http://coerll.utexas.edu/methods/modules/pragmatics/01/index.php

Pragmatics and Speech Acts

Applications

What is Pragmatics?

Pragmatics addresses expression at the level of utterances, which can range from one word (e.g., ´Oh!’ as a reaction of dismay or pleasant surprise) to a lengthy discourse (e.g., a heated political debate). What is important is the communicative function the utterance plays in interaction with others, so pragmatics operates at the level of meaning (and how others understand those meanings).

It is possible that a learner knows vocabulary and grammar of the target language, but is unable to communicate intentions at the moment of speaking. It is also possible that, as a listener, the learner understands the speaker’s intentions but cannot find the most appropriate way to respond to what has just been said.

Example – Imagine the following situation

You have an important dinner to attend tonight. You need to borrow your friend Ana’s car because you have wrecked yours. The last time you borrowed it, you put a small dent in it. What do you say to her to get the car?

This is a spontaneous reaction as to how one would react if one was asked to make this request. What pragmatic features are identifiable in this video? (the speaker’s main intention in expressing these utterances, the level of directness, the strategies used by the speaker to convey the message).

Request speech act – what did you notice about the way this learner spoke to Ana about the car?

We see that pragmatic expressions can be presented in a variety of forms, and for second language learners, appropriateness is often cast aside simply to get the message across!

Speech actsWhat are speech acts? They are communicative acts that convey an intended language function. - include functions (any speech act is usually defined as a functional unit in communication) such as requests, apologies, suggestions, commands, offers, and appropriate responses to those acts.The goal of employing these acts is not truly successful until the intended meanings they convey are understood by listeners.Utterances (used in communication) have three kinds of meaning.- locutionary, or the literal or propositional meaning of an utterance. If someone says, “It is cold in here,” and only means this and nothing beyond it, then his concern is just the cold temperature in the room.- illocutionary which has to do with the social function of an utterance. Thus, the social function of “It is cold in here” may be a request to close the window in a certain room. – perlocutionary, points to the result or effect produced by an utterance.

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Thus, if the previous utterance leads to the closing of a window, then the utterance has had its perlocutionary or intended effect.

Speech acts have been categorized into five groups: 1- Declaratives, which are those kinds of speech acts that change the world through their utterance. For example: • I now pronounce you husband and wife. 2- Representatives, which are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker believes to be the case or not. Statements of fact, assertions, and conclusions belong to this category. For example: • William Faulkner wrote The Sanctuary. 3- Expressives, which are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker feels. They express various psychological states such as likes, dislikes, joy, sorrow, etc. For example: • I’m really sorry. 4- Directives, which are those kinds of speech acts through which the speaker gets someone to do something. Commands, orders, requests, and suggestions belong to this category. For example: • Don’t play with the matches. 5- Commissives, which are those kinds of speech acts that speakers use to commit themselves to some future action such as promises, threats, refusals, etc. For example: • I’ll be back soon. Utility Speech acts have an important role in our daily use of language: they are important because they allow us to perform a wide range of functions. They enable us to compliment, apologize, request, complain, etc. It is important to master speech acts while learning a second language because they not only facilitate the process of communication, but also make it more effective.

Applications Can you identify each of the following meanings speech acts intend to convey: a request, an apology, a suggestion, a command, an offer, a rebuke, or an invitation?

Speaker/Listener Speech act

mother to daughter “Your room is a mess.”

incoming traveller to hotel clerk “Can I have a room on the top floor?”

one student to another “You can use my eraser. Yours is almost gone.”

student 1 to student 2, just after 1 tells 2 she failed the exam

“Do you want to study together for the next test?”

student 2 to student 1, just after 1 tells 2 she failed the exam

“Do you want to study together for the next test?”

a young woman to her boyfriend“You know, they have a sale on diamond rings at the mall this weekend.”

Speech acts occur in everyday talk in every society, with various ranges of explicitness. It is important to know which speech acts are different in the first and target language, how they are different, and what is not appropriate to say.

Face-Threatening Acts

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People in all cultures have an awareness of self-image, or “face”, as they communicate. Protecting face is important for communicating and behaving successfully with others, even though it may not be accomplished consciously by talk participants. A “face-threatening act” (FTA) is one that would make someone possibly lose face, or damage it in some way.

FTAs, which occur regularly in everyday interaction, are often softened by means of politeness. Politeness can be expressed through “positive politeness” (e.g., “please”, to try to make the other person like you) or “negative politeness” (e.g., “I know this is a terrible imposition/infliction”, to try to give the other person some space and not impose).

How would one react to the following appeals?

Can I have a glass of water? Could you take your feet off my table? Make yourself at home.

1. Which of the following represents the best description of pragmatics?

The structure of sentences and how they are related to the way people think.

How people communicate and interpret intentions, and react to them, in a context of language use.

The study of the brain and how it generates thoughts through language.

 How sounds and their meanings are produced by language users.

2. What guides pragmatic behaviour?

Speech acts in a conversation.

 Face-threatening acts and how to avoid them.

 The effect of role plays as they are carried out.

Sociocultural norms of the particular group or society.

3. What are speech acts?

Acts of politeness when people are speaking, like saying ’please’.

Acts of communication that are intended to convey a given intention.

The language that people use when they do role plays.

Any act that does not pose a threat to someone’s face.

4. What is a face-threatening act?

 Something said to a listener that could cause him/her to be embarrassed or ashamed.

An action that one can do ”in the face” of another.

Something said that always conveys a threat to one’s life and safety.

 A speech act that is never heard in everyday speech.

Reflect.

Think about a conversation in English in which either you misunderstood your partner or he/she misunderstood you. Was this problem caused by some grammatical or phonetic error, or it was due to the use of an improper speech act? What was your/ or your partner’s reaction? How was the situation solved?

Cross-Cultural CommunicationLanguage and Culture

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We have seen that one important issue of pragmatics for second language learners is that they must be aware of the pragmatic expressions and interpretations (and reactions to the expressions) that differ between their own native language and the second language. These are referred to as cross-cultural and/or cross-linguistic difficulties.It is important to be aware of the fact that no one can just transfer language functions from one’s native language to the target language! This assumption often causes difficulties in the communication in the L2. Although what one says may be grammatically correct, it may not be pragmatically acceptable.

Linguistic ChoicesCross-cultural norms guide the linguistic choices we make in speaking and interpreting messages. Recall the video of the learner who asked to borrow his friend’s car. What specific linguistic choices did he make when he said his request (e.g., level of directness, ways to make the request, intonation)?

1. The request is framed in terms of what the speaker needs. Only at the end is the request made in terms of what the listener should do.

2. The request at the end is too direct (order + please).

AppropriatenessAppropriateness of a speech act is measured against sociocultural norms. The norms may vary somewhat within a given group of society, but they are generally recognized within the society as a whole. However, the same speech act in one culture may not be considered appropriate in another’s. If someone says things that would be viewed as inappropriate in another culture and society, especially if repeated many times, he/she would probably be viewed negatively by the native speakers. For this reason, one should be aware of possible cross-linguistic problems. Sometimes the same speech act in one language elicits a completely different response than that which would be expected in another language, illustrating cross-cultural differences.Example of Appropriateness from JapanIn this case, a response to a compliment in Japanese draws a very different response in English. It makes a point that even a compliment, which one would associate with something positive, can actually turn into an FTA in certain cultures. This can happen when a given culture requires “negative politeness” while the other culture follows “positive politeness” as an appropriate form of communication, or vice versa.

Politeness: A Delicate ActA native Spanish speaker and an upper-intermediate Spanish learner were given the following situation: Character A (language learner): Your friend has a great chicken recipe that you just love. You are inviting your boss and his wife to your house for dinner to talk about some private things. You really want to get this recipe from your friend but you also can't invite her to join you, even though it is your turn to have her over to eat. How do you get this recipe from her?Character B (native speaker): Your friend always asks you for favorus, but almost never compensates in return. He owes you at least two or three dinners at his house. This time, he asks you for something and you want to try to convince him to invite you to his house.

Has the learner expressed his request appropriately for the given situation? What expressions did he use to express politeness (more positive or more negative ones)?Why would the previous person’s communication be regarded as appropriate for the situation presented to him? What linguistic and extralinguistic resources did he use?

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Sociocultural Norms

Sociocultural norms, such as how to express politeness in a given context, guide pragmatic expression. For example, if someone asked you why we should say ´Please’ after making a request, what would you say? Your answer would be based on the sociocultural rules you are familiar with in Western societies and cultures.

Role plays are an effective way to illustrate sociocultural norms. In the video below, we see two students who were asked to respond to the following scenario in which one student was Person A, and the other was B. Each student saw only his/her part in the hypothetical scenario, and both were given a few minutes to plan what they would say before beginning.

Role PlayPerson A: You have just invited your friend to a special dinner given by your company and you want to say very gently that he/she must act more formally than normal (not use so much foul language).Person B: Your dear friend is somewhat of a “stuffed shirt” who always worries about others’ opinions. You want to go to this dinner and make him/her relax and adopt a more colourful and casual outlook on life.

What problems of communication did you notice in the interaction between the two speakers?

Instructor’s note

This was a role play task that usually yields some interesting results, especially if the learners are from different cultural backgrounds. So here I happened to pick an American guy TJ, to my left and a mainland Chinese woman Yue, to my right, for the sake of sheer convenience. The problem, however, was mainly that there were words in the instructions like "stuffed shirt" and "colorful language." Yue did not seem to understand these terms nor the whole idea of role playing, at least at first. It may also have been the case that such a situation would never be mentioned in the Chinese culture. When Han took over she sort of skirted the issue as well, but the point was to create a face-threatening act here and to see how the two cultures would handle it. As it turned out, Han made it a sort of "in your face" response, sort of like "Take me as I am," while TJ sort of backed off as if to say, "So be it." So was the speech act as conceived successful? Yes, I think so. By negotiating how far they could take this without insulting each other, we see some lines drawn, and see how the two cultures seem to have different lines.

What kinds of sociocultural norms do you think might have been operating in the role play you have just viewed??

Second Language Sociocultural Norms

How can teachers make learners aware of second language sociocultural norms without simply offering lectures or texts on them?

Consider the following example of a sociocultural norm in American English.

Situation: Your friend Mary looks distressed and says to you: ”Oh, I have an awful headache and I have an interview today.”

Your first response is to say:

a. It must be allergies.

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b. I’m sorry to hear that.

c. Don’t feel badly, lots of people do.

d. What bad luck.

e. Discussion of a sociocultural norm in AE.

In summary, then, we can say the following about sociocultural norms:

They are the rules that a society uses to guide appropriate behaviour in the community. They can differ widely between cultures. They can lead to great misunderstandings by speakers of different cultures. They are difficult to change. They are intricately tied to pragmatics.

Review

1. Which of the following errors made by a non-native English speaker would be most likely to cause misunderstanding and offense?

“Yes, I'll be there. You can count with me, don’t worry!”

 “She has the hair brown.”

“You can let me use your cell phone to make a call.”

 “I cannot say ’it is’ I say ’eat ease’. I hab a problem wit my bowels.”

2. What is normally the basis of cross-cultural problems in communication?

 The overuse of “chunks” of language.

The predominance of face-threatening acts in a culture.

 Sociolinguistic appropriateness.

 Differences in sociocultural norms.

3. Of these possible how can one communicate their intentions and needs?

- by practicing language in contextualized language functions, such as in role plays.

- by becoming aware of the general differences in cross-cultural norms.

- by knowing well the speech acts and reactions to them.

- by learning the expressions that could be used.

4. Non-native speakers should be particularly aware of aspects of communication such as:

- the appropriateness of what is said.

- the relevance of what is said to what is happening in the context.

- the grammatical perfection of what is said.

- the humour that is conveyed.

Reflection

Think about a sociocultural norm that is different in one’s mother tongue and in the target language. Mention a few examples in this respect.

Dialogue

How does the following instance help us to practise a foreign language?

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Actividad: ¿Cómo nos organizamos nosotros?

Ahora es el turno de que tus compañeros y tú se organicen las actividades domésticas en su casa compartida. Decidan quién es responsable de los quehaceres domésticos que aparecen en la actividad anterior.

Now is the time for you and your friends to organize the chores in your shared house. Decide who is responsible for the chores that appear in the previous exercise.

Modelo: Model:

Yo prefiero lavar los platos y regar las plantas. ¿Y tú?

I prefer to wash the dishes and water the plants. And you?

Prefiero planchar la ropa, pero no quiero quitar el polvo.

I prefer to iron the clothes, but I don’t want to dust the furniture.

One point made in the video is that we need to know not only how to initiate a speech act but also how to respond to one in a coherent and appropriate manner to continue the conversation. Dialogues are valuable because they:

entail a wider scope of language practice, at sentence level, move from word to phrase to longer units, emphasize co-construction of meaning or the changing roles of “speaker” and “listener”, and can illustrate sociocultural differences in the dialogue.

Formulas

Discussion of formulaic expressions.With regard to the issue of sincerity, we can interpret the pragmatic expressions in the target language. Without an understanding of why the expressions are different in the target language, we could easily come to question the sincerity of the native speaker formulaic expressions.

Advanced users of the target language sometimes admit that they transfer expressions from one language to the other.

Formulaic variation

It may happen that some of the colloquial L2 formulae are not easily translated literally in the one’s native language.

Metapragmatic Discussion

- pragmatic expressions: in the following video, the instructor and learners can discuss rules and analyse different features directly and explicitly, or they can be learned implicitly. The students draw inferences themselves about what they have seen and what was implied (implicatures).

Think about the difference in illocutionary force of the following possibilities to borrow a car; refer to the intended meaning.Can you lend me your car? Could you lend me your car? I would like to borrow your car.

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How do the options differ in force and meaning? How do the students in the video feel about these things?

Language and Culture

We have seen that one important issue of pragmatics for second language learners is that they must be aware of the pragmatic expressions and interpretations (and reactions to the expressions) that differ between their own native language and the second language. These are referred to as cross-cultural and/or cross-linguistic difficulties.

Beyond Grammar

The most typical assumption by second language learners is that they can just transfer how they say and understand language functions from their native language to the target language. This assumption often causes difficulties in the communication in the L2. Although what the learner says may be grammatically correct, it may not be pragmatically acceptable.

Linguistic ChoicesCross-cultural norms guide the linguistic choices we make in speaking and interpreting messages. Recall the video of the learner who asked to borrow his friend's car. What specific linguistic choices did he make when he said his request (e.g., level of directness, ways to make the request, intonation)?

1. The request is framed in terms of what the speaker needs. Only at the end is the request made in terms of what the listener should do.

2. The request at the end is too direct (order + please).

Raising Awareness of Similarities and Differences in Requests across Cultures

Discuss in pairs the reflective questions which suggest areas in which workplace cultures may differ across cultures (class discussion on cross-cultural differences in expectations). Questions 2 and 3 are designed to guide this discussion. There are no right or wrong answers, but some notes reflecting on what might be considered appropriate to many workplaces are provided in the answer key. Read the questions below and indicate yes or no.In your culture would you usually . . . (Yes/No)• ring up and tell your boss if you are going to be absent?• tell your boss if you had a personal problem?• call your boss by his or her first name?• knock on the door before entering your boss’s office?• negotiate with your boss for more pay?• negotiate with your boss for holiday leave?2. Compare your answers with others in the class.3. Discuss the following questions:(a) Are there any differences across different cultures?(b) Are there differences across different types of jobs?

Informal Expressions in Requests to ColleaguesTalk between colleagues at work is often informal.1. Read the dialogue below. Underline the expressions that you do not know. Some informal expressions are marked in italics. Find them and try to guess what they mean.

Naomi: Hi Brenda, have you got a minute?Brenda: Yeah, come in … sit down, Naomi.Naomi: (walks in and sits down, looks at stack of paperwork on desk) You look like you’ve got a bit of a fun morning ahead!Brenda: Yeah my favourite – paperwork ! (laughs)

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Naomi: Yeah, I’ve got a bit of that to do myself after lunch … now Brenda, I was just wondering if I could talk to you about the latest roster you’ve just put up.Brenda: Oh don’t tell me there’s another problem.Naomi: (sounds apologetic) Yeah, I know…it must be a nightmare trying to get all the shifts covered at the moment. (Brenda signals assent.)But um … I’ve got a bit of a problem. I just had a call from my mum last night and she and my dad are flying down to Melbourne next weekend. It’s the first time they’ve been able to come down since I moved here and I was really hoping I could have the weekend free.Brenda: Oh Naomi … you know how short staffed we are at the moment …Naomi: Yes, I do … I just thought maybe I could swap the following weekend with Carla. I’m happy to do two in a row.Brenda: OK … yeah, so … that’d be great if Carla’s OK with it. Actually, she’s coming this afternoon to pick up a group certificate so I could ask her then.Naomi: Oh that would be great, Brenda. Shall I pop in when I knock off and check if that’s OK?Brenda: Yeah …OK … we’ll sort something out.Naomi: (gets up to leave) That’ll be great. Thanks, Brenda.

2. Now match the phrases in the first column with the meanings in the column.

Phrase Meaninga bit of a problem Comeshort staffed one after anotherTwo in a row finish workIs OK with that thinks this is a good arrangementSee what we can sort out a little difficultyPop in without many people workingknock off Try to come to an agreement

Stages of a Request Interaction – Request to a BossIn the dialogue, Naomi makes her request in a number of stages. Look at the table below; see what Naomi says in each of the stages. Next to the examples from Naomi’s speech are notes on the language she used. Note that Naomi and Brenda are interacting in an Australian context.The following table presents the stages in a request interaction:

Stages Examples NotesGreeting Hi Brenda . . . have you got

a minute?In Australia workers often call each other by their first name, even the boss. This practice may vary in other English-speaking countries.“Have you got a minute” makes the interruption seem less important.

Prerequest/ support move You look like you’ve got a bit of a fun morning ahead . … I’ve got a bit of that (i.e., paperwork) to do myself after lunch.I was wondering if I could talk to you about the latest roster you’ve just put up.

Naomi tries to establish rapport with Brenda by finding some common ground. Naomi prepares Brenda for what is to come. The phrase “I was wondering if I could” makes the sentence less direct and the past tense makes it seem less direct and urgent.

The request I was really hoping I could have the weekend free.

The past and continuous forms have been used to make the request less direct in “I was hoping.” The word “really ” is added to make the request stronger.

Reason I just had a call from my Naomi gives a reason but not a lot

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mum last night and she and my dad are flying down to Melbourne next weekend.

of details as it’s a personal matter

Offer/support move I just thought maybe I could swap the following weekend with Carla. I’m happy to do two in a row.

Naomi offers a possible solution to the problem. This shows her willingness to take responsibility for her actions and to make it easier for Brenda.

Closing That’ll be great. Thanks Brenda

Thanks.

Stages of a Request Interaction – Request to a colleague1. Look at the dialogue that Sue, one of Naomi’s colleagues, had with Brenda, the supervisor, earlier in the week. Look at how Sue stages her request.

Sue: Hello Brenda … could I have a quick word with you please?Brenda: Yes, sure … come in.Sue: Now Brenda, I know we’re pretty busy at the moment, but I haven’t taken any of my leave yet this year.Brenda: Mmm.Sue: So, I was wondering if I could take three weeks of my leave now … well starting next week when you do the new rosters. Soften Up! Successful Requests in the WorkplaceBrenda: Oh Sue … I know you have got the leave owing but it’s really not a good time right now.Sue: Yes, I understand that but I’m starting to feel very tired and so I’m making silly mistakes. I really need a break.Brenda: Oh dear … that’s no good is it? … Do you think you could wait for a couple of weeks … then we’ll have Jenny back?Sue: Mmm … OK … well another two weeks is all right I guess if I know there’s some light at the end of the tunnel!Brenda: OK then Sue … if you fill out your leave forms today I’ll sign them so we can get them in.Sue: Good … thanks Brenda … I’ll get them to you by the end of the day.

2. Now put Sue’s part of the dialogue into the table below.Stages Sue says …

Greeting

Prerequest/support move

Request

Reason

Offer /support move

Closing

Practicing a Request Interaction1. With a partner, begin a request dialogue by choosing phrases from the table.Partner A chooses a phrase from each of the two boxes in the first row. Partner B chooses responses from the two boxes in the second row. For example: Partner A: Hello, Amy. I was wondering if you had a moment. Partner B: Yes sure. What can I do for you? Partner A: (continues)

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When you have selected your phrases, practice your dialogue with your partner. Notice that these phrases don’t include a resolution. • Hi Sam• Hello Amy• Good morning Jenny

• Could I have a word with you?• Have you got a few minutes?• I was wondering if you had a moment

• Ah yes• Yes sure• Yeah

• Come in• Sit down• What can I do for you?

• Look I know it’s a busy time at the moment• Well I realize it’s probably not the best time• I was just wondering

• if I could talk to you about my annual leave?• but I wanted to talk to you about my holidays• but something urgent has just come up

• OK • Yes, what did you want to know? • Mmm• I was hoping• I was wondering if I could• I would like

• to take two weeks off now• have a few days of my holidays now• to have the rest of the month off

• Oh dear• Well,• Right, well

• You can’t be serious?• It’s not a good time at the moment• We normally prefer staff to plan their leave at the start of the year

• Yes I know• I realize that• Yeah, I appreciate that

• but something has come up that I’ve got to attend to• but my husband is having surgery• but I’ve got some family business I’ve got to deal with

2. Complete the dialogue with your partner. Try to come to a suitable arrangement. Remember to use offers and support moves.

A completed dialogue might look something like the following:

Hi Sam, I was wondering if you had a moment.Yes sure. Come in.

Well . . . I realize it’s probably not the best timebut something urgent has just come up.

MmmI was wondering if I could have a few days ofmy holidays now.

Well, it’s not a good time at the moment.

Creating Softened RequestsThese grammatical structures can be used to “soften” requests. For example:• Past-tense formsFor example, I wanted to ask you to finish the paperwork tonight.• Continuous formsFor example, I was wondering if you could give me any extra work.• Would like rather than wantFor example, I would like (I’d like) some extra help on the shift.

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