soviets and factory committees in the russian revolution

8/19/2019 Soviets and Factory Committees in the Russian Revolution

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Soviets and Factory Committees in the Russian Revolution - PeterRachlef

Peter Rachlef traces the development o the Factory Committeesrom early 1917 until the beginnings o the Bolsheviks suppression o these organisations shortly ater !ctober"

#oviets and Factory Committees in the Russian Revolution

Peter Rachlef

$he developmental possibilities o the Russian Revolution o 1917%19&1 'ere determined not by the conceptions o contending politicalorganisations( but by the aims and capacities o the social groupsinvolved" )hile the entire population in revolt shared the political goalo the abolition o c*arist despotism( the diferent social classes andgroups 'ithin it had distinctly diferent economic 'ants" $he tinybourgeoisie 'as naturally interested in conditions making possible thee+pansion o Russian capital" $he peasants( the over'helmingma,ority( orced to 'ork the -elds o the large lando'ners and to paye+orbitant rents or tiny plots o land( desired the e+propriation o thelarge estates and the establishment o a system o small( privatelyo'ned arms" !n the other hand( the 'orkers( small in number andconcentrated in the urban areas o .uropean Russia( 'ere conrontedby lo' 'ages( economic insecurity( and terrible 'orking conditions(problems 'hich called or some orm o socialisation o industry andan ambiguous /'orkers control/ o production"

$hese goals 'ere mutually incompatible" 0side rom the obviousconict bet'een 'orkers and bourgeoisie( a capitalistically organised

agricultural sector could not coe+ist 'ith a smaller socialisedindustrial sector" Because o the lo' level o agricultural productivity(


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not only 'ould small scale market agriculture provide an insu2cientbase or the development o industry( but violent uctuations romyear to year 'ould preclude economic planning"

$he political goals shared by the great social classes could be

realised" But not only 'ere their economic goals incompatible( none o them could serve as the organisational principle or the 'hole society"0 society regulated by the desires and needs o the 'orkers 'as ruledout by their minority position( 'hile a capitalist market economy 'asmade impossible by the 'eakness o the bourgeoisie and theirdependence on the state( the disorganisation( poverty( and illiteracyo the peasantry(%%and( -nally( the political strength achieved by theBolshevik Party ater 1917"

/Politics/ and /economics/ are not separate phenomena( but diferentaspects o social po'er relations" $he 3uestion o the political orm to

emerge rom the revolutionary process 'as to be decided by theachievement o social and thereore economic po'er by one o thecontending groups on the scene" 0s it turned out( this 'asaccomplished by neither bourgeoisie( peasantry( nor proletariat( butby the raction o the intelligentsia 'hich made up the membership o the Communist Party" $he eat o the Bolsheviks 'as to de-ne a ne'social structure by the subordination o economics to the politicalsphere controlled by them( accomplished through their sei*ure o po'er as a ruling class over capitalists( peasants( and 'orkers alike"Beore they succeeded in this( by riding the 'aves o popular

rebellion and organisation( the Russian 'orkers 'ere able to evolveorms o struggle and social reconstruction 'hich transcend inimportance the limitations o the place and time in 'hich they arose" $he ollo'ing article briey traces the history o the t'o kinds o institutions%%the soviets and the actory committees%%'hich remain o greatest interest to revolutionaries today"

Capitalist development in Russia beore the First )orld )ar hadassumed a orm 3uite similar to 'hat e+ists in many underdevelopedcountries today" 0lmost all industry 'as under the control o oreigncapital and 'as located in a e' urban areas" 0lthough the 'orking

class 'as e+tremely small in relation to the total population 4$rotskysestimate o 15 percent is the highest o all accounts6( industry%%andthereore( the 'orking class%%'as very concentrated" ost actories'ere large and constructed along then%modern lines" $he 'orkingclass had gro'n rapidly in the three decades prior to the 'ar( and asense o class had been developing by leaps and bounds since theturn o the century"

$hroughout the late 19th century Russian industrial 'orkers otenspent only part o the year in the urban areas( earning their livings inactories" $hey also spent part o the year in their old villages('orking the land( and their primary ties remained 'ith theiragricultural activities and village lie" 8o'ever( the rapid development


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o industry soon provided year%round employment to ever greaternumbers o 'orkers" $hey and their amilies moved to the urbanareas( breaking their old rural and village ties" Bet'een 1: and197( the urban population gre' by ;;" percent( and osco'( ore+ample( gre' by 1&; percent"


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0ssembly and political rights( and asked all the actories to senddelegates" )orkers immediately understood the principles o suchrepresentation on the basis o 'orkplaces" $here 'ere thee+periences o sending actory representatives to the #hidlovskiCommission 4'hich 'as studying actory conditions6 and the strike

committees o the past nine months upon 'hich to dra'" 0n'eiler'rites@

)hen the strike 'ave spread rom osco' to #t" Petersburg( and'hen( on !ctober 11th( the -rst actories stopped 'ork the 'orkersthemselves elt the need to meet together in order to decide incommon 'hat path to ollo'" >t 'as or this purpose that delegates'ere elected in several actories%%the Putilov and !bukhov 'orks(among others%%o these delegates( more than one had been amember o the strike committee or a ormer representative to the#hidlovski Commission"t 'as decided to admit representatives o the socialist parties4Bolsheviks( ensheviks( and #ocial%Revolutionaries6" !n !ctober17th( this group decided on the name /#oviet o )orkers eputies/and elected a provisional e+ecutive committee o && members 4t'oor each o the seven areas o the city( t'o or each o the our mostimportant unions6 and decided to publish its o'n ne'spaper( /De's

rom the #oviet o )orkers eputies"/ $he #oviet( at -rst perormingno other task than organising and leading the strike( changed itsel over the course o several days into an organ o the general andpolitical representation o 'orkers( in the centre o the revolutionarymovement o the 'orking class in the capital" >t 3uickly became a/'orkers parliament(/ 'hich it attempted to remain even ater thestrike ended at the end o !ctober" 0ccording to 0n'eiler( /thischange 'as neither deliberated or consciously e+pressed" 0terhaving at its peak engendered the #oviet( the revolutionarymovement surged on( 'ith greater impetuosity than ever( and theorgan that it had created accompanied it on its path"/


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representation or political parties" 0t any rate( most o the #oviets'ere created by 'orkers to solve their immediate problems%%'inningthe strike( the eight%hour day( and political rights" $hey concernedthemselves 'ith the daily problems conronting the 'orkers"

$he c*ar combined concessions 4the granting o a parliament( theuma6 'ith selective repression and broke the strike and thendestroyed the remaining #oviets" 8o'ever( despite apparent ailure(the revolution o 195: paved the 'ay or the events o 1917" #ovietshad been ormed on a actory basis and perormed the unctions o 'orkers parliaments( trade unions( and strike committees( and hadprovided the 'orkers 'ith a sense o sel%government" $hesee+periences 'ould be relied upon in the ace o the severe problemso early 1917( 'hen 'orkers ound themselves in a situation o deepsocial crisis"

$he problems acing the Russian population at the outset o 1917'ere severe indeed" $he efects o Russias participation in the First)orld )ar began to become unbearable" 8er dependence on )estern.urope or ra' materials crippled her" >nation( usury( and shortageso ood supplies reached crisis proportions" Production plummeted" $he si*e o the drat led to a shortage o skilled labour in industry anda shortage o agricultural 'orkers" Fuel became ever harder to obtain(both or personal use 4heating6 and or industrial production" $here'as no apparent hope or the masses o the Russian people(especially the industrial 'orking%class" Eoline 'rites rom his personal

e+perience@

>n ?anuary 1917( the situation had become untenable" $he economicchaos( the poverty o 'orkers( and the social disorganisation o Russia'ere so acute that the inhabitants o several large cities%%notablyPetrograd%%began to lack not only uel( clothing( meat( butter( andsugar( but even bread" February sa' 'orse conditions( not only 'asthe urban population doomed to amine( but the supplying o thearmy became entirely deective" 0nd( at the same time( a completemilitary debacle 'as reached"


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$he revolution sprang up in the street( descended rom the actories'ith thousands o striking 'orkers( to cries o /Bread Bread/ $heauthorities sa' it coming( po'erlessG it 'as not in their po'er toovercome the crisis" $he raternisation o the troops 'ith 'orkersdemonstrations in the streets o Petrograd consummated the all o

the aristocracy" $he suddenness o the events surprised therevolutionary organisations " " "


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Provisional Iovernment( 'ere submitted to the #oviet as a 'hole orrati-cation" ost decisions( ho'ever( 'ere not"

#ukhanov( a ,ournalist and a member o this .+ecutive Committee(describes the unctioning o this #oviet@

$o this day( >( a member o the .+ecutive Committee o the #oviet( amcompletely ignorant o 'hat the #oviet 'as doing in the course o theday" >t never interested me( either then or later( because it 'as sel%evident that all the practical pivotal 'ork had allen on the shoulderso the .+ecutive Committee" 0s or the #oviet at that moment( in thegiven situation( 'ith its 3uantitative and 3ualitative composition( it'as clearly incapable o any 'ork even as a Parliament( andperormed merely moral unctions"

$he .+ecutive Committee had to accomplish by itsel all the current

'ork as 'ell as bring into being a scheme o government" >n the -rstplace( to pass this programme through the #oviet 'as plainly aormalityG secondly( this ormality 'as not di2cult and no one caredabout it""""

/0nd 'hats going on in the #ovietJ/ > remember asking someone 'hohad come in rom beyond the curtain" 8e 'aved his hand hopelessly@/0 mass meeting 0nyone 'ho 'ants to gets up and says 'hateverhe likes/


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increased( the base o the #oviet lost more and more o its po'er"eetings became less re3uent and soon the #oviet itsel becamenothing but an open orum( 'here 'orkers and soldiers could cometogether( air their vie's( meet others like themselves( and keep theirconstituencies inormed about 'hat 'as going on" >t did ofer people

'ho had never had the chance to speak out to do so" But it did notrepresent the po'er o the 'orking class" > anything( it representedits po'erlessness"

$his #oviet seems 3uite characteristic o the #oviets throughoutRussia%%both in the urban areas and in the countryside" !ten( 'orkersor peasants came into conict 'ith their #oviet" Deither this organ northe Provisional Iovernment can be considered as instruments o 'orking%class po'er" 8o'ever( the 'orkers 'ere able to create suchan instrument%%the actory committee"

)hereas the #oviets 'ere primarily concerned 'ith political issues(e"g"( the structure o the government( the continuation o the 'ar( theactory committees dealt solely 'ith the problems o continuingproduction 'ithin their actories" any sprang up in the ace o lock%outs or attempted sabotage by the actory o'ners" >t 'as throughthese committees that 'orkers hoped to solve their initial problems%%ho' to get production going again( ho' to provide or themselves andtheir amilies in the midst o economic chaos" any 'orkers 'ereaced 'ith the choice o taking over production themselves orstarving" !ther 'orkers 'ho 'ere relatively assured o employment

'ere inuenced both by the burst o activity 'hich characterised therevolution and the 'orsening economic situation" > they 'ere toremain secure( they had to have a greater say in the management o their actories" $hey realised that they needed organisations on theshop level to protect their interests and improve their situations"

$he trade unions could be o no help in these matters" Kntil the turno the century( trade unions 'ere illegal" $he tradition o guilds( 'hichhad been an important precursor o trade%unionism in )estern.urope( 'as lacking( due to the act that industry 'as still ratheryoung in Russia" !nly the most politically%minded 'orkers could be

e+pected to be interested in trade%unionism under the repressiveconditions and such 'orkers 'ere usually more apt to ,oin the alreadye+isting radical political organisations" >n 195: the e+isting tradeunions played an insigni-cant role in the upheaval" any o them'ere crushed in the repression o the ne+t e' years" 0 select e''ere allo'ed to continue to unction( but only under policesupervision" By the time o the February 1917 uprising( several tradeunions e+isted as national organisations( but e' had any inuence'ithin the actories" ost o the trade union leaders 'ere ensheviks('ho re,ected the notion that 'orkers should have any say about theinternal afairs o a actory" uring the -rst e' months o 1917( tradeunions membership increased rom a e' scores o thousands to 1":million" ost o this increased membership 'as purely ormal( i"e"( it


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became a matter o principle or radical 'orkers to belong to tradeunions" $he real activity 'as represented by the incredibleprolieration o actory committees( organs consisting o andcontrolled by the 'orkers 'ithin each actory" >t 'as through thesecommittees that most o the 'orkers sought to solve their problems"

$hese committees 'ere seen to provide the organisational structurethrough 'hich 'orkers could conront%%and hopeully solve%%their -rstproblem@ the taking over o production 'ithin their actory" !nlythrough organs such as the actory committees( directly controlled byall the 'orkers assembled 'ithin a actory( could the 'orkers developthe organisation( solidarity( and shared kno'ledge necessary tomanage production" 40s the #oviets 'ere concerned primarily 'ith/political/ issues and because their meetings 'ere usually chaotic(they ofered little assistance or solving the pressing problems o the'orkers"6 #uch committees appeared in every industrial centre

throughout .uropean Russia" $he membership o a committee al'aysconsisted solely o 'orkers 'ho still 'orked in the actory" ostimportant decisions 'ould be made by a general assembly o all the'orkers in the actory" $he 'orkers sought to maintain their o'npo'er 'ithin the actory in order to solve their pressing problems" Doone else could do it or them" $he committees 'ere utilised by the'orkers in the early months o the revolution to present series o demands( and in some instances to begin to act to realise thosedemands" Paul 0vrich describes the unctioning o some actorycommittees in the -rst months o the uprising@

From the outset( the 'orkers committees did not limit their demandsto higher 'ages and shorter hours( though these 'ere at the top o every list( 'hat they 'anted in addition to material bene-ts( 'as avoice in management" !n arch Ath( or e+ample( the 'orkers o the#korokhod #hoe Factory in Petrograd did( to be sure( call upon theirsuperiors to grant them an eight%hour day and a 'age increase(including double pay or overtime 'orkG but they also demandedo2cial recognition o their actory committee and its right to controlthe hiring and -ring o labour" >n the Petrograd RadiotelegraphFactory( a 'orkers committee 'as organised e+pressly to /'ork out

rules and norms or the internal lie o the actory(/ 'hile other actorycommittees 'ere elected chiey to control the activities o thedirectors( engineers( and oremen" !vernight( incipient orms o /'orkers control/ over production and distribution appeared in thelarge enterprises o Petrograd( particularly the state%o'nedmetallurgical plants( devoted almost e+clusively to the 'ar efort andemploying perhaps a 3uarter o the 'orkers in the capital"


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an ever greater number o actories" )orkers had to act i they 'ereto -nd a 'ay out o the deepening crisis" $he immediate problem'hich conronted 'orkers 'as e+perienced on the actory level%%ho'to begin again 4under their o'n direction6 the production o theiractories" !nce this initial problem 'as conronted( and the 'orkers(

through their actory committees( began to solve it%%by( in manycases( actually starting up production under their o'n management%%a ne' and yet more di2cult problem appeared"

Do actory could be sel%su2cient" Production re3uired ra' materialsand continued production necessitated a structure o distribution"any committees began to compete 'ith the committees rom otheractories( both or the procurement o ra' materials and the disposalo their products" #uch a solution to the severe problems provedunsatisactory" Dot all the actories could ac3uire the needed ra'materials" Competition drove the prices o ra' materials up" ore and

more actories 'hich had only recently recommenced productionound themselves threatened 'ith being orced to close do'n due totheir inability to get needed materials and ne' machinery" $henecessity o ederation became apparent" $hat is( 'orkers realised%%some more 3uickly than others%%that they had to develop a means o co%operation and co%ordination 'ith 'orkers in other actories andregions@ those that supplied them 'ith ra' materials( those thatproduced the same products( and those that needed their products" $he /o'nership/ o a given actory by its o'n 'orkers could not solvethe pressing economic problems" !nly a large%scale co%ordinated

efort by the 'orkers in many actories could do so" $he isolation o 'orkers 'ithin their o'n actories had to be transcended( and the'orkers turned to their actory committees to devise methods o industry%'ide and regional co%ordination"

0t the same time( the Provisional Iovernment sought to impose itso'n ideas about the management o production" >t sought toundermine the activities o the actory committees( limiting them tooverseeing health and saety conditions 'ithin the plants" 0ll co%ordination should be under the supervision o the ProvisionalIovernment and its agencies" $his provided another impetus or the

actory committees to ,oin together" 0lone( they could be stripped o their po'er by the government" Knited( they could present a orcethat could not be destroyed%%unless the government 'ould be 'illingto stop all production( a rather unlikely action" $he -rst meeting o agroup o actory committees appears to have taken place in mid%0prilin Petrograd" $he ma,or resolution o this conerence 'as a strong re%a2rmation o the 'orkers right to control the internal lie o theactory( matters /such as length o the 'orking day( 'ages( hiring and-ring 'orkers and employees( leaves o absence( etc"


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$he Provisional Iovernment also acted in 0pril" !n the &;rd o thatmonth statutes 'ere enacted 'hich recognised the rights o theactory committees to represent the 'orkers in bargaining 'ithmanagement and to oversee health conditions inside the actory" $heprincipal goal o these statutes 'as /to restrain the importance and

the role o actory committees and to limit their po'er"


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'ere /the creation o ne' conditions o 'ork " " " the organisation o thorough control by labour over production and distribution"/oreover( this resolution also commented on /political/ 3uestions(demanding that there be a /proletarian ma,ority in all institutionshaving e+ecutive po'er"


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)ithin several 'eeks( it became apparent that the actorycommittees could not rely on the trade unions or purposes o co%ordination" 0t the end o ?une( there 'as a trade union conerence inPetrograd" 8ere it became clear that the unions desired tosubordinate the e+isting actory committees to their control" $heir

conception o /co%ordination/ 'as that the national organs shouldmake all the undamental decisions concerning production anddistribution( and the actory committees 4'hich 'ould becomeinstitutionalised 'ithin the unions6 'ould implement these decisions">n other 'ords( /co%ordination/ through the trade unions 'ould meancontrol by the trade unions"

By the end o ?une( a process o polarisation appeared to be under'ay in Russia" $he dividing lines 'ere not sharply dra'n( nor 'erethey necessarily perceived by the participants" $he most importantline 'as that 'hich separated the actory committees rom all the

other e+isting institutions%%the #oviets( the trade unions( the politicalparties( and the Provisional Iovernment%%'ho 'ere all trying indiferent 'ays to control the committees" $here 'ere also obviousdiferences 'ithin the latter group seeking to establish its hegemonyover the others" 4!nly the Bolsheviks among the parties appeared toside 'ith the committees"6 $he 'orkers involved in the actorycommittees did not see the #oviets as enemies( but 'eredisenchanted 'ith their vacillations concerning the e+tension o control over all production by the committees and their un'illingnessto openly conront the Provisional Iovernment on the 3uestion o

political po'er"

>n early ?uly( mass discontent 'ith the Provisional Iovernment and itspolicies 4the continuation o the 'ar( its attempts to undermine theactory committees6 and 'ith 'hat the #oviets 'ere doing 4or( moree+actly( not doing6 suraced in the orm o violent massdemonstrations and peasant land sei*ures" !n ?uly ;rd( a group o soldiers and armed 'orkers burst into the Petrograd #oviet 4'hile amuch larger group demonstrated outside6 and assailed its membersor compromising 'ith the bourgeoisie and hesitating to take overpo'er rom the Provisional Iovernment" $hey demanded that all

po'er be taken by the #oviet( that all land be nationalised( thatvarious bourgeois ministers be removed( and that participation in the'ar should end"


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>n early 0ugust( a general strike took place in osco'( presentingmostly /political/ demands%%an end to the 'ar( and that the #ovietsshould replace the Provisional Iovernment" $he osco' #oviet 'asopposed to the strike( its leadership as yet un'illing to put itsel orthas an alternative to the Provisional Iovernment" oreover( in the ace

o severe economic problems( the #oviet 'as becoming more andmore concerned 'ith the continuation o production" $his strike 'asorganised by the actory committees in the city( 'ho 3uicklytransormed themselves into strike committees( /inorming andeducating the 'orkers( collecting money( giving out subsidies(/ andraising the demand or control o production by the producersthemselves( e+ercised through the actory committees"t should( in their vie'( have considerable po'er to makedecisions concerning production and distribution( decisions 'hich'ould be binding on the actory committees"


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themselves" $he necessity o doing so 'as becoming ever greater asthe prices o necessities 4e"g"( ood( clothing( and shoes6 rose t'o tothree times aster than 'ages( and more and more actory o'nersattempted to shut do'n production"


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productive process%%and in developing ever better methods o co%ordination"

0 short time later( the -rst /0ll%Russian Conerence o FactoryCommittees/ 'as convened" 4/0ll%Russian/ is a bit misleading because

the committees only e+isted in the industrialised urban areas"6embers o the Bolshevik Party made up & percent o the delegatesand 'ere the dominant orce" By no'( the Party 'as in -rm control o the recently created Central Council o actory committees and used itor its o'n purposes" 0ccording to one account

" " the 'ork o the Council proved to be very limited" $he Bolsheviks('ho entered the Central Council in a considerable number and 'ho(as a matter o act( controlled it( apparently deliberately obstructedthe 'ork o the Central Council as a centre o economic struggle onthe part o the 'orkers" $hey used the Council chiey or political

purposes in order to strengthen the campaign to 'in the unions"


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strong structures o co%ordination" ." 8" Carr describes 'hat happenedimmediately ater the sei*ure o po'er@

$he spontaneous inclination o the 'orkers to organise actorycommittees and to intervene in the management o the actories 'as

inevitably encouraged by a revolution 'hich led the 'orkers tobelieve that the productive machinery o the country belonged tothem and could be operated by them at their o'n discretion and totheir o'n advantage" )hat had begun to happen beore the !ctoberrevolution no' happened more re3uently and more openlyG and orthe moment( nothing 'ould have dammed the tide o revolt"


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destroyed( as the Bolsheviks moved to eliminate any possibleopposition to their po'er" #pace prohibits my going into detail aboutho' the Bolsheviks consolidated their position( but numerousaccounts e+ist and most are airly readily available"t isbecause the 'orkers sought to unite their ragmented struggles andto give them a direction( not because they sa' the con3uest o po'erby political actions( that the -rst councils appeared"/ 4p" A76

bid"( p" :A%::" 8e notes that o the -rst orty delegates( only-teen had been neither delegates to the #hidlovski Commission ormembers o the strike committees"

bid"( P" :7"


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( pp" &1%&17"

deology and the .thics o #oviet Labour( p" A"

>( p" 19"


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bid"( p" 7"

bid"( p" 7:"

ndustry(/ in #lavic Revie'( arch( 19;"

soviets and factory committees in the russian revolution

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