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367 Some Aspects of International and Communication Strategies 国際的異文化間コミュニケーション戦略 Eri Shiozawa Introduction Inheritable Information System Non-inheritable Information System Custom and Tradition as Non-inheritable Informati Strategies for Learning Non-inherjtable Informati Japanese Business Practices That the Rest of the World C Language As a Means of Business Communication Basic Knowledge Vs. Applied Knowledge Cultural Differences and Business Communication In Lieu of a Conclusion Appendix lntroduction In economics there is a hypothesis known as“convergence t income levels rise, economic behavior wil1‘‘converge everywhere. Religious, cultural and ethnic differences wi recede into the background. If this premise is correct, does th ignore the cultural preferences and/or religious views of t transaction?Not necessa士ily. Especially in the case of inte how smoothly a business transaction proceeds often depend informed you are about background factors other than i dealing with. Economics has another law-the 1aw of one equilibrium identical articles in all mafkets will have only one price in

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Page 1: Some Aspects of International and Intercultural...(369) Some Aspects of International and Intercultural Communication Strategies 369 be geniuses, but the engineers who are being

367

Some Aspects of International and Intercultural

               Communication Strategies

国際的異文化間コミュニケーション戦略

  Eri Shiozawa

塩  澤  恵  理

Introduction

Inheritable Information System

Non-inheritable Information System

Custom and Tradition as Non-inheritable Information

Strategies for Learning Non-inherjtable Information

Japanese Business Practices That the Rest of the World Considers“Different”

Language As a Means of Business Communication

Basic Knowledge Vs. Applied Knowledge

Cultural Differences and Business Communication

In Lieu of a Conclusion

Appendix

lntroduction

In economics there is a hypothesis known as“convergence theory,”which posits that when

income levels rise, economic behavior wil1‘‘converge”and become much the same

everywhere. Religious, cultural and ethnic differences will become iess pronounced and

recede into the background. If this premise is correct, does that mean it is all right to

ignore the cultural preferences and/or religious views of the other party in an economic

transaction?Not necessa士ily. Especially in the case of international business relations                                                                            ,

how smoothly a business transaction proceeds often depends to』alarge extent on how well

informed you are about background factors other than income of the person you are

dealing with.

  Economics has another law-the 1aw of one equilibrium price-which states that

identical articles in all mafkets will have only one price in the absence of transportation

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368            『明大商学論叢』第81巻第3・4号            (368)

costs and trade barriers. In fact, however, the price for the same item often varies(if

only slightly)from store to store, and stores rely on advertising and other forms of

communication to make these price differences known to custorners in the hope of making

profits. Does that mean that the law of one price is wrong? Not at all. Differences in price

reflect a process that infinitely tries to approach the law of one price, and the formative

element in this process are transactions that make free use of business communications.

  In this paper I will explore what sorts of communication strategy are effective,

especially in international business deals. Communication is a means of conveying

information, but some information can be』understood only through experience. To

complicate the matter further, the set of experiences differs from country to country. The

problem is how to apply this insight to communication strategy.

lnheritable Information System

In communications involving economic behavior there are two types of information

systems-one that is inheritable and another that is not. To put it in a more readily

understandable way, it is always a moot point whether the information in a business deal

is scientific information or information acquired from personal experience that is unique

to a particular individua1.

  What I have called an inheritable information system refers to(1)objective

information,(2)scientific information,(3)information arising from training or grounded

on scholarship, and(4)information that can be passed on to other people or to the next

generation(one’s children or grandchildren).In short, it is information that a particular

person has and can transmit exactly as is to someone else. If a natural scientist makes a

major discovery, for example, the next generation can inherit this information.

Moreover, new research(information)based on this discovery can be added to it and built

upon it. It is this very fact that makes scientific progress possible.

  If all business transactions were based on inheritable information, as they tend to be in

the natural sciences, business communication would be relatively simple. Today’s business

personnel and scholars in specialized fields would be able to teach the younger generation

all they would need to know. Let us imagine a situation in the computer sector, for

example, in which software developed in the United States i呂 being introduced into Japan.

Japanese systems engineers listen to a technical explanation of the new software and are

able to learn all about it. The people who developed the software in the first place might

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be geniuses, but the engineers who are being taught it don’t have to be. They may not be

endowed with the prodigious brilliance or intuitive ability of the original discoverers, but

they can still learn how to use it. Since information like this belongs to the“inheritable”

category, the communication strategy in such cases is not all that complicated.

Non-inheritable lnformation System

Let us now consider the exact opposite of an inheritable information system a non-

inheritable one. A non-inheritable information system consists of(1)subjective

information,(2)empirical information,(3)information dependent on insight or intuition,

and(4)information that cannot be passed on to others or to the next generation(one’s

children or grandchildren).In short, it is information that each of us must start from

scratch and acquire for ourselves.

  Numerous examples of non-inheritable information can be found all around us, but

perhaps the prime example is rolnantic love. Stories about parents trying to force their son

or daughter to break off a socially unsuitable romantic attachment and the child’s

anguished refusal to accept parental advice have been handed down from generation to                                

generation since time immemorial. This all-too-human predicament has produced

masterpieces of literature, drama and music and is a clas忌ic example of wisdom and

experience that cannot always be transmitted to the next generation.

  Love between the sexes is not the only example of non-inheritable information. The

inheritable portion of corporate managenlent skills is also extrelnely limited. If such

information were inheritable, Konosuke Matsushita, the so-called“god of management,”

and other geniuses froln an earlier generation of self-made men in both the East and West,

would have been able to bestow immeasurable benefits on the human race. Unfortunately,

however, because their wisdom is dependent on individual intuition, it is non-inheritable

and thus such is lost forever upon the death of the genius who had it. In today’s difficult

economic environment it is not hard to imagine that many companies would love to have

abusiness genius like a Matsushita or a Rockefeller tell them that“such-and-such a

situation can be dealt with by doing such-and-such.”This is口ot the sort of information,                                                               

however, that can be neatly encapsulated into an objective prescription. In as much as

12

Shakespeare’s Romeo and/tZliet’s tragic ending may have beep avoided.

Business schools are striving to carve up students into business geniuses through vigorous

study and training.

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370            『明大商学論叢』第81巻第3・4号            (370)

such information is non-inheritable, each of us must acquire it for ourselves through trial

and error.

  The same thing cah be said about communication itself. As everyone knows, the 40th

President of the United States(1981-1989),Ronald Reagan started out as a Hollywood

movie star。 When he was young, he leaned to the left as the leader of the union(1947-

1960)to which actors belonged, but later as a politician he gradually moved to the right.

In fact Reagan was the first President ever to serve as a former leader of a Iabor union.

His charisma, personal charm and spell-binding eloquence were recognized at an early

stage. American presidents have strong opinions of their o㎜. In this regard, they greatly

differ from Japanese politicians who simply read aloud memos that some bureaucrat has

prepared for them. Even for an American president, however, Reagan was such an

exceptionally eloquent speaker that he was called the“great communicator.”Alarge part

of his enormous popularity was dependent on his communication skills. He was endowed

with that most desirable quality in a politician-an instinctive knowledge of what to say

on any occasion and what approach would work best for a particular audience. This sort

of skill is also non-inheritable, and regrettably no one can be taught President Reagan’s

knack for communication.

Custom and Tradition as Non-inheritable lnformation

Awhile ago an acquaintance of mine met the Saudi Arabian ambassador to Japan and told

me the following story. My friend had almost no knowledge of the culture and customs of

the Middle East and learned a great deal from his conversation with the ambassador. It

was an extremely interesting experience, he said. During the conversation, every time the

ambassador moved, there was a jingling sound. Curiosity finally got the better of my

friend, and he asked the ambassador where the sound was coming from. The ambassador

then pulled out an enormous bunch of keys and showed it to him. Since most of us usually

carry only four or five keys, my friend was astonished. Here was an ambassador carrying

around as many keys as the superintendent of an apartment building. One key was for the

television set, the ambassador explained, another for the refrigerator, others for the book

shelves, etc.Keys to the house and thと car, for the door to the study and the filing cabinets

were understandable, but why did the ambassador need a key to the television set, my

friend wondered?Noticing his puzzled expression, the ambassador explained,“There are

strict rules in my country governing family members. For example, children are not

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allowed to watch television programs or read books that are not suitable for their age

group. In order to protect them from being tempted by the spate of unsuitable programs

out there, it is a parent’s duty to have keys to the television and control what they watch.”

From this conversation I learned that some parents control their family’s television viewing

by locking up the television set, a custom most of us never even dreamed existed.

Strategies for Learning Non-inheritable lnformation

Unlike scientific or inheritable information, which can be taught in schools, differences in

cultures and traditions are difficult to learn, but that should not stop us from trying to do

so. During a business transaction, Japanese frequently use the expression‘‘a un,”akind

of breathing pattern. You would probably think that Western business people are at a

disadvantage because they cannot understand“a un”as other Japanese would. But a while

back, when Japanese-style business practices were at the peak of their popularity, people

all over the world were trying somehow or other to acquire this type of non-inheritable

information. Words like“haragei”and“nemawashi”entered the English language and

even found their way into business school lectures. Large foreign corporations, undeterred

by Tokyo’s high real estate prices, sent talented employees and their families to Japan to

experience, understand and acquire an affinity for Japanese culture and traditions for

themselves. These firms did not think only in terms of the employee’s job in the company

and send him/her alone to Japan(a posting that involves living apart from one’s family is

not acceptable to most Americans and Europeans);「for the sake of business

communication, they willingly paid rents of six or seven hundred thousand yen a month to

allow the employee to live with his/her family in the Metropolitan Tokyo area.They knew

that, in the long run, a direct understanding of Japanese business practices would more

than offset the expenses involved.

  In Japan, on the other hand, many families will not even move from one part of the

country to another when the husband is transferred because of the children’s education.

And when it comes to a transfer overseas, the thinking is that naturally the husband will

       3

go alone. This means that.the family as a whole will not have the experience of living in

aforeign culture and experiencing for themselves the non-inheritable information they

would acquire through the friendships and contacts they make as a family. At first glance,

3 However, more and more families are able to live abroad together as the number of

   Japanese universities which accept students from abroad with certain qualifications is

   lnc「easlng・

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372            『明大商学論叢』第81巻第3・4号            (372)

such information may seem irrelevant, but it might well be considered a grassroots

business strategy . Much more can be learned about the American educational system by

having your own children spend a year in the American compulsory education system than

by reading dozens of books on the subject. Since one picture is indeed worth a thousand

words, this sort of experience is a means of acquiring valuable non-inheritable

information, and in a roundabout fashion it can become a powerful corporate business

strategy.

Japanese Business Practices That the R臼st of the World Considers‘‘Different”

For a Iong time, Japan has been the butt of criticisms for surfounding itself with a web of

rules and regulations of all kinds that make it difficult for outsiders to enter the Japanese

markets. I will not go into the legal aspects here, but there must be some reason why

Japanese business is thought to be unique。

  In Japanese culture where silence is golden, eloquence has not necessarily been

appreciated. This value system is the complete opposite of the one that prevails in the

West where communication skills are highly regarded. The American compulsory

education system, for example, places great emphasis on training children to explain

something to others and get their point of view across to their audience. During“show

and tell”period children in kindergarten stand up in front of the class, show articles they

have brought from home and describe them. They also receive training in answering

questions from their friends. Practices such as these lay the groundwork for being able to

get up and express one’s own opinions confidently in front of many people. At the business

school level,“presentation”is extremely important. One’s entire personality-from the

choice of the clothes one wears to a business meeting to the way one holds oneself and the

words one uses-is used as a means of business communication.

  From the Western business perspective, the traditional Japanese approach, which

attaches little importance to words, makes the Japanese difficult to deal with as business

partners. For ex玖mple, to avoid being forced to make a decision, Japanese will often say

“1’ll think about it.”This is a delaying tactic;it does not necessarily mean that he/she

seriously intends to consider the proposal and examine its contents. Similarly, when a

Japanese says that something“is a bit difficult,”this should be understood to mean“no.”

It certainly does not mean“difficult”in the American or European sense of the word.

Whereas“difficult”implies some degree of possibility, the Japanese word“muzukashi”

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means that a thing is virtua11y impossible.

  As I mentioned earlier, it is a very Japanese form of communication to say that

“nemawashi”is necessary before entering into direct negotiations. Much like beginning an

attack on a castle by filling in the moat,“nemawashi”is a kind of multi-flank maneuver

that involves not only the principal parties but those on the periphery as wel1. To call it

“traditional wisdom”sounds good, but international business people know that,1ike

“haragei,”“nemawashi”is just another meaningless Japanese way of doing business. The

very fact that“nemawashi,“haragei,”and“keiretsu”have entered the English language,

however, is proof that even the difficulties posed be non-inheritable business

communication can be successfully surmounted with a little effort. Japanese is by no

means an easy language to learn, but a steady stream of foreign business men and women

who have mastered it and who understand and have personal experience of Japanese

business practices are entering Japanese markets. Even what at first glance seems to be

non-inheritable information can be acquired by experience through efforts of this sort.

Language As a Means of Business Communication

Although French is also an international language, it has been outstripped by English,

which is universally used in the business sector. Not only is English an official language

in many countries(India, the Philippines, etc.),even in Japan it has become a required

subject in the compulsory education system. The inability of Japanese young people to use

the English they have studied for six years in junior and senior high school is regarded as

aproblem in Japanese society. Although, to be sure, many tasks remain to be solved, the

decision to make English Japan’s first foreign language at the time of the Meiji Restoration

was a good one. To a large extent, accidental factors seem to have underlaid this choice.

  The late Tokugawa period was rocked by conflicting claims between those who wished

to restore imperial rule, on the one hand, and those who supported the Tokugawa

shogunate, on the other. It was also a period of vanguard skirmishes among the many

foreign countries with an interest in Japan・The last Tokugawa shogun was said to have

been partial to France, but ultimately Japan turned to Britain and the United States,

which the restoration side favored. If the French forces that tried to aid the Tokugawa

government had been able to extend their influence, the education system and other

aspects of Japanese society might well have been different. The novelist Natsume Soseki

might have gone to Paris to study instead of London.

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374            『明大商学論叢』第81巻第3.・4号            (374)

  Be that as it may, the foundations of modern economics were laid by Adam Smith.

British economics once held global supremacy;then American economics assumed the

leadership of the liberal economic bloc. Looking back on these developments, Japan can

be said to have made not a bad arrangement in associating itself with the English-speaking

world since the Meiji period.

Basic Knowledge Vs. Applied Knowledge

Knowledge can be roughly divided into two categories:basic and applied. A fish can be

caught by spearing it with a harpoon, grabbing it with one’s bare hands or reeling it in on

abaited hook. These techniques would probably belong to the category of basic

knowledge. Setting out on the high seas with boats and nets and hauling in vast quantities

of fish at one time, on the other hand, is applied knowledge. Similarly, the act of learning

English is the acquisition of a basic knowledge of the language. If someone not only

Inasters English but attains proficiency in the technical terminology used in business,

however, that would constitute applied knowledge. Advanced applied knowledge would be

to take that knowledge one step further and go to business school to study the recent, rapid

theoretical developments in a specialized field such as banking or finance so as not be left

behind in today’s changing world with its ever-increasing demands for specialized

expertise.

  In the United States, English is regarded as basic knowledge which even foreigners are

expected to have. The climate is such that it is considered only natural that someone can

speak English correctly;in fact, any business person who speaks English badly or cannot

communicate freely in English is not taken seriously. That may be a slight overstatement,

but the principle behind it is undeniably true. At school or in a cQmpany, a person who can

express him/herself in fluent English is highly regarded. Those who hope to be accepted

at business school are not just those who like an intellectual cha11enge, but those who are

able to use their linguistic skills as an important weapon. The fact is that a business school

                                                        ノapplicant who has a fine mind and is regarded from the Japanese perspective as a first-rate

employee will not be given a fair assessment if his/her English ability is poor. In short,

English is basic knowledge, and the American attitude is that learning English is not some

sort of special skil1, even for a foreigner.

  How is language regarded in Japanese societyP Most Japanese believe that the Japanese

language is uniquely difficult. For that reason, if a foreigner masters Japanese, it is

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(375)  Some Aspects of International and Intercultural Communication Strategies  375

regarded as a unique accomplishment. That is why foreign“talents”are made so much of

in Japan. Although the Japanese complex about foreigners may also have something to do

with it, the main reason foreigners become stars on Japanese television programs just for

talking about nothing at all is the Japanese viewers’ingrained cultural belief that the

Japanese language is a unique form of applied knowledge. You won’t find any foreigners

treated as celebrities on British and American television networks simply because they

speak flawless English.

  Another point needs to be properly appreciated. Since managerial communication is a

special field, some sort of training is required to learn it. Even when communicating in

one’s native tongue, the careless use of Ianguage must be avoided at all costs. In the case

of English, some thought needs to be given as to which of two levels of communication-

formal or conversational-is appropriate for a particular business strategy. Mary Munter                                                

(1992)explains the differences, citing several examples. “lf you need more help,”for

example, is conversational;its formal equivalent would be“Should additional assistance

be required.”Similarly,“I hope you will attend”is conversational;“One would hope the

vice-president will attend”is formal. The use of active or passive voice is another

linguistic choice that makes for more effective communication. An idea expressed with an

active verb such as“Paurs evident bias made it hard for him to decide fairly”becomes

formal when put in the passive:“A fair decision was rendered difficult by Paul’s evident

bias.”In today’s busy world, however, where“time is money,”direct expressions that use

the active voice, though less formal, save time and are more efficient. Overly formal

language is also out of place in an e-mail message, where, generally speaking, the level

of language resembles that of a telephone cal1. The deliberate use of formal English in an

e-mail is apt to sound sarcastic or insulting to the other party.

  Jargon is the terminology used in a particular field, and just how much of it to use

depends on the context. If, for example, two economists are talking together and one says

to the other,“How would you rank the top five arguments in your utility functionP”it

means:if you were to list in order the five thing you want right now, what would they

beP This sort of expression is fine among economists, but it would be rude to talk this way

with someone in another field. In communications with specialists in accounting or

finance, it is more accurate to refer to LIFO or FIFO instead of some lengthy

4 Mary Munter, Gzaide toルlanagerial Co勉〃zμηゼα吻η.3ed.(N.J.:Prentice Hall,1982).

5  LIFO stands for last-in, first-out;FIFO stands for first-in, first・out,

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376          『明大商学論叢』第81巻第3・4号          (376)

circumlocution since they will immediately understand that these acronyms refer to                         ら

methods of handling inventory . This sort of jargon should not be used with those who are

unfamiliar with this area, however , since it may make them feel uncomfortable or

excluded by it. Such things should be taken into consideration regardless of whether the

language is English or Japanese. Japan, too, has jargon that is unique to a particular

business sector and used in business transactions. If a non-native speaker masters this

jargon, it can be an effective tool for succeeding in business in Japan.

  Although it has no direct bearing on business transactions, the use of polite language in

Japanese is particularly difficult. The incorfect use of an honorific form instead of a

humble one leaves a foreigner open to the criticism that he/she does not know how to use

the Japanese language correctly. Conversely, when a Japanese translates a polite

expression directly into English, it occasionally makes an odd impression not just in a

business situation but even in ordinary conversation. The Japanese word“gusai,”for

example, is often used by Japanese men of a certain age to refer to their wives.An English

speaker will naturally be disconcerted if a middle-aged Japanese man tells him/her ,’“My

stupid wife likes your product.”

  Every country has its slang. The trick for a business person is tg gauge accurately just

how much slang to put into a business communication. Although an appropriate amount

can convey a feeling of familiarity, too much will seem vulgar.

  The expression“body language”is found more and more frequently even in Japan

nowadays. In the broad sense, body language refers to one’s posture and gestures from the

moment one person meets another person to the moment they say goodbye. Students at

American business schools are taught that the following five elements constitute body

language in business communications:(1)posture,(2)body movement,(3)hand and

arm gestures,(4)facial expression and(5)eye contact(Mary Munter[1992, p.123]).

  Posture should be relaxed but still convey a professional manner. A stiff, ramrod-

straight stance is not good, however. If your stand with your feet close together, you will

seem submissive;standing with your feet wide apart, on the other hand, seems aggressive .

Body movement should be natural. Nervous twitches and random, rapid movements

suggest to the other person that you do not feel at ease.

  Natural hand and arm gestures are good, but holding the hands in one position should

be avoided. Facial expressions can cause the other person to feel that you are deeply

interested in him/her, but avoid meaningless smiles. Eye contact should be used to show

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rapport with the people you are talking to, but do not stare at any particular person.

Cultural Differences and Business Communications

International communications are the most difficult area of business communications。

When differences in culture and traditions are involved, communication becomes more

complicated. Britain and the United States have extremely similar cultural traditions, so

the communications gap between them is small. In my Previous paper, I discussed

business communication and culture citing advertisement strategies used in Japan and the

u.sl

  Differences in customs and traditions can even be found in the way we address the person

we are talking to. The atmosphere is entirely different depending on whether we are on a

first name basis with the other person or use his/her surname. In Japanese ad(iing the word

“shi”to a name is sufficient to indicate respect, but in the West, where more importance

is、attached to academic degrees, it is rude to address a man as Mr. So-and-So if he has

the title of doctor or professor. A minister or other person in holy orders should be

addressed as“The Reverend So-and-So,”and retired military personnel ought to be called

“genera1”or“colone1”or whatever the rank they held when on active duty. In other

words, Mr. is the bare minimuni of politeness. In German a male professor who has two

doctoral degrees would have“Herr Dr. Dr. Prof.”on his business card.

  The area of communications that requires the greatest care is the avoidance of any

expressions that might suggest bias in regard to race, sex or physical disabilities.

Expressions should not be used that denigrate an entire group, such as describing Anglos

as“cold,”Asians as“sinister,”or Blacks as“1azy.”Words that suggest racial stereotypes

are also strictly forbidden. Similarly, identifying someone in terms of race should be

avoided except when absolutely necessary. In other words, since one would not ordinarily

say“Anthony, a well-groomed white man”or“Leo McCarthy, noted white legislator,”do

not say“George, a wel1-groomed black man”or“Willy Brown, noted black legislator.”

  To avoid sexist language, use“artificia1”instead of“man-made,”“working hours”

instead of“man hours,”“workers’compensation”instead of“workmen’s compensation,”

“executive”or“manager”instead of“business man,”“supervisor”instead of“foreman,”

and“sales representative”instead of“sales man.”Instead of“his staff,”use“his or her

staff。 In the salutation of business correspondence, the preferred practice is to replace

6 Eri Shiozawa,“Business Communication under Asylnmetric in壬ormation,”〃ei(iai Sh()gaku

   1~onsoムlo.81-1(錺(Forthcoming Jan.1999).

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378            『明大商学論叢』第81巻第3・4号            (378)

“Dear Sirs”or“Gentlemen,”which were often used in the past, with a neutral expression

such as“Dear Customer,”or“Dear Investment Manager ,”or“Dear Reader.”

  To show consideration for people with disabilities a person should be described as

“hearing-and speech-impaired”rather than as a“deaf-mute,”and the word“disabled”

should be used instead of‘‘crippled.”In Japan too the mass media are becoming more

careful about words that may convey an impression of bias.’As a world-wide trend, this

is a welcome development.

  Japanese need to show more sensitivity to religion. In Japan, sending New Year’s

greetings at the beginning of the year is an important custom. Although sending Christmas

cards to Western business acquaintances is a good’idea, Japanese need to consider whether

the person they are sending a card to is a Christian or not. The fact is, most Japanese have

completely forgotten that Christmas is a purely religious holiday. It is international

common sense to choose cards with expressions such as‘‘Season’s Greetings”or“Happy

Holiday Season”so as not to offend non-Christians.

ln Lieu of a Conclusion

The essence of international and intercultural communications is to be sincere and

considerate of others from different cultures who have different customs from your own.

Though it may depart a bit from the common practices of business communication that I

have been discussing in this paper, it would not be too extreme to say that if you are truly

sincere in your dealings with someone, that attitude is likely to convey itself to the other

person. Conversely, if you aren’t sincere, it will be impossible to build any rapport.

  One other essential point is that to know someone else, you must first know yourself.

If you don’t know enough about the other person, ask questions until you do. That is far

more preferable than making a serious rnistake and hurting the other person’s feelings by

.pretending to know something when you don’t. If food is included at a business function,

for example, you need to know whether those who will be attending observe any dietary    7                                                      .

laWS.

  Most important of all is not to be obsessed by those aspects of the other person that are

different, be they differences in culture, race, traditions, or customs. Instead it is

important to pay attention to,what you have in common-the fact that the other person

is a human being just the same as you are. Never forget that business is a mutually

advantageous relationship. It is a plus sum world.

7 For example, some Jews are Kosher and have restrictions on what and how to consume

   food.

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(379) Some Aspects of Intemational and Intercultural Communication Strategies

                           Appendix

         Inheritable and Non-inheritable Information System

379

Time

n-1

n

t

Inheritable Information   Systemニ1.1.S.

Non-inheritable Information    System=N.1.1.S.

Resource        →1nputs

Inheritable System一

Non-inheritable System  Resource←  .

  Inputs

Resource        →1nputs

Inheritable System一

Non-inheritable System  Resource←  .

  Inputs

Resource        →1nputs

Inherltable System一

Non-inheritable System

  Buslness Communication        Strategies

   Profit Maximization          and

    Cqst Minimization

  Resource←  匿

  1nputs

  h=inheri°励1θinformaion

  n= non-inheritable information

                 t

h(t) =一乞ノh(t)+∫G1[h(・),n(・),θ1(・)]脚一・)d・…(1)

              一∞

n(t)=一μn(の十G2 [n(の, θ2(’)] 。・・(2)

ω顧(t)一撃・一伽勿伽漉のGl=勿ゾわr〃zation generationノ’unction of. h, θ1=resource inPuts and W,=weightin8

伽伽肋・h一撃・一・伽伽…卿,G・-i吻 瞬・n・ra・i・gfunction q/ n. and θ2=resource ゴ毎)utsノわr non-inheritaろle ゴηノわrmation 5:ys te〃Z.

                                                       t

・t・伽糖磁伽読伽燃……1・・i・・ ・ffects∫0・旧・, because Of

                                                     -○O

the very nature(’f“励θ伽61θ”syste〃1.

  八「ow let us assume that the firm tries to maximi2e Pr(’fit by efficiently utilizing

bzesineSS communication and opti〃zal choice (ゾ θ1 and θ2.

Let the Production function be given by

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380             『明大商学論叢』第81巻第3・4号             (380)

  y(t)=F[R(t),h(t), n(t)]…(3)

where F(t)=ne・-classical Pr・ducti・n functi・n(’f h・m・gene・WS degree・ne with resPect

to R(t)=Production resource∫, h(の=inherimble info7mation, and n(の=non-inheri°table

inf・・rmation・. Then, the firm’S・ろブective is to maximi2e伽朔in the 1・ng runの

ProPer choice (~f outl)ut 】『(t), infoγmation resources θl and θ2. ThZCS,

              

γ惚,、∫7’[P(・)・Y-・・S…f Y一θ1-・・]dt

    ,      ,

           0

  subiect to (1) and (2), whereρ is the』discount rate. Bγ using the Pontryagin

mczximecmρ珈吻」θ, we can derive the“()ptimal”c・mmunicati・n strategies.

Resource inputs

Resource

lnputs

Resource

lnputs

Basic

qesearchNew Information

ioutput)

(Input)

Applied Research

(Input)

Development

ε謡濫諸ineSS[⇒

Cumulative basic

Information

Idea of

 Inventions

        or

     Information

(output)

Cumulative

Stock of New Information

Innovation

(output)

Profit

Maximization

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(381) Some Aspects of International and Intercultural Communication Strategies 381

  The 〃7ainプ’eature (ゾ btesines∫ 60〃2mzanication ゑS that basic ん7¢owledge is assumed・to

∂θ e∬ential/bγ efficient P70fit 〃Ztzximi2atio%. Looking at the extreme case in which

the stocleρプ basic lenowledge is 2eγO (α case that〃Zのノexist勿¢PγinciPle but not in

Pvactice), we would fi7¢d that theプ~)llowing conditions would hold:

        ( i)B=G3(θ3)一μB

        (ii)ノ4=G4(θ4, θ5, 14, B)  (4)

  (iii)0=G4(θ,, θ5, ノ4, 0)

W・・r・・A-・PPIi・d …wl・dge, B-∂・・漁・糠, a一密, b一誓,・・…一

        .                                                               

inPutsノ~)γ B, and θ4=resource inψza彦S/Cor /1 and θ5=inPutsノ∂γ efficient busi7¢θSS

CO〃Z〃¢unication.

  レレ宅e now.assume 云加’ the Production function is }/=F  [A(t)・1~(t)] ・。・(5)

a7¢d the to tal cost/2〃¢ction is

         1           。7℃(Y,Pn’ceのf 1~(t)),Oγ C=7℃=        A(t)

         c           ●Y… (6)吻ψ砂C=        、4(の

 Then, the long-7%ηPrOLfit〃ZCZ timization with efi7cient bZtsineSS comm%%ication 〃zay

∂θプ~)γ〃zulated 乙ワ

y,艦,興か[           CRevenue-         、4(t)・Y-・、-e4-e,]dt

            Osz4クタθ6’ to (4).

 The forms(ゾ. F, G3 and G4 dePend on the cultural and b〃siness Practices勿

dzffe7ent countn’es.

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382            『明大商学論叢』第81巻第3、・4号            (382)                                                                      F

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