside-ratlon as 3'11iplnos. As to f oreign-ers, aside from thelr rights re-cognlzed. j-n internationnl larv and.our o$rrr ]avrs, they have the furt}rer '

would not onJ-y damage them economically, but rvouldi outrage thej-r feelings of i-mpropriety and injustice;and any -aast Asi.an people r,^iho would cause Uhina tofeel iirjureA and outraged. must be bllnd to the re-ectj-on of Chlna to vrhat it considers Japanese j.n-justic'e.n Hayden, oD. cit. 7o8, ' ,i.


39/86

-35-right to be treated v;ith equity and' justice, because they have helped inthe clevelopment of our o\rn country ata ti-me r,vhen our ol,^/rn people lvere notengaging in busj-ness enterprlses. iihatthe Filipino businessmen hi;.ve the right1,o expect fronr their government and. lvheit v,"e ere afforclitrg thetn, are mernswhich they d.id not have in the past,such eis beinking instltutions, fe.cili-ties for trade and comtnunlcation, andnerv opport,unities to engage in produc-tive acti-viti-es. In other t'rords, thegovern:nent is facil-itating and encou-raging greater participation of Fili-pinos in the coxtrnerce ancl lndustr;r e1'the country. But the l'ilipino rnuststand on his olm lvorth. He must make -hls v,ray through ea.rnest, intelligent,and dete:rnined. et'1'ort. 11 must be rea-dy to neet the exigencies of fair eom-petition, for only under ec1ue.I cir-curtstances shoulcl he have the right toexpect the protection of his country-men.

ttl.tfe cannot, trve must not, ad.opt a,policy that in any v,ray tnay be inter-preted. as antagoni-stic to foreigners.irle d.o not underestimate r''ihat they aredoing and can d.o in aid of our mate-rlal progress. The.attraction of fo-'",', reign capital has been one of my mainconcerns. tt 50No better exarnple can be cited to demon-

strate the comnon situa.tion r,','here iuhat 1s ex-pressed. so eloquently is just as eloquentlyignored.. The ordinance represente.ci notlri-ng lessthan an unl'ortunate use o1' politiceil po',ver todisplace the uhinss.

50. lddress of the tcesident at the inau-of' the lhilippine uhamber of Qsrnmesse of JuLy2,9, 1938. see Comueroe (August, 1938).


40/86

-36-the adninistration of the orcl.inance,

holl'e'u'er, 1?es lnteruupted" by the long-feared.invaslon of the philippines by uErpan in De_cember, 1941. J-n the name of the Greateriiast Asia tioprosperity Sphere, tlrer benightedpeople of' .the lhil_lppines r , vrere to be taughtthe great spiritual and moral- kinship amongal-l Asiatic peoples, The preachment certalnlyruled out any d.iscriruintitory practice by oneagainst the other. Vlhat happened. was preclse-ly that. The uhinese ancl ttre tr,il-ipj-nos foundthemselves fighting the same battle- againstthe Asiatic lnvader. The years J94Z_Lgqb maybe written rlo'm as the high tiue in chinese-'Phii-ippine rerations. There was no time to quib-ble over t economi-c in justic es t , r economi_ c pene_trationt, talien dominatiohr, ancl other outlvornsl0gans. To both groups, those years representeda bltter fight for survlval.

Upon the ]iberation .of the lhilippinesin 1945, the tension betrveen the trvo groups re_appeared. fuiraediately. The ord.inance of 1941 wasretrieved fron the f iLes. The presiclentieiL el_ec_tion of lg46 gave the Roxas calrp the opportu_nity to nraiplpulate the ol_d symbols and slogans,with greater effectiveness. rnstruments of mass


41/86

-57-med"ia were vigorously handled" to convince allar-weary, insecure people that in I'econolnici-nd.ependence" and. rrintegral' ecouonric'natiorral--

FIism'rr5t l.y their salvatlon. Osmeia, a UhineseIieslizo, was to be iclentifiecl as such. Let ustake some samples of expressions of anti-uhinesesentirnent:

trThe uhinese tt'ho control- ourretail trad.e must be ousted.r'fiThey are the ones l^rho roband oppress the -u'iLlPinos.t'ttThey are 'blie ones lorlro havetaken the Place of -u'iliPinosin retailing- a career thatrightly belong.s to the natives .tt52

-u'rom the mouth of the average politician:I'They chqrge too high Prices,cheat in measureurentg, makehuge Prof its. rrtrThe t,hinese standard of livingis hideouslY Iow.trt,The Chinese in &ianila flagrantlyvi-olate the B-hour labor law. tr'The uhlnese operates his store rvithso little prof it, 'Ihe .uilipinocannot posslblY PolriPete. rr"Since the retail trade is in theha.nd.s of the uhinese, theY canparalyze the country overnight.\tJhat rvould happen if al-l the uhi-nese stores one norning failed to. oPen?rr 53

51. 0f greet interest to those 1r.ilo v.rouLd. tunciertake to study anti-uhinese propaganda du-ring the el-ecti-ous are the j-ssues of ttre il'ianj-IaDai1lr .L"reJ^rs, a Roxas paper, l'ron October, T3.4f{o April, 1946. |[he vernacular paper, -ualita, .r..lrriLl- al-so prove of greart value.


42/86

-38-"Ehe Chlnese i,vho keeps thelocal tiend,a (retail- store)lend.s morffito .tii.e lllipinoand charges outrageous inte-rest rates. The l'ilipino isoonstantly in oebt to theuhinese. t' 54

, And lately, froru one dlstinguisheo senator,occupying an influentlal posltion in the Senatotoday:

thanci-ofand, .*

rr. r o at present. there are nore200r000 duly registerecl uhinesetizens in the Philippines, xxanyrvhom are controlling our f.oreignd.omestic tracle.trtt .As a. -u'llipino, ] certainly woirlO r.:rrot l-ike to see our country some ..,d ay dominated. "ily-ir,"";;i;;l.-ItJoo-',,mica11y, financially, or otherwise.'l'here can be no gainsaying the faot.*that f'rom econornic mastery to poll::"x*ticeil domi-nation, there i! only onet*step. . .rt bb

o*

1., _av- a & __.-3gra, $r3:b.zis at "t - e ?.-ei!le 1946, Etl4t-I45.pJJ ":i1ai-?,{'i ac-'l rt4v -+J' b3. The stateraent is often atiributetl.rresj-dent Quezon, vrho oelivered. a speech rgarding the uhinese situation prior-to thoclflc Vvar in l-941. -54. A catalogue.gf tl-r" complaints nayfound. in Hornr op. cit., J4Z-L46. .55, statement of senatorclsc9, -Ilra jority lloor l.ead er,the Chlnese-Philipplne ireatjrLal,yers u ournal , 4!7, 4l_g , 42OVicente

,J.in opposltlof enity. ,r,Ift(7947 ) . j


43/86

-59-rhe cold f'act is that blg ousiness in

the yhilippines has been 1n the nards of rlriri-cen arld spnnish nationeils. f his incluoes thenighly lucrative go1d , clrromium, and iron m.i-nes,public utilities ancl services, rope manufe.cture,hemp inoustrlz, cagar malufacture, coconut oil,the sugfir inclustry, and the large iruporting crnd.exporti-ng firrns.56

56. -r'igures in 1955 place the toterl value ofAmerica.n entrepreneurlal- capital to approxlmate-1l- llilO5r500r000 (See U.S. Tariff Uomlrission, Phi-lippine Trr:de Rolort ro, 1"18, ff ). In 19b5 Ameri-c\rt capital played an important role in L8g d.if-ferent cencerns-. Seventy-eight per cent of l,he to-tal rlmerican business capiterl wris investecl in mi-ning, utilities, sugar centrals, plantations, and.merchandislng. i'fith regard. to industries based. onagricultural prod.ucts, the strength of Americancapital lay in the control of mills and. other pro-cessing merchinery. In the sugar ind.ustry, .A,nericancapital control-led about one third of the sugarcentrals, rvith an amount of $pZr4OOrOOO. In coco-nu!rrubber, and abaca plerntations, American cerpj--taL had a share of $19r7OO.rO00, With insestmentsof ii5r500,000 in mil_l_s and refinqrents for theprocessing of coconutsn the United States lvas farahead of other 4ationalities. Ilii_ning becane tlrenost important item in the last deca


44/86

-40-uomparecl r,vi'r the uhinese, the ;mericans ancLi:pa'i-a-rds constitute a very s'alr. flaction of thetotp'r' populatior.. ST iihy, one may a,sk, 'ave the vhi-nese rema'ned the politicar- scapegoert for the ilr_sof the masses'/ rtany circunstsnces account for theavair-ability of the thinese as a target of .ernago-gic oratory.

vestments. These f'gures are probably trre ruostaccurate to be found: '----*"*J vrrAmerican Investments in tlie i-hilippines

Arttt. U. S.CurrencyH;{I'TI lR f ilVdSTIr'ifi,jTSGoverrunent bondsuoverrunent guaranteed.corporate issueslrivate issuesUf RICT Ii{V}ETi\rIii\,iTSSuger lndustry

uentralsi,ands & Improvementsurop -Loansi:ocor]Ut l-nd.ustfyliills e.nd refineries.r,anc1s & ImprovementsA b3_cl (hemp) fndustryr.,r--Ll-s end equipment. Lands & Improvementsrl].n]-ng _LnclustryIjubllc utititibsTransportationueneral merchandising

lumbeg and l_ossinn.rv,inor _Lnv es tnEiii" --

\i32 1400, ooo2 r70O r 000l- . 500.00_0 36, 600, ooo L4

30r575,0005 ,266, 0003.500.000 39 r14JarO0o5, 545 r 0008.357.000 I3rg20,0003 r925,0005. 505,.000 g r4SO, OOO70, 0oo, ooo3l-, 950, ooo

iB; tssj ss3.,f31;333

L4

'l)orLlent

tr

4?,71^J-a7657

rjee 2r- .t,oreilltf3,.r"y neports iBB,?83;lti, 1e4b1i0Oz, As of -1939, the,J*l:l poputatisp, was rough_'1" ^qti'rated es foi'ror,'rs i---r}:i:i3: e6o, ooo; drpanese,9 , 000 ; trmeri:ans B, tOg i upanesh 4 ,6?7urjj'tish 1,055i rrussia ns' z,ii r:i"ii"i"' ilz,T'iHH ..;3irtill:i.L4o;' ijee the 1959 u"tt"u" (uureau*o' printing,.r.ia-


45/86

-41-I,irstly, the Ohinese is everywhere_ in thecity, in ilre to\.,rI, and eve,r. in the renrotest vil-lageo rlo .u'ilipino can say that he has not dealt1 rrith tr:e chinese trader. lle buys from 'im the v_eryday r:ecessities of life- rice, sa1t, sugar,kerosene, clothlng, and bread. As one rr,rrlter 5as

s o a-ptly obs erved : _t'. . . a l-arse p_elcentage of the .t,.il_i_pinos in the "irire"-;i;; ihe uhinese:,ome money notii, or have owed some in:l:_""S.:ll,rgst, and *iri any day a_. f!.' ";"ii"l:*nlf "'fi;, "i,1l'ffi ,ffi3i" jit""the nost obvious_, the e"siJst politicaltarget, ^sj_nply u""iu""-in"y touch thelives of everXr native. No'pofiticalspeech goes over Oetier-rioitn the po_pulace ther.n one thai -"itulr." the uhi-ffi;"fl3"f'3f';;Srl333. tnuv-"iri ;;'-'

The ironi-c part of the whole situation 1sthat lyhile the Uhinese trader bel.ongs to a bignation, his goverrurent, harro'red by perloclicar-revo'r-ts and a civil rnrar that has heigirtened. in in_tensity, has been unabre to extend. to him sufficientprotection, diplonratic or otherv,rise. In short, thechinese in the philippines on erccor-urt of their nun_ber and their clistinct place in the econonic Lifeo1' the co*ntr;r, ca,n be cor.rve{l'entiy hatecr; lto feufof retalicrtion need' d.eter the nrass and the elite.Jr'rst horrr 10ng this state of affai-rs cenconti'ue isof course hard to predlet.58' Ilorn, Orphans of the pacifie (r-941) 14s-r46,


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/Ij

-42,-Secondly, the Ohinese situation provides an

auspicious opportunity for discharging the accumu-lated resentment of the conui.on rnan agaiinst the ex-isting slrstem of tnrealth d.istribution. iiith the ex-ception of urban centers, such a.s lvranila, Llebu, andrloiLo, there is still the same feurLalistic struc-ture vrhich existed during the Spanlsh rule. In pointof fact, the mald.istribution of populatj-on, land,and rveeilth is greater novr than it l,vas then.59 L,hesocial and econoluic structure nlay be conpared. to apyrani_d: at the top of it wil-.} be found a snaflgroup of lendourrers arid buslnessmen, mainly Ameri-canr fipanish, uhi-nese, and part-iipanish, rmmediate-ly belor,r them are the compradores -,ho thrive oq anintensive duty-free tra.de lrrith the United States.Then, there 1s a bureaucra,cy of govern:nent emproyeesand finally, a. negrigibre miclcil-e cr-ass. These groups,formlng a tiny tr3ction of the tota.r population, re-ceived the bullc of the benefits thet cane froil Am-erici:n rule' roday, they r-ive in the ci-ti-es, operatethe ne"'v"spapers, organize and manipurate the privatepressure orgeinj-zations, dominate ancl control philip_pine politics. lrt the base of the pyra*id is thevast majority of the l'ilipinos- peasants commonly

59. -ii'or an exhaustive ciiscussion of rhir-ippineeconomy, see the- ..lpCl4-Report of 19BB (t/ashirri:t.;,l?3?]; Iiayden, 1]he philippines: A Stud.y in ira{ionifleveJ-opment ; hra cariiig, social . probl_ems- (tutanil"li-e2g I ;fol!"I, urisis in the-phitippines fisZlj; seeman andsatisburv, oross-Lrurrents 1i- trre pdtii;;i"E" lib46T:


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-43-cal1ed I'magsasakatt- who have derj-ved. comparative-ly l1tt1e benefit from the American tutelage, Theyhave had f evr eff eetj-ve political rights; and in agreat nu:nber of places, " d"o not ovrn the land. theytill or the primitive, one-room nipa shzrcks invrhich titey live, Francis B. Sayre, reporting in\94I as Iligh Commissioner, stated.;tt. . . neither a sizable independ.entmiddLe cLa.ss nor an irrfLuent.ial pu-blic opinion has developed. ,fhe 6ulkof the newly created j-ncome has goneto the goverrunent, to landlords, andto urban at:eas, and has served butl_ittl-e to arr:.e1j_oreite the li"ving con-ditions among the al_rrrost feuda.l- pea-santry. o . . .iriaLdistribution of po_pulation, of land, and of wealtn inmany forns continue".j. . . and socialunrest has reached serlous propor_tions..,n60

l{ewspapers and political agitators, dominated.by entrencired lrea:lth, c1o not tell the tEro that thefestering sore i-s ttbig businessrr or rrcaciquj-smrr.i/ith abrost universaL unanimityr the one target hasbeen rChinese dominationr.

The irrel-evernt scapegoat- the average uhi_nese retailer- serves a usel'ul purpose. The frus-tratlons of econorrric adversity thert increasinglyaffect country ancl average clty-d.r^rel-l_er can be ex-ploited in political- actj_on. The hatreci of the

corLril0n nan for the snart Inegocianter (speclalist60. Report of' the United fjtates frigh Comris_si oner, 1940-1941.


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. -44-on barga.ining), r,rhose marurrers and tastes are ciifferenttcan be best displaced upon the td'1rty Chinese' I

The sensational details of 'lnmigration scandal-sfand rsurplus d.ea1st, in l',hich the Chinese trad'er ishopelessly invol-ved, merel-'z nd'd to ihe spotlight th1o""ryr"upo:j I ri,c-ial minority vtht::e fq'bure is ind.eed dark.

...TI..61lv.snecttonaximizethebasicvalues'HgCaUS

we knor^,, that the coergive process is expensive and'd.estructive, the probl-em posed to us is clear in itsurgency: yJe nrust seek the best means to distribute equl-tablytherepresentaiiveva]-uesof',vealth,d,eference,polverr securityr enllghterunentt rectitude' skillt andluell-bej-ng through consent' In the ligbt of our pre-ference, tI|ei.t:r negotiations constitute a very inrportantmeensofgettingtheresultswed.6siretoachl".,".

A.'The 'Lreaty of A mily BetlYeen theItritiPPines ernd' L'hina 'The 'rreaty of Anity cortcludeci' between the ijhiLip-

pines ancl uhina on llpril 30, L9+7, barely a year afterthe establlshinent oi' tire l-iiiliirpine itepublic, is a' for-rr,raTd step in the rvhole context of Fhilippine-uhines I-la.ti on s r

6l-. The ba.sio Val-ues referred to are spelled ottt-i; ta.ssr,\rell and tricDougal, J-egal 'Flducation andtuffi" tsolicy: P1'ofessional Training in therubl1c lnter"est , 52, Yale laYi Journal (1943)_ 205til g, >ee also i.aswe}l, ;inalysis of Political-t:ehaviour (1948).


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The agreement, so says the prea-nible, v,ras"animated by the desj-re to strengthen and perpe_tuate the friendly relations so happiry exi-stlngr?

',betvreen the two lovernments, The treaty goes fur-ther than a florid declaration of high and nobleinte:rti-ons. -After stipulating that 'rthere shalLbe pe::petuel- peace and everlasting amity'r betl^,,eenthe tvro coniractlng parties, tire treaty initiatesa significant precedent by providing that_r?Should any dispute arise betweenthe two nigh uontracting partiesrvhich ennnot .satisfactorily be ad-iristgd by diplomacyr or through ue_diation or arbitration, the partlesshall not use I'orce t'oi settlenent,but ehall refer the dispute to the'international uourt of Justice forfinal adjudication. rr 6Z

'ihose vrho fervently desire to see the e&er-gence of' a real rn;orld commu'ity r,rith appropriateinstitutions basecl on conse't rather than coercion,lvill see in this provision an encoltreging pros_pect.65 A unilaterar declaratio' by 'ne party thatthe cloctrine rebus sic stantibus appries lrith res-pect to a particular treaty provision or, rvhat lsmore slveeping, to aLl- the provisions of the treaty,

62,. t,reaty of Anity, articl_e tlr i'>ee rvro.Jr, J:g4 ZlssLre or.' vfficiar ,*azeti;6 (Bureau oi-rii"ting, Manila,l63a uee the narvard. xeseareh in iniernationar-Lalv' llraft vonvntion on the .larv of Treatiesr-iri-ir,.J. rnt. tr. supp. i1935 ); cf . i-aut*""o"i il ?he .runctlopof law ln the tnternational uorrnunity {ilfg ) ZVT; J es_suPr e i,iodern tar,v of Nations (lg48) la$_146.


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' -+6-cannot suffice; it must subrnit tlre interpretationto the final dispositj-on of the world court' Anlrallegation of breach eannot of itself excuse onefrom perfonnance of the assumed obligation. r'hef,aot of breach must be ultimately determined bytiie internationaL tribunalr if the other modesof peaceful settlement have been exhausted.

Praetica.lly all the touchy aspects of Phi-lippine'"Chinese relations are dealt tuith in theagreement in broad. language. AlL the provisions,horseverr &Te subject to the qualificration thatthe most favored. nat-ion clause, suctr as is foundhere, shall ttnot extend" to advantages which areno\r accorded or vrhich may hereafter be accorded,by the Hepublic of the Phil-ippines to the united.States or its r:ationals ,"64 An1, s.mparlson mustbe macle v,rlth reference to any alien other than tireinationals i of the United States.

The provisions of the agreernent may be bet-ter underst,oocl if categorized. in accordance lviththe values referred" to before. After a discussionof physical access to the territory, an inguiryshall- be melde into the nature and scope of accesst,o each of those values.

B. ACCESS1. -vhysical access to territory:-

The Treaty provision regarding this particular64. -Lbid., .r\rticle lX,


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- - fl-

-47-point was roundly criticized. in the uenate andi-n nrany influential i-nstnunents of publ1c opi_ER:rion.'" The feeling was that the Uhinese com_*unity in the rhilipplnes gave the xepublic al;;:r:1;N.'1 tiroblem to soLve; to ad.d to the member-srrir o1' that comrnuni_ty rvould., they argued, makethe rvhole problem insoLuble. -lt v,ras pointed outthat the reeiprocal provision to the effect that:rt The nationaLs of each of thenlgh uontracting larties shall be atllberty to enter or Ieave, to travelor reside in tire territories of tireuther upon ttle same temrs as the na_tionals of any third country 1n ac-cord,ance'rrrith the lalvs ancl regula-tions of the uther. " 66,lv111 aetua.lly operate to the exclusive aclvantageof the vhinese. Filipinos, o.s a rulb, do not ni_grate to thina.67 rhe argument lvould be theore-tically valid if the legislative arm of tjre rhi-llppines 1,/ere totally stayed from enacting any im_rnigration restrictions respecting all al-iens. rhat,of course, is not eontemplated by the treaty pro-

65. See .g. statement of uenator V. Francisco.m3lorilV -eLoor Lead.er, i! lp lau4lers lournal (Ig4T j4I7,_419! anq the editorial comm-ents published onuay 1, 1947 in the riruraila uhronlcle and uaniLa ,r,irnes.66. J-bld, trti_cle V.

67. To date-,.there are less than 500 l.lJ-lpinoi-nmigrants in.uhina, most of r.rhom are enploye-O i,nthe coast cities as bandnenbers. t,here is no evi-dence that they haye offered. any conpetition inother fields of businssr


52/86

. -44-vision. rivhat 1t merely stipur-ates is tirat the \,hi-nese sha.ll not be singled. out as a racial group inthe legi.slatlon or administration of any restr'c-tilre measure .' '1'O Unci.erstand the fulr- import of t-tre provi_sion as it is made to operate at present, lt is ne-cess'r"\r to know sorle aspects of 'hirippine i:,rnigra_tion ralnr'' co"qonwear-th Act ,vo. 6.r-5, vrhlch consti_tutes the basic i-rrmi-gration legisration, .ividesaliens into tlvo general divisions: ad.rni-ssible and"inadrnissible ariens. r ferrr exarnples of the latterclass are: icliots or ihsan" p*r,"or", ancl personslvho have been insane; persons afflicted rvith r-oath-sorae or dangerous contagious disease, or epilepsy;-persons rvho have been convi-cted of a crime invorv-ing moral turpitud.e; prostitutes, or procurers orpersons coning for any imuoral purposes; personslikelSr f,e become a public charge; paupers, vagrants,ancl beggars; persons practicing polygalryl and per_sons vdth subversive tend.encies. -Lhose persons vrhodo uot I'au- u'ld.er any o1' tn@ d,isqualil,ications arecLassil'ied. as edmissiol-e a.Liens. admissible ali-ensare clivid'ecl into tr'o classes: inrmigrants and non_irrnni-grants. rrmigrants are iiefined as those lv'ocorne for the purpose of establishing pernanent re_sidence in tne thil-ippines; non-i-nunigrants are thosevrho cone nerely for ternporary sojourn.uu _*iurants

---:---68' oecti-on g o' uoxrxionl/ear-th act ,',".-iii-;;;--


53/86

. -49-are furtner subdivid'ed into non-quota and quota im-rnigrants. The statute enun'erates tire persons vlho maybe ad:nittecl into tire rhil ippines as non-quoter iu:rrri-gratits, wtthout limitation as to quantity

(+) an alien coming- to a prearranged" employ-mentr-;; *ito* flte issuance ot' a vlsa hasbeen ui,iiori"uo in accordance with sco 20or tirl*a.il-""a his rvife, and. his urunarried'cnilcfren, rinaer 21 years of agr if accom-pil;iie--i.i-__ot - j'f ^f6llowing -to join himwithin"a perj'oa of 2 years fTgT the d'ateof his ao-foission lnto the ririlippines asan inmigrantlmeratesthepurposesforv'rhichaperson.desiringtou"l"t uray ue-acittea as a'non-inmigrant'"AIi;;-aepartl-ng from any- place outsj-d'ethe rhil-:-ppinesl-aesiined for the rhilippileg ' who""" otft"riui""-*&-i""1b1e and who qualify within oneoi-tnu folLovring categories, may be admitted. as non-imnigrants : ..,J -_ -- 6^ -Gi a temporary visitor coming for business ort'or pleasure or for reasons of health;--i;j * p"r"on in transit to a destination out-side the YhiliPPlnesIi.l-, ""i,irun servlng as such on a vessel ar-riving at a port of' tire ririllppinert 3Td seel(irl; toenter temporarify itt the pursult of iris calling asd 6oman .-"*'""14) a peTson seelci,ng to enter the llrilippines_sole}yto"u'"v_ontradebetrveerrtnerhilippirresand'the foreien sllte-of lvhicn ne is a national, iris wifetand. hj.s ltt**t"i"O chililren und'er 2'L years 01' age' 1faccollpanJrtt g o"-iollor^ring to join. lito' . suoj ect to !t"conditlon that citlzens or tne rfrilippines und'er si-;ii;-rorraitiorru are accorded. alike privileges inthe foreig" si;t"-of lvhich sucir person 1s a nationall-i;i"; p;;;on-previouslv 1awfu1lv admitted intothe.phi1ippiliesforpermanerrtresid'ence,vfhoisT9-turnirrgfromate'rrporaryvlsi.tabroad.toanunrel.in-o"i"nuii residence i* the lhilippines; ^?ttd*'"""Tf ) ";-;i;;""t ' havi'ng *"g+:. suf flcient for hisec.ucatior. "nd-""ppoit in tlre Phil-lppines' rvh'o is "!.least 1S years-oi^*gu and, ';,'ho seeks -r,o enter the rb1-iippines temporaril! and solely for the purpose- 01'study at " =i,roor oi' other institution of learning"pprb""a for-such alien stuclents by the uorn1-rissiolleroi'- rnr:nigration.


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-50-(b) the r,vife of the husband or the rurnr.a*ieo.ctr1ld. und er 21 yea.rs of age oI. a r-jrillp_plne, eitlzen, f! u.""omp*nii"e or fotlory_ing to join such citiz-enl" --(c) B- child of arien.parents born during thetemporary visit abioad oi {t " ruother, thexlgll.T having been previously larcfufiy'"a_rnitted into the. phiiippit u"-for perrnanentresidence, if the chiiii iu-u..orpanyingo1 coqilg to joil- u p",r*ot u.r,o appries' l'or a&iisDr-uiJ. within- s years rrot-ir.u dateof its birth i "(d) q child born subsequent to the issuanceof the immlgration riisa oi-tl " acconipany_ing parent, the visa ,rJt-frrrirrrg expired.;(e) a. wonan rnrho was a citizen oI, the lhil-in_ines an. who Lost irer-cit:.r"""iiip,ffi;il;"o{ 1.", marriage_!9_an ,fien-or by reErsonof the toss of phitippines--cit1r6"ufri;"nuher hrrsbancl, and her n*iu=t,:"La chi]d un_der pl years oI..age, it, o."orup""ying or'ol-Lowing to goin*n6r;(f ) the vrife or the husbancl 0r the u*a*iedhild under pl vears of aler of an atrienar,{u1ly adrnittlo. into tnE inifippinesfor penna.nent resio.enc"-piii" to the ciaten lr''rhich this *rct. oeco*";- er:i.ective and'irro ls reslclent tnereinl"ii'i.,"r. wife orusbandr or child uppii6,r-ioi o*orssloir.r#r-uu.r_ir a perlod 9j. l-y"u"*-ioff*"i;;-;il"d'ate on v,'hi-ch this ""t-0"Jo,.,1J" efl,ective.69

t,he statute fixes a quota or. b00 1,or any onenationar-ity or *ithout natiorr.aritv, for any o'e ca_rendar y"o".70rt was t'oug't t'at frictlon ivith the _hineseend the daparlese v'rourd be preventeci by placing allnations upon a basis 01' equality in the matter 01.

69. The :rct took Bfi.ect oUrre {f , l.ggg,70, Sec. 13, vorrlmor.Wealth .ilot rO. 6L3.


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-51-inunigration. uuch oDiect was further inplemented bythe provislon that any alien in the vhil-ippines atthe tinre or the passage of the act may lega.Lize liisresi-d.ence in tne colmtry oy applying to tt]e r,orrriiiis-sloner 91' lmmigratiori wlthin one year 01 tne d.ateupor whicn tne law became efI'ective.

oince .,hinese and. oap&flse lYere 'ttre only fer-ciaL groups before the war in 1941 vrhose anrrual r-!r-migration had oeen in excess or.' tltat numDer- es-pecially ttre r,hj-nese lvho since 1918 .nave eiltered.tne rhllrppiaes a.t tne rirte of about 4000 per yearover Frii e>-crusion raw vrhich granted. thern no quotaat al-I- the cry of 'd.iscrimination, was inevita-bly raiseo by their representative".?1 rod.ay, theonly sizeable racj-al- group, aslde t.ront the .nmeri-cans who by 1aw enjoy a privileged. status, are tne-hinese. r'hereI'ore, the so-ealled most favored. na-tion clause in the rreaty does not really provideany serious obsteicle, dt any rate theoretically,to cliscrlminatory legislation directeo. in fact,

7I. t'he local r,hinese in the -rhillppines choseto see the quota linitation as aimed at their na-tionaLs ratirer tharn at the Japanese. The Chineseprotests in l,ianila l/yere, if anything, stronger thanthose of the Japanese. (Porter, Crisis in the phi-lippines, 1942, 95). 'rThe reeently passed. bil-L'?vrote a prominent Japanese in 1940, t'Iurst be d.es-cribed as anti-Japsrrese, because, notwithstand.inghigh-sounding pretexts put forth by those concerned,to justify it, common serlse would. reveal it in noother light. It is an open challenge to Japanesepatience and tolerancet' I'forrl, Conteunporary Japan,June,1940.


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-52-thorrgh not in formalistic language, a.gainst theuhines e.

In spite of this evident manipulatlon thatcnn be done without apparently doing vior-ence tothe i-ntegrity of the treaty provision, a leadingf i6urc in the senate voicecl his opposition .l:y say-.:--.J-.i r.t< .

" It is possible that thosesucceed.lnq us -may d.eem tt-"b;;i,Itu_ly nec""siry for th;i; set_f_n'eqor_vation . .. . to limii-urri""";'fr:"-migration into trre -pnii;tti;;";ith_out regard.-to other f;;"j-a;-"rtii"l-at_itles. rl -? ratify-ii,i; -t";;;;"-as it is nor^r- draftecil wL woufA betying not only our trinOs and feetbut also the hands ana-ieet. oi-Jio"uwho wlLl suc c eed. r.." . ii - 7r- - -0bviously, the senator .id not pause to considervihat i^rour'd be the '0ng-term consequences of an im-migratlon 1aw specifically and expressly rulingout the uhines".?3 But he and the rest of his coun_trymen have reason to be aLarmed. In point of fact,the fear arlsing from this problem has been expressed.long &Bo. The lhilippines is geographically a partof Asia; its inhabitants are esi.etic in origin an.racial a'ffinity' ',ut their religion, much of theirculture, and virtua'ry all of their pollticar ins_

?2' see {t::eqii;:?;qil;;i;r;;;;-;;;;;;;-p r.aqyers Journal egLzi'Ltz, 4LB.If; ti"l^f:ul^:lug:1!. of Asiatic affairs hasf:"ill*f :*Sr."3 ,_lgl::..;sri$. ;il; "iiri, i"*Iirlfi'....sotiteO ura -""4Dvr..r-uecr ano. as porrerful as the United"Stat""_aouiAhave maintainea its "*"ir*irro irnni --^rr --_over e tong period oi- i;;"*'i"*t?iiui---1lt"lrtf**exclusive inraigrg!ion ^poii ry' years in the r.nce of-the bit_

some aspects of chinese-philippine relations: a study in international relations by jovito r....

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