some aspects of international and intercultural...(369) some aspects of international and...
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367
Some Aspects of International and Intercultural
Communication Strategies
国際的異文化間コミュニケーション戦略
Eri Shiozawa
塩 澤 恵 理
Introduction
Inheritable Information System
Non-inheritable Information System
Custom and Tradition as Non-inheritable Information
Strategies for Learning Non-inherjtable Information
Japanese Business Practices That the Rest of the World Considers“Different”
Language As a Means of Business Communication
Basic Knowledge Vs. Applied Knowledge
Cultural Differences and Business Communication
In Lieu of a Conclusion
Appendix
lntroduction
In economics there is a hypothesis known as“convergence theory,”which posits that when
income levels rise, economic behavior wil1‘‘converge”and become much the same
everywhere. Religious, cultural and ethnic differences will become iess pronounced and
recede into the background. If this premise is correct, does that mean it is all right to
ignore the cultural preferences and/or religious views of the other party in an economic
transaction?Not necessa士ily. Especially in the case of international business relations ,
how smoothly a business transaction proceeds often depends to』alarge extent on how well
informed you are about background factors other than income of the person you are
dealing with.
Economics has another law-the 1aw of one equilibrium price-which states that
identical articles in all mafkets will have only one price in the absence of transportation
368 『明大商学論叢』第81巻第3・4号 (368)
costs and trade barriers. In fact, however, the price for the same item often varies(if
only slightly)from store to store, and stores rely on advertising and other forms of
communication to make these price differences known to custorners in the hope of making
profits. Does that mean that the law of one price is wrong? Not at all. Differences in price
reflect a process that infinitely tries to approach the law of one price, and the formative
element in this process are transactions that make free use of business communications.
In this paper I will explore what sorts of communication strategy are effective,
especially in international business deals. Communication is a means of conveying
information, but some information can be』understood only through experience. To
complicate the matter further, the set of experiences differs from country to country. The
problem is how to apply this insight to communication strategy.
lnheritable Information System
In communications involving economic behavior there are two types of information
systems-one that is inheritable and another that is not. To put it in a more readily
understandable way, it is always a moot point whether the information in a business deal
is scientific information or information acquired from personal experience that is unique
to a particular individua1.
What I have called an inheritable information system refers to(1)objective
information,(2)scientific information,(3)information arising from training or grounded
on scholarship, and(4)information that can be passed on to other people or to the next
generation(one’s children or grandchildren).In short, it is information that a particular
person has and can transmit exactly as is to someone else. If a natural scientist makes a
major discovery, for example, the next generation can inherit this information.
Moreover, new research(information)based on this discovery can be added to it and built
upon it. It is this very fact that makes scientific progress possible.
If all business transactions were based on inheritable information, as they tend to be in
the natural sciences, business communication would be relatively simple. Today’s business
personnel and scholars in specialized fields would be able to teach the younger generation
all they would need to know. Let us imagine a situation in the computer sector, for
example, in which software developed in the United States i呂 being introduced into Japan.
Japanese systems engineers listen to a technical explanation of the new software and are
able to learn all about it. The people who developed the software in the first place might
(369) Some Aspects of International and Intercultural Communication Strategies 369
be geniuses, but the engineers who are being taught it don’t have to be. They may not be
endowed with the prodigious brilliance or intuitive ability of the original discoverers, but
they can still learn how to use it. Since information like this belongs to the“inheritable”
category, the communication strategy in such cases is not all that complicated.
Non-inheritable lnformation System
Let us now consider the exact opposite of an inheritable information system a non-
inheritable one. A non-inheritable information system consists of(1)subjective
information,(2)empirical information,(3)information dependent on insight or intuition,
and(4)information that cannot be passed on to others or to the next generation(one’s
children or grandchildren).In short, it is information that each of us must start from
scratch and acquire for ourselves.
Numerous examples of non-inheritable information can be found all around us, but
perhaps the prime example is rolnantic love. Stories about parents trying to force their son
or daughter to break off a socially unsuitable romantic attachment and the child’s
anguished refusal to accept parental advice have been handed down from generation to
generation since time immemorial. This all-too-human predicament has produced
masterpieces of literature, drama and music and is a clas忌ic example of wisdom and
experience that cannot always be transmitted to the next generation.
Love between the sexes is not the only example of non-inheritable information. The
inheritable portion of corporate managenlent skills is also extrelnely limited. If such
information were inheritable, Konosuke Matsushita, the so-called“god of management,”
and other geniuses froln an earlier generation of self-made men in both the East and West,
would have been able to bestow immeasurable benefits on the human race. Unfortunately,
however, because their wisdom is dependent on individual intuition, it is non-inheritable
and thus such is lost forever upon the death of the genius who had it. In today’s difficult
economic environment it is not hard to imagine that many companies would love to have
abusiness genius like a Matsushita or a Rockefeller tell them that“such-and-such a
situation can be dealt with by doing such-and-such.”This is口ot the sort of information,
however, that can be neatly encapsulated into an objective prescription. In as much as
12
Shakespeare’s Romeo and/tZliet’s tragic ending may have beep avoided.
Business schools are striving to carve up students into business geniuses through vigorous
study and training.
370 『明大商学論叢』第81巻第3・4号 (370)
such information is non-inheritable, each of us must acquire it for ourselves through trial
and error.
The same thing cah be said about communication itself. As everyone knows, the 40th
President of the United States(1981-1989),Ronald Reagan started out as a Hollywood
movie star。 When he was young, he leaned to the left as the leader of the union(1947-
1960)to which actors belonged, but later as a politician he gradually moved to the right.
In fact Reagan was the first President ever to serve as a former leader of a Iabor union.
His charisma, personal charm and spell-binding eloquence were recognized at an early
stage. American presidents have strong opinions of their o㎜. In this regard, they greatly
differ from Japanese politicians who simply read aloud memos that some bureaucrat has
prepared for them. Even for an American president, however, Reagan was such an
exceptionally eloquent speaker that he was called the“great communicator.”Alarge part
of his enormous popularity was dependent on his communication skills. He was endowed
with that most desirable quality in a politician-an instinctive knowledge of what to say
on any occasion and what approach would work best for a particular audience. This sort
of skill is also non-inheritable, and regrettably no one can be taught President Reagan’s
knack for communication.
Custom and Tradition as Non-inheritable lnformation
Awhile ago an acquaintance of mine met the Saudi Arabian ambassador to Japan and told
me the following story. My friend had almost no knowledge of the culture and customs of
the Middle East and learned a great deal from his conversation with the ambassador. It
was an extremely interesting experience, he said. During the conversation, every time the
ambassador moved, there was a jingling sound. Curiosity finally got the better of my
friend, and he asked the ambassador where the sound was coming from. The ambassador
then pulled out an enormous bunch of keys and showed it to him. Since most of us usually
carry only four or five keys, my friend was astonished. Here was an ambassador carrying
around as many keys as the superintendent of an apartment building. One key was for the
television set, the ambassador explained, another for the refrigerator, others for the book
shelves, etc.Keys to the house and thと car, for the door to the study and the filing cabinets
were understandable, but why did the ambassador need a key to the television set, my
friend wondered?Noticing his puzzled expression, the ambassador explained,“There are
strict rules in my country governing family members. For example, children are not
(371) Some Aspects of International and Intercultural Communication Strategies 371
allowed to watch television programs or read books that are not suitable for their age
group. In order to protect them from being tempted by the spate of unsuitable programs
out there, it is a parent’s duty to have keys to the television and control what they watch.”
From this conversation I learned that some parents control their family’s television viewing
by locking up the television set, a custom most of us never even dreamed existed.
Strategies for Learning Non-inheritable lnformation
Unlike scientific or inheritable information, which can be taught in schools, differences in
cultures and traditions are difficult to learn, but that should not stop us from trying to do
so. During a business transaction, Japanese frequently use the expression‘‘a un,”akind
of breathing pattern. You would probably think that Western business people are at a
disadvantage because they cannot understand“a un”as other Japanese would. But a while
back, when Japanese-style business practices were at the peak of their popularity, people
all over the world were trying somehow or other to acquire this type of non-inheritable
information. Words like“haragei”and“nemawashi”entered the English language and
even found their way into business school lectures. Large foreign corporations, undeterred
by Tokyo’s high real estate prices, sent talented employees and their families to Japan to
experience, understand and acquire an affinity for Japanese culture and traditions for
themselves. These firms did not think only in terms of the employee’s job in the company
and send him/her alone to Japan(a posting that involves living apart from one’s family is
not acceptable to most Americans and Europeans);「for the sake of business
communication, they willingly paid rents of six or seven hundred thousand yen a month to
allow the employee to live with his/her family in the Metropolitan Tokyo area.They knew
that, in the long run, a direct understanding of Japanese business practices would more
than offset the expenses involved.
In Japan, on the other hand, many families will not even move from one part of the
country to another when the husband is transferred because of the children’s education.
And when it comes to a transfer overseas, the thinking is that naturally the husband will
3
go alone. This means that.the family as a whole will not have the experience of living in
aforeign culture and experiencing for themselves the non-inheritable information they
would acquire through the friendships and contacts they make as a family. At first glance,
3 However, more and more families are able to live abroad together as the number of
Japanese universities which accept students from abroad with certain qualifications is
lnc「easlng・
372 『明大商学論叢』第81巻第3・4号 (372)
such information may seem irrelevant, but it might well be considered a grassroots
business strategy . Much more can be learned about the American educational system by
having your own children spend a year in the American compulsory education system than
by reading dozens of books on the subject. Since one picture is indeed worth a thousand
words, this sort of experience is a means of acquiring valuable non-inheritable
information, and in a roundabout fashion it can become a powerful corporate business
strategy.
Japanese Business Practices That the R臼st of the World Considers‘‘Different”
For a Iong time, Japan has been the butt of criticisms for surfounding itself with a web of
rules and regulations of all kinds that make it difficult for outsiders to enter the Japanese
markets. I will not go into the legal aspects here, but there must be some reason why
Japanese business is thought to be unique。
In Japanese culture where silence is golden, eloquence has not necessarily been
appreciated. This value system is the complete opposite of the one that prevails in the
West where communication skills are highly regarded. The American compulsory
education system, for example, places great emphasis on training children to explain
something to others and get their point of view across to their audience. During“show
and tell”period children in kindergarten stand up in front of the class, show articles they
have brought from home and describe them. They also receive training in answering
questions from their friends. Practices such as these lay the groundwork for being able to
get up and express one’s own opinions confidently in front of many people. At the business
school level,“presentation”is extremely important. One’s entire personality-from the
choice of the clothes one wears to a business meeting to the way one holds oneself and the
words one uses-is used as a means of business communication.
From the Western business perspective, the traditional Japanese approach, which
attaches little importance to words, makes the Japanese difficult to deal with as business
partners. For ex玖mple, to avoid being forced to make a decision, Japanese will often say
“1’ll think about it.”This is a delaying tactic;it does not necessarily mean that he/she
seriously intends to consider the proposal and examine its contents. Similarly, when a
Japanese says that something“is a bit difficult,”this should be understood to mean“no.”
It certainly does not mean“difficult”in the American or European sense of the word.
Whereas“difficult”implies some degree of possibility, the Japanese word“muzukashi”
(373) Some Aspects of International and Intercultural Communication Strategies 373
means that a thing is virtua11y impossible.
As I mentioned earlier, it is a very Japanese form of communication to say that
“nemawashi”is necessary before entering into direct negotiations. Much like beginning an
attack on a castle by filling in the moat,“nemawashi”is a kind of multi-flank maneuver
that involves not only the principal parties but those on the periphery as wel1. To call it
“traditional wisdom”sounds good, but international business people know that,1ike
“haragei,”“nemawashi”is just another meaningless Japanese way of doing business. The
very fact that“nemawashi,“haragei,”and“keiretsu”have entered the English language,
however, is proof that even the difficulties posed be non-inheritable business
communication can be successfully surmounted with a little effort. Japanese is by no
means an easy language to learn, but a steady stream of foreign business men and women
who have mastered it and who understand and have personal experience of Japanese
business practices are entering Japanese markets. Even what at first glance seems to be
non-inheritable information can be acquired by experience through efforts of this sort.
Language As a Means of Business Communication
Although French is also an international language, it has been outstripped by English,
which is universally used in the business sector. Not only is English an official language
in many countries(India, the Philippines, etc.),even in Japan it has become a required
subject in the compulsory education system. The inability of Japanese young people to use
the English they have studied for six years in junior and senior high school is regarded as
aproblem in Japanese society. Although, to be sure, many tasks remain to be solved, the
decision to make English Japan’s first foreign language at the time of the Meiji Restoration
was a good one. To a large extent, accidental factors seem to have underlaid this choice.
The late Tokugawa period was rocked by conflicting claims between those who wished
to restore imperial rule, on the one hand, and those who supported the Tokugawa
shogunate, on the other. It was also a period of vanguard skirmishes among the many
foreign countries with an interest in Japan・The last Tokugawa shogun was said to have
been partial to France, but ultimately Japan turned to Britain and the United States,
which the restoration side favored. If the French forces that tried to aid the Tokugawa
government had been able to extend their influence, the education system and other
aspects of Japanese society might well have been different. The novelist Natsume Soseki
might have gone to Paris to study instead of London.
374 『明大商学論叢』第81巻第3.・4号 (374)
Be that as it may, the foundations of modern economics were laid by Adam Smith.
British economics once held global supremacy;then American economics assumed the
leadership of the liberal economic bloc. Looking back on these developments, Japan can
be said to have made not a bad arrangement in associating itself with the English-speaking
world since the Meiji period.
Basic Knowledge Vs. Applied Knowledge
Knowledge can be roughly divided into two categories:basic and applied. A fish can be
caught by spearing it with a harpoon, grabbing it with one’s bare hands or reeling it in on
abaited hook. These techniques would probably belong to the category of basic
knowledge. Setting out on the high seas with boats and nets and hauling in vast quantities
of fish at one time, on the other hand, is applied knowledge. Similarly, the act of learning
English is the acquisition of a basic knowledge of the language. If someone not only
Inasters English but attains proficiency in the technical terminology used in business,
however, that would constitute applied knowledge. Advanced applied knowledge would be
to take that knowledge one step further and go to business school to study the recent, rapid
theoretical developments in a specialized field such as banking or finance so as not be left
behind in today’s changing world with its ever-increasing demands for specialized
expertise.
In the United States, English is regarded as basic knowledge which even foreigners are
expected to have. The climate is such that it is considered only natural that someone can
speak English correctly;in fact, any business person who speaks English badly or cannot
communicate freely in English is not taken seriously. That may be a slight overstatement,
but the principle behind it is undeniably true. At school or in a cQmpany, a person who can
express him/herself in fluent English is highly regarded. Those who hope to be accepted
at business school are not just those who like an intellectual cha11enge, but those who are
able to use their linguistic skills as an important weapon. The fact is that a business school
ノapplicant who has a fine mind and is regarded from the Japanese perspective as a first-rate
employee will not be given a fair assessment if his/her English ability is poor. In short,
English is basic knowledge, and the American attitude is that learning English is not some
sort of special skil1, even for a foreigner.
How is language regarded in Japanese societyP Most Japanese believe that the Japanese
language is uniquely difficult. For that reason, if a foreigner masters Japanese, it is
(375) Some Aspects of International and Intercultural Communication Strategies 375
regarded as a unique accomplishment. That is why foreign“talents”are made so much of
in Japan. Although the Japanese complex about foreigners may also have something to do
with it, the main reason foreigners become stars on Japanese television programs just for
talking about nothing at all is the Japanese viewers’ingrained cultural belief that the
Japanese language is a unique form of applied knowledge. You won’t find any foreigners
treated as celebrities on British and American television networks simply because they
speak flawless English.
Another point needs to be properly appreciated. Since managerial communication is a
special field, some sort of training is required to learn it. Even when communicating in
one’s native tongue, the careless use of Ianguage must be avoided at all costs. In the case
of English, some thought needs to be given as to which of two levels of communication-
formal or conversational-is appropriate for a particular business strategy. Mary Munter
(1992)explains the differences, citing several examples. “lf you need more help,”for
example, is conversational;its formal equivalent would be“Should additional assistance
be required.”Similarly,“I hope you will attend”is conversational;“One would hope the
vice-president will attend”is formal. The use of active or passive voice is another
linguistic choice that makes for more effective communication. An idea expressed with an
active verb such as“Paurs evident bias made it hard for him to decide fairly”becomes
formal when put in the passive:“A fair decision was rendered difficult by Paul’s evident
bias.”In today’s busy world, however, where“time is money,”direct expressions that use
the active voice, though less formal, save time and are more efficient. Overly formal
language is also out of place in an e-mail message, where, generally speaking, the level
of language resembles that of a telephone cal1. The deliberate use of formal English in an
e-mail is apt to sound sarcastic or insulting to the other party.
Jargon is the terminology used in a particular field, and just how much of it to use
depends on the context. If, for example, two economists are talking together and one says
to the other,“How would you rank the top five arguments in your utility functionP”it
means:if you were to list in order the five thing you want right now, what would they
beP This sort of expression is fine among economists, but it would be rude to talk this way
with someone in another field. In communications with specialists in accounting or
finance, it is more accurate to refer to LIFO or FIFO instead of some lengthy
4 Mary Munter, Gzaide toルlanagerial Co勉〃zμηゼα吻η.3ed.(N.J.:Prentice Hall,1982).
5 LIFO stands for last-in, first-out;FIFO stands for first-in, first・out,
376 『明大商学論叢』第81巻第3・4号 (376)
circumlocution since they will immediately understand that these acronyms refer to ら
methods of handling inventory . This sort of jargon should not be used with those who are
unfamiliar with this area, however , since it may make them feel uncomfortable or
excluded by it. Such things should be taken into consideration regardless of whether the
language is English or Japanese. Japan, too, has jargon that is unique to a particular
business sector and used in business transactions. If a non-native speaker masters this
jargon, it can be an effective tool for succeeding in business in Japan.
Although it has no direct bearing on business transactions, the use of polite language in
Japanese is particularly difficult. The incorfect use of an honorific form instead of a
humble one leaves a foreigner open to the criticism that he/she does not know how to use
the Japanese language correctly. Conversely, when a Japanese translates a polite
expression directly into English, it occasionally makes an odd impression not just in a
business situation but even in ordinary conversation. The Japanese word“gusai,”for
example, is often used by Japanese men of a certain age to refer to their wives.An English
speaker will naturally be disconcerted if a middle-aged Japanese man tells him/her ,’“My
stupid wife likes your product.”
Every country has its slang. The trick for a business person is tg gauge accurately just
how much slang to put into a business communication. Although an appropriate amount
can convey a feeling of familiarity, too much will seem vulgar.
The expression“body language”is found more and more frequently even in Japan
nowadays. In the broad sense, body language refers to one’s posture and gestures from the
moment one person meets another person to the moment they say goodbye. Students at
American business schools are taught that the following five elements constitute body
language in business communications:(1)posture,(2)body movement,(3)hand and
arm gestures,(4)facial expression and(5)eye contact(Mary Munter[1992, p.123]).
Posture should be relaxed but still convey a professional manner. A stiff, ramrod-
straight stance is not good, however. If your stand with your feet close together, you will
seem submissive;standing with your feet wide apart, on the other hand, seems aggressive .
Body movement should be natural. Nervous twitches and random, rapid movements
suggest to the other person that you do not feel at ease.
Natural hand and arm gestures are good, but holding the hands in one position should
be avoided. Facial expressions can cause the other person to feel that you are deeply
interested in him/her, but avoid meaningless smiles. Eye contact should be used to show
(377) Some Aspects of International and Intercultural Communication Strategies 377
rapport with the people you are talking to, but do not stare at any particular person.
Cultural Differences and Business Communications
International communications are the most difficult area of business communications。
When differences in culture and traditions are involved, communication becomes more
complicated. Britain and the United States have extremely similar cultural traditions, so
the communications gap between them is small. In my Previous paper, I discussed
business communication and culture citing advertisement strategies used in Japan and the
u.sl
Differences in customs and traditions can even be found in the way we address the person
we are talking to. The atmosphere is entirely different depending on whether we are on a
first name basis with the other person or use his/her surname. In Japanese ad(iing the word
“shi”to a name is sufficient to indicate respect, but in the West, where more importance
is、attached to academic degrees, it is rude to address a man as Mr. So-and-So if he has
the title of doctor or professor. A minister or other person in holy orders should be
addressed as“The Reverend So-and-So,”and retired military personnel ought to be called
“genera1”or“colone1”or whatever the rank they held when on active duty. In other
words, Mr. is the bare minimuni of politeness. In German a male professor who has two
doctoral degrees would have“Herr Dr. Dr. Prof.”on his business card.
The area of communications that requires the greatest care is the avoidance of any
expressions that might suggest bias in regard to race, sex or physical disabilities.
Expressions should not be used that denigrate an entire group, such as describing Anglos
as“cold,”Asians as“sinister,”or Blacks as“1azy.”Words that suggest racial stereotypes
are also strictly forbidden. Similarly, identifying someone in terms of race should be
avoided except when absolutely necessary. In other words, since one would not ordinarily
say“Anthony, a well-groomed white man”or“Leo McCarthy, noted white legislator,”do
not say“George, a wel1-groomed black man”or“Willy Brown, noted black legislator.”
To avoid sexist language, use“artificia1”instead of“man-made,”“working hours”
instead of“man hours,”“workers’compensation”instead of“workmen’s compensation,”
“executive”or“manager”instead of“business man,”“supervisor”instead of“foreman,”
and“sales representative”instead of“sales man.”Instead of“his staff,”use“his or her
staff。 In the salutation of business correspondence, the preferred practice is to replace
6 Eri Shiozawa,“Business Communication under Asylnmetric in壬ormation,”〃ei(iai Sh()gaku
1~onsoムlo.81-1(錺(Forthcoming Jan.1999).
378 『明大商学論叢』第81巻第3・4号 (378)
“Dear Sirs”or“Gentlemen,”which were often used in the past, with a neutral expression
such as“Dear Customer,”or“Dear Investment Manager ,”or“Dear Reader.”
To show consideration for people with disabilities a person should be described as
“hearing-and speech-impaired”rather than as a“deaf-mute,”and the word“disabled”
should be used instead of‘‘crippled.”In Japan too the mass media are becoming more
careful about words that may convey an impression of bias.’As a world-wide trend, this
is a welcome development.
Japanese need to show more sensitivity to religion. In Japan, sending New Year’s
greetings at the beginning of the year is an important custom. Although sending Christmas
cards to Western business acquaintances is a good’idea, Japanese need to consider whether
the person they are sending a card to is a Christian or not. The fact is, most Japanese have
completely forgotten that Christmas is a purely religious holiday. It is international
common sense to choose cards with expressions such as‘‘Season’s Greetings”or“Happy
Holiday Season”so as not to offend non-Christians.
ln Lieu of a Conclusion
The essence of international and intercultural communications is to be sincere and
considerate of others from different cultures who have different customs from your own.
Though it may depart a bit from the common practices of business communication that I
have been discussing in this paper, it would not be too extreme to say that if you are truly
sincere in your dealings with someone, that attitude is likely to convey itself to the other
person. Conversely, if you aren’t sincere, it will be impossible to build any rapport.
One other essential point is that to know someone else, you must first know yourself.
If you don’t know enough about the other person, ask questions until you do. That is far
more preferable than making a serious rnistake and hurting the other person’s feelings by
.pretending to know something when you don’t. If food is included at a business function,
for example, you need to know whether those who will be attending observe any dietary 7 .
laWS.
Most important of all is not to be obsessed by those aspects of the other person that are
different, be they differences in culture, race, traditions, or customs. Instead it is
important to pay attention to,what you have in common-the fact that the other person
is a human being just the same as you are. Never forget that business is a mutually
advantageous relationship. It is a plus sum world.
7 For example, some Jews are Kosher and have restrictions on what and how to consume
food.
(379) Some Aspects of Intemational and Intercultural Communication Strategies
Appendix
Inheritable and Non-inheritable Information System
379
Time
n-1
n
t
Inheritable Information Systemニ1.1.S.
Non-inheritable Information System=N.1.1.S.
Resource →1nputs
Inheritable System一
Non-inheritable System Resource← .
Inputs
Resource →1nputs
Inheritable System一
Non-inheritable System Resource← .
Inputs
Resource →1nputs
Inherltable System一
Non-inheritable System
Buslness Communication Strategies
Profit Maximization and
Cqst Minimization
Resource← 匿
1nputs
h=inheri°励1θinformaion
n= non-inheritable information
t
h(t) =一乞ノh(t)+∫G1[h(・),n(・),θ1(・)]脚一・)d・…(1)
一∞
コ
n(t)=一μn(の十G2 [n(の, θ2(’)] 。・・(2)
ω顧(t)一撃・一伽勿伽漉のGl=勿ゾわr〃zation generationノ’unction of. h, θ1=resource inPuts and W,=weightin8
伽伽肋・h一撃・一・伽伽…卿,G・-i吻 瞬・n・ra・i・gfunction q/ n. and θ2=resource ゴ毎)utsノわr non-inheritaろle ゴηノわrmation 5:ys te〃Z.
t
・t・伽糖磁伽読伽燃……1・・i・・ ・ffects∫0・旧・, because Of
-○O
the very nature(’f“励θ伽61θ”syste〃1.
八「ow let us assume that the firm tries to maximi2e Pr(’fit by efficiently utilizing
bzesineSS communication and opti〃zal choice (ゾ θ1 and θ2.
Let the Production function be given by
380 『明大商学論叢』第81巻第3・4号 (380)
y(t)=F[R(t),h(t), n(t)]…(3)
where F(t)=ne・-classical Pr・ducti・n functi・n(’f h・m・gene・WS degree・ne with resPect
to R(t)=Production resource∫, h(の=inherimble info7mation, and n(の=non-inheri°table
inf・・rmation・. Then, the firm’S・ろブective is to maximi2e伽朔in the 1・ng runの
ProPer choice (~f outl)ut 】『(t), infoγmation resources θl and θ2. ThZCS,
γ惚,、∫7’[P(・)・Y-・・S…f Y一θ1-・・]dt
, ,
0
subiect to (1) and (2), whereρ is the』discount rate. Bγ using the Pontryagin
mczximecmρ珈吻」θ, we can derive the“()ptimal”c・mmunicati・n strategies.
Resource inputs
Resource
lnputs
Resource
lnputs
Basic
qesearchNew Information
ioutput)
(Input)
Applied Research
(Input)
Development
ε謡濫諸ineSS[⇒
Cumulative basic
Information
Idea of
Inventions
or
Information
(output)
Cumulative
Stock of New Information
Innovation
(output)
Profit
Maximization
(381) Some Aspects of International and Intercultural Communication Strategies 381
The 〃7ainプ’eature (ゾ btesines∫ 60〃2mzanication ゑS that basic ん7¢owledge is assumed・to
∂θ e∬ential/bγ efficient P70fit 〃Ztzximi2atio%. Looking at the extreme case in which
the stocleρプ basic lenowledge is 2eγO (α case that〃Zのノexist勿¢PγinciPle but not in
Pvactice), we would fi7¢d that theプ~)llowing conditions would hold:
( i)B=G3(θ3)一μB
(ii)ノ4=G4(θ4, θ5, 14, B) (4)
(iii)0=G4(θ,, θ5, ノ4, 0)
W・・r・・A-・PPIi・d …wl・dge, B-∂・・漁・糠, a一密, b一誓,・・…一
.
inPutsノ~)γ B, and θ4=resource inψza彦S/Cor /1 and θ5=inPutsノ∂γ efficient busi7¢θSS
CO〃Z〃¢unication.
レレ宅e now.assume 云加’ the Production function is }/=F [A(t)・1~(t)] ・。・(5)
a7¢d the to tal cost/2〃¢ction is
1 。7℃(Y,Pn’ceのf 1~(t)),Oγ C=7℃= A(t)
c ●Y… (6)吻ψ砂C= 、4(の
Then, the long-7%ηPrOLfit〃ZCZ timization with efi7cient bZtsineSS comm%%ication 〃zay
∂θプ~)γ〃zulated 乙ワ
y,艦,興か[ CRevenue- 、4(t)・Y-・、-e4-e,]dt
Osz4クタθ6’ to (4).
The forms(ゾ. F, G3 and G4 dePend on the cultural and b〃siness Practices勿
dzffe7ent countn’es.
382 『明大商学論叢』第81巻第3、・4号 (382) F
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