sophia thomas abdominal pain ppt · hirschsprung’sdisease(congenital’aganglionic ... sophia...
TRANSCRIPT
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Sophia L. Thomas APRN, FNP-‐BC, PPCNP-‐BC, FNAP, FAANP
Objec-ves � Identify common causes of abdominal pain seen in the Pediatric outpatient setting
� Discuss history and common presenting symptoms � Describe examination assessment findings � Identify pharmacological and non-‐pharmacological treatments of pediatric abdominal pain
Abdominal Pain… � 2-‐4% of pediatric primary care outpatient visits � Usually a self-‐limiting, benign condition, such as in gastroenteritis (most common), constipation, or viral illness
� 1% is surgical (appendicitis most common)
Diagnosis • The MOST IMPORTANT step directing a clinician is a good history. • Distinguish between acute and chronic pain. – As a general rule the more recent the onset of the pain, the closer one must look for organic causes and proceed with a stepwise workup.
2 presentations…
Stoic denies pain fear of further medical attention
Histrionic exaggerates pain
History � Obtained from parents / guardians – they know their child best!!
� Ask how the child’s behavior compares to normal � Where possible involve the child � Be sympathetic � Take time to build rapport and interact with them – history and examination must be informal and playful – use concepts the child understands
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History-‐ Key Elements PQRSTAAA Place (local vs. generalized) Quality (sharp, dull, etc) Radiation Severity (1-‐10) Timing/Onset/Duration/Frequency/Pattern: Mornings? Mondays? Bedtime?
Alleviating Factors (food, meds, pooping, rest?) Aggravating Factors (food, movement, etc) Associated Symptoms (n/v/d, sweating, fever, sore throat)
History-‐ Key Elements Bowel Movements: � Pattern, consistency, completeness, flatus � Soiling in underwear � What is “normal”????
Choose your poo…. History Dietary History: � Imperative! � Changes in appetite? � Skipped meals, Hot Fries/Hot Cheetos? Be sure to include a thorough review of systems and expand on it if any screening questions are positive.
-‐ ENT – sore throat (strep, GERD) – CNS-‐ migraines, vision problems – CVS/Respiratory-‐ breathlessness, chest pain, cough – GU-‐ Sexually active, discharge, Dysuria, LMP? – Skin-‐ rashes • Recent use of medications, food changes • Social history, Family history
History-‐ � Genetics/Family medical history � Illnesses � Travel � Food allergies � Physical and sexual abuse, accidental trauma � Stressful life experiences � Excessive parental anxiety/parent focusing on pain?
Alarm signals in the History � Involuntary weight loss � Growth retardation � Persistent vomiting/bilious vomiting � Peri-‐rectal disease � Dysphagia � Delayed puberty � Unexplained fever � Persistent or nocturnal diarrhea � Any GI blood loss (stool/emesis) � arthritis, rash � Family history of GI disease � Persistent RUQ or LUQ pain � Pain that wakes • Trauma
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Remember:
Children are poor historians!
Consider a 1-‐2 week log!
Possible Causes….
Physical Examination � Observe child while you are chatting and taking history – behavior, dynamics with caretakers
� Abdominal examination must be done methodically, calmly without upsetting the child
� Be gentle / use toys to distract / examine on parent’s lap if necessary
Physical Exam � Ask child to show you with one finger the area of maximal pain
� Ask child to protrude and then suck in their abdomen and to cough and jump on the spot – unable to do if peritoneal irritation existent. NO ASSESSMENT OF REBOUND
� Palpate all quadrants � Hernial orifices � External genitalia � Rectal examination rarely needed � Signs of hydration – mucous membranes / sunken eyes / decreased skin turgor / capillary refill time>2sec / decreased temperature / sunken fontanelle
Physical Examination � Watch child’s reaction/facial expressions
� Assess weight, height and growth patterns � Examination is guided by the history, may do ENT, Cardiac, and Pulmonary assessments
Alarm Signals in the P.E. • Localized tenderness, fullness or mass effect • Hepatomegaly • Splenomegaly • Perianal fissure or fistula • Visible soiling • Guaiac-‐positive stools
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Relevant Physical Findings � Tachycardia � Alert and active/still and silent � Abdominal rigidity/softness � Bowel sounds � Peritoneal signs (tap, jump) � Signs of other infection (otitis, pharyngitis, pneumonia)
� Check for hernias
Common Causes of Abdominal Pain
Newborn � Intestinal Obstruction � Intestinal atresias and stenosis � Meconium Ileus and/or irschsprung's diseases � Malrotation and volvulus � Post intra abdominal surgery � Peritonitis � Spontaneous perforation of the stomach or intestine � Due to intestinal obstruction � Neonatal necrotizing enterocolitis � Others � Incarcerated hernia with bowel necrosis or ovarian torsion � Gastroesophageal reflux � Abdominal trauma (difficult birth)
Common Causes of Abdominal Pain Infants < 2 years � Colic � Infantile dyschezia � Gastroesophageal reflux � Non-‐Gastrointestinal causes � Intussusception � Malrotation and volvulus � Incarcerated hernia with bowel necrosis or ovarian torsion � Acute gastroenteritis � Abdominal trauma � Constipation � Toxin ingestion
Common Causes of Abdominal Pain Children (2-‐18 years)
� Acute gastroenteritis � Urinary tract infection � Constipation � Streptococcal pharyngitis � Food poisoning � Mesenteric lymphadenitis � Appendicitis � Intestinal obstruction � Pneumonia � Abdominal trauma � Testicular torsion � Pancreatitis � Henoch-‐Schnolein purpura � Acute cholecystitis � Abdominal migraine
Common Causes of Abdominal Pain
Adolescents (12-‐18 years) � Suicidal toxin ingestion (acetaminophen) � Dysmenorrhea � Mittleschmerz � Pelvic Inflammatory Disease � Threatened abortion � Ectopic pregnancy
Diagnosis by Location gastroenteritis early appendicitis PUD/reflux pancreatitis
non-‐specific colic early appendicitis
Gallbladder Hepatitis
Spleen/EBV Gastritis
appendicitis enteritis/IBD ovarian
constipation UTI pelvic appendicitis hernia
constipation non-‐specific ovarian
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Possible Workup Urinalysis (infection, stones) UPT CBC with differential Sedimentation rate/CRP Comprehensive metabolic panel (Electrolytes, BUN, creatinine, glucose, albumin, protein, calcium, alkaline phosphatase, AST, ALT, total bilirubin)
Amylase/lipase H. Pylori Epstein Barr Ab
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Other Diagnostic Tests Abd x-‐ray -‐ constipation, obstruction Ultrasound-‐gallbladder, ovary, kidney, liver, bladder, uterus (non-‐invasive,
radiation-‐free, less expensive; excessive bowel gas may preclude u/s examination)
CT Scan-‐appendicitis, etc (more accurate, but involves radiation and contrast)
Stool for WBC’s/culture/OCP Occult blood Other tests as indicated by history and physical exam (rapid strep, monospot, CXR)
Relevant X-‐ray Findings � Signs of obstruction
� air/fluid levels � dilated loops � air in the rectum?
� Fecalith � Paucity of air in the right side � Constipation
Common Disorders
Appendicitis � Fecalith obstructs appendiceal lumen causing distension, ischemia, and necrosis
� 4 in 1000 children aged 5-‐14 yrs yearly � 70,000 pediatric cases per year in the USA � Extremely rare in neonates � Incidence of 1-‐2 cases per 10,000 children per year between birth and 4 years
� Increases to 25 cases per 10,000 children per year between 10 and 17 years of age
� Rate of perforation: 80-‐100% <3 yrs. vs <10-‐20% of 10-‐17 yrs. � Mortality rate – 0.1-‐1% � M:F – 1.4:1
Appendici-s � Vague central abdominal pain preceded by anorexia and vomiting. Pain shifts and settles in RLQ 6-‐48 hours
� Mild pyrexia–high fever uncommon unless perforated � Tachycardia � Children reluctant to move as pain worsens � Only 1/3 of children with appendicitis have classic symptoms
� The appendix DOES NOT grumble–it screams or remains silent
� Particular diagnostic problem in the extremes of age range – in the younger child often presents late with rupture
� Physical exam is the mainstay of diagnosis
Appendicitis
� Rebound tenderness � McBurney Sign: pain at 2/3 b/t umbilicus and right ASIS
� Rovsing Sign: pain RLQ with left side palpation � Psoas Sign: RLQ pain when child on left and R hip hyperextended
� Obturator Sign: RLQ pain on internal rotation of flexed R thigh
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Clinical Scoring Tools Alvarado (based on SSx and lab values) Signs � Right Lower Quadrant Tenderness +2 � Elevated Temperature (37.3°C or 99.1°F) +1 � Rebound Tenderness +1 Symptoms � Migration of Pain to the Right Lower Quadrant +1 � Anorexia +1 � Nausea or Vomiting +1 Laboratory Values � Leukocytosis > 10,000 +2 � Leukocyte Left Shift +1 Scoring 0 = Unlikely appendicitis 5 = possible 7 = probable/likely 9= definite
Clinical Scoring Tools Pediatric Appendicitis Score (Samuel) Signs & symptoms PAS score � Cough/percussion pain 2 � Hopping tenderness 1 � Anorexia 1 � Pyrexia 1 � Nausea/emesis 1 � Tenderness RLQ 2 � Leukocytosis (wbc >10k) 1 � Migration of pain 1 � Score ≤ 5 Appendicitis less likely � Score 7-‐10 high probability of appendicitis Performance: Sensitivity 100% Specificity 92% Positive predictive value 96% Negative predictive value 99%
Appendicitis � CT Scan with Contrast is imaging study of choice � WBC may or may not be elevated!
Constipation
“failure to evacuate the lower colon completely” 3-‐5% of Pediatric outpatient visits Usually first appears between 1-‐4 years 1/3 of kids 6-‐12 report it in any given year � Infrequent BMs (<3/week) � Difficult/painful BMs � May see blood in stool due to anal fissures
Normal Frequency of Bowel Movements in Infants and Children AGE MEAN BM/WK MEAN BM/DAY
� 0 to 3 months: 5 to 40 2.9 breastfed � 0 to 3 months: 5 to 28 2.0 formula-‐fed � 6 to 12 months 5 to 28 1.8 � 1 to 3 years 4 to 21 1.4 � > 3 years 3 to 14 1.0
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Constipation: organic causes
� Hirschsprung’s disease (congenital aganglionic megacolon)
� pseudoobstruction � spinal cord abnormality � hypothyroidism � diabetes insipidus � cystic fibrosis � gluten enteropathy � congenital anorectal malformation
Warning Signs for Organic Causes of
Constipation in Infants and Children WARNING SIGNS OR SYMPTOMS & SUGGESTED DIAGNOSIS � Passage of meconium more than 48 hours after delivery, small-‐caliber stools, failure to
thrive, fever, bloody diarrhea, bilious vomiting, tight anal sphincter, and empty rectum with palpable abdominal fecal mass: Hirschsprung’s disease
� Abdominal distention, bilious vomiting, ileus: Pseudo-‐obstruction
� Decrease in lower extremity reflexes or muscular tone, absence of anal wink, presence of
pilonidal dimple or hair tuft: Spinal cord abnormalities: tethered cord, spinal cord tumor, myelomeningocele
� Fatigue, cold intolerance, bradycardia, poor growth: Hypothyroidism � Polyuria, polydipsia : Diabetes insipidus
� Diarrhea, rash, failure to thrive, fever, recurrent pneumonia: Cystic fibrosis
� Diarrhea after wheat is introduced into diet: Gluten enteropathy
� Abnormal position or appearance of anus on physical examination: Congenital anorectal
malformations: imperforate anus, anal stenosis, anteriorly displaced anus
Constipation
� Most often functional: Fecal incontinence/soiling “skid marks” (encopresis) Incidence 2-‐4 y/0 boys=girls Age 5+ boys 3x more likely Vicious cycle: functional constipation (stool retention) � Also caused by low fiber, low water diet and high milk consumption (>2-‐3 cups/day)
� Ask about toileting behavior
Findings Consistent with Functional Constipation History � Stool passed within 48 hours of birth � Extremely hard stools, large-‐caliber stools � Fecal soiling (encopresis) � Pain or discomfort with stool passage; withholding of stool
� Blood on stools; perianal fissures � Decreased appetite, waxing and waning of abdominal pain with stool passage
� Diet low in fiber or fluids, high in dairy products � Hiding while defecating before toilet training is completed; avoiding the toilet
Functional Constipation
Exam � Abdominal tenderness (LLQ or suprapubic) � Abdominal or rectal distension � palpable stool in left lower quadrant � Normal placement of anus; normal anal sphincter tone
� Rectum packed with stool; rectum distended � Presence of anal wink and cremasteric reflex
� If digital exam done, no need for imaging. May do x-‐ray
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Suggested agents for disimpaction for Functional Constipation Infants (younger than 1 year) � Glycerin suppositories-‐No side effects Children (1 year and older) Rapid disimpaction � Enemas: 6 mL per kg (maximum: 135 mL) every 12 to 24 hours one to three times Invasive, risk of mechanical trauma � Mineral oil: Feces may not return after administration. Lubricates hard impaction � For large impaction, administer a normal saline or phosphate enema one to three hours after the
mineral oil enema. Normal saline: Abdominal cramping May not be as effective as hypertonic phosphate enema Hypertonic phosphate: Abdominal cramping Risk of hyperphosphatemia, hypokalemia, and hypocalcemia, esp in Hirschsprung’s disease or renal insuff, or if hypertonic solution is retained Some experts do not recommend phosphate <4 y/o � Milk & molasses 1:1 � Dark Karo Syrup
Maintenance � Teaching is key! � Difficult to treat and relapse rate is high
� Bowel training � Diet
� Fiber supplements
Maintenance medications
Lubricant -‐ Softens stool and eases passage � Mineral oil: 1 to 3 mL / kg/day given qD or divided BID (Chill or give with juice.)
Adherence problems: Leakage may occur if dose is too high or impaction is present.
Osmotic laxatives -‐ Retain water in stool, which adds bulk and softness � Lactulose (concentration: 10 g per 15 mL): 1 to 3 mL/kg/day divided doses BID
Abdominal cramping, flatus Lactulose is a synthetic disaccharide.
� Magnesium hydroxide (milk of magnesia: 400 mg/5 mL): 1 to 3 mL/kg/day divided doses BID With overdose or renal insufficiency: risk of hypermagnesemia,
hypophosphatemia, or secondary hypocalcemia
� Magnesium hydroxide (800 mg / 5 mL): 0.5 mL /kg /day divided doses BID
� Polyethylene glycol powder (Miralax) (17 g /240 mL water/juice): 1 g/kg/day div BID(15 mL/kg /day) Titrate dosage at three-‐day intervals to achieve mushy stool consistency. Solution may be prepared in advance for administration over one to two days.
Better adherance � Sorbitol: 1 to 3 mL per kg per day given in divided doses twice daily-‐-‐Less costly than lactulose
Peptic Ulcer Disease / GERD
� 5% of causes of Pediatric Abdominal Pain � Symptoms: pain, anorexia, n/v, early satiety � “I need to puke”, “I puked in my mouth” � DIET IS KEY!
Peptic Ulcer Disease / GERD H. pylori � Gram negative bacillus � Incidence in children increases with age � Positive relationship between disease and low socioeconomic status and high density living
� Increases in families in which an adult has had an ulcer or documented H. pylori.
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H Pylori � Antral gastritis most common manifestation in children
� Serologic or Stool Testing H. pylori IGG: opinions vary, but generally noted to be highly sensitive test for children
If serologic testing is positive, then treatment with triple therapy is indicated (amoxil/clarithromycin/PPI x 2 weeks)
� H. Pylori stool antigen is gold standard for dx in Primary Peds
No need to do follow-‐up test Refer to GI for recurrance
Colic
Colic
� Rules of Three Crying for >3 hrs a day, >3 days/week, for > 3 weeks in an infant who is otherwise healthy � 5-‐25% of infants � Incidence breast=bottle � Infants cry on average of 2.2 hrs/day, peaking at 6 weeks
� Motor behaviors associated with crying: attacks of screaming in the evening, flushed face, furrowed brow, and clenched fists, legs pulled up to abdomen, and infant emits a piercing, high-‐pitched scream.
Colic � Must r/o underlying causes of excessive crying. Organic causes <5%
� Gastrointestinal, psychosocial, and neurodevelopmental disorders have been suggested as the cause of colic:
� GI Conflicting evidence that colic caused by allergy to human/cow’s milk protein. Speculated that abdominal cramping /colic may be result of hyperperistalsis (supported by evidence that the use of anticholinergic agents decreases colic symptoms).
Colic � Psychosocial causes – sign of future temperament problems, parental personality or anxiety *no studies support these theories In families w/colicky infant, may be problems with communication /family functioning, as well as parental anxiety and fatigue.
� Neurodevelopmental Studies suggest that colic may lie at upper end of normal distribution of crying in infants. Crying pattern of colicky infants (peaking 6weeks w/ crying late afternoon/evening) are the same in normal infants. Colicky infants cry longer and are more difficult to soothe once crying has begun. The fact that most infants outgrow colic by 4 months lends support to neurodevelopmental cause of colic
Colic � Physical exam is normal, weight gain normal � Observe in room � Log of behavior, feeding/stooling/fussiness � What relieves the crying?
� Lab tests usually unnecessary
� The mainstay of colic management is an acknowledgment by the NP of the difficulties the parents are facing and sympathy/empathy for the well-‐being of the parents
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Colic � Conflicting evidence on changing formulas, some recommend soy, others recommend hypoallergenic formulas
� Parents often desire formula change � Simethacone (mylicon) decreases intraluminal gas. Results = placebo
� Anticholinergenic drugs more effective than placebo in studies, but dicyclomine (Bentyl)is assoc w/apnea and no longer recommended <6 mo
Colic � “Gripe Water” includes a variety of herbs/herbal oils: cardamom, chamomile, cinnamon, clove, dill, fennel, ginger, lemon balm, licorice, peppermint, and yarrow.
� Available online and in health food stores. � Touted to provide relief from flatulence/indigestion but is not without risk. Parents who choose to use should avoid versions made with sugar or alcohol and look for products manufactured in the US.
� Instruct parents to be wary of websites that offer ‘cures’ that are not from reliable sources
Colic Other methods proposed: � White noise � Colic holds (put pressure on abdomen) � Riding in car � Etc…..
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Abdominal Migraine � Occurs in 1-‐4% of children � Accounts for 4-‐15% of Pedi GI pts with chronic idiopathic abd pain
Diagnostic Criteria: � Pain must be midline/periumbilical, dull or “sore” and moderate to severe intensity
� The pain is associated with 2 or more of the following – Anorexia – Nausea – Vomiting – Photophobia – Pallor � No evidence of organic disease
Abdominal Migraine • Must include all the criteria 2 or more times in the past 12 months
– Paroxysmal episodes of intense, acute periumbilical pain that lasts for 1– 72 hours
Intervening periods of usual health lasting weeks to months – The pain interferes with normal activities
Questions? � THANK YOU