ADefenseofPluralism and EqualityMichael WalzerSPHERES OFJUSTICE, .Boob by t ~ S:;II""AuthorTheRew>lulionoi th.S;,inbObliptiomPoliticalAdion!ke;"MloandR","(l/utionJu.l .ndlJlljlUt WmR.adi",,1Principles,.SPHERESOFJUSTICEA DEFENSE OFPLURALISM ANDEQUALITYMichael WalzerE1A Member of Th. Peneu. 8ook.t Gmup,...... __, c ~ ...... "..__""... NdooI_.-I.-dooIo> ........... "fa................. DiothIIoo,.. ,..;o,. .. ~ J "--(SocooI _1I Tid.,K:nl Ill,. ,'II, 110...'' 8.-,._ISBN~ - o I I I ...Cq, \110I. '''J10, __ Ioob, I""...... ""'-_..........0-,..- '" ~ T_03-30292827JOSEP" P. WAI2E"lqOO- I98,Thell>emory of II..: righteousis ~ bks.sing."CONTENTSPREFACE

1 ComplexEqualityPI".. r,m 1IITheory of Coo!,.....,/ >5Hiccl.!chia .00 Ca'le Socidia ,6 Sdtilll01the A'gumrn! ,8.2 Membership"".....60.... 01>e Ei.rnl of Provision 78"'nAmmc.nWdf.,e Sl>.le 8,.1M c...,01 Mtdic41 c... S6A Note oncn.,iIY .ndDependency 9'1ME..coli"" Ii)1I1t.rt'. w""" wJ, Nwu Sdlcd.d>tdEJlJr".., Is... .11f..b"ia/lc HiTIt, (:irk &11 ,,6111, M", 0/ tlI,..'}7'f1..eW01n.1nQlleo';"">1910 Divine Grace71rI \I'.u bnwrn CAwdI and Statr '4\243i,Contents11 Recognition11", Struule!of J4""TheIkbli.ity .00the Non1k hoon of a Sunday will been ullClOllTibo.,lCl, mightolhawi>c ....kcbimllo di.proportiorulte wre of oocidy'. ' ......rlh.OIOlt efFccti"e....yof boIdill& such group' in cl-.cd is by dmj1"i themthe: ,ight toorp-nl1.(politically.lThi3 comes f'oma friendof cq\l;llity. Opponents arcC\'f:n quicker10descrihc the repression it would leqUlrc anddrab aM fea,ful confor.mity it wouldproduce. I+.society of equals, they gr, "oold bf a \ffirldof false appcanmccs....here people who ....ere oot in fact the gme ...-ouldbe fOlccdto \oot; and:tet a, if they w--Of penonal subOldin.ation, aoo.-eall----lies behirnlthe vision01eqU3lily. Opponents01tl>c ,-ilion oftenclaimIhal the animatingp;lssions01 cgalita,ianpolitics a,e envy andrC$Cntmcnl, and ifs true enough that sochp;lssiorll fester in C\-ery sub-ordinate group. TolOme eIlenllhcywill lhapeilJpolitics; thusthe"c'ude communism" lhal MarI described in hil cady manuscripts, aoo...hich is nothing hut thcenadment of enry,1 BUI enry and rC$Cntmentare uncomfOftable passions; 110 one enjoys them; anditis accurate to53y that egalitarianism;s nol 10 muchlheir ading oul as it ila cooscious attempt to escapeIhe conditionthat produces them. Orthat makalhemthereis akin.d of enrythat lies, JO toonthe surfa' of soc;allife andhasno serious consequeoccs.[ may envymyneighbcK's g,centhumbor his richbarilone voice orC\"CIlhis ahility to win therespect of our muluallriends, but 110"" ofthiswill leadme10 otg3nizc apolilical fTlO\-emenl.TI,e aim of political egalitarianism is a society frcc from domin.ation.This ;s theli,-ely t.opc, named by the word equdlity.. norroore bowingan.dseraping, fawningandtoadying; nomorefeanul trembling; nomore highandmightiness; nomOre masters.no more slaves, It is nota hopeforthe elimination of differences; \\-e don'tall have tobe thesameOfha,-e the same amounts of the same thing$, Men and .."Omenall: one another's equal! (for all importanlll1Ol'aland poIitinl purposes)whenno onepoueJSCS or ",,,,\loIs the "'C3ns of dornin.ation. But the1lIC3rl! of dominalion ale differently COIlstituledindiffe.entsocietics.Birth and blood.bndeook Radical Pri"ci.plt. (NewYork, ,e of thebarter economy, moneyhasbeenIhemost commonmedium. But the oldmaxim;tOfdingto which there are ",me thing;s lhat money can't buy is not OIIly norm.....tivelybut alsolactoallytrue. What should andshouldno! beuplorsale is someihillll men and womenalWllys have to decide and ha"e de-cided in many different ways. Throughout history, the IIUlket has benJone ofthemost impOlt:mt mechanismslor thedi,tributiOll of socialeooo:!s; butit hasbenJ. itIlOwhere is today, a complete dislTibnIi"e system.Similarly, thereh... 1>C'>'e1 been either a Jingledecisionpoint lromwhichalldistributionsare controlledOfa single set of agerlbmakingdecisions. No stale power huC\'er benJ50 pemlli"e as to regulate allthe palle",s of shaling, dividing, and exchal1gi,'8 out 01 which. oocietytakes: shape, Things slip away fromthestate's glllsp;nell' paUems areWOl"kd out-f.milialnetWOlks, blackmarkets, bureaucllllic .1Iianca,clandestine political and .eligious organizations. Slate officials nntax,conlCJipt, allocate,'egulate, appoint, ,eward,puni,h, but they nnnolcapture the fun range of goods01 oubslitule themsekes 10, n'ery otherasentofdistribution. NOIcan anyone else dolhat: therearemarketcoops and corrlerings, bul there a funy suttttliul dillfib-uli\1:compirocy.Andfinally, therehal' "",'crbeen alinCle criterion, or asingle setof interc:oonected criteria, for all distributions. Desert, qoalili.cation,birth atld blood. Iriendship, need, free political loyalty, demoocratic decision: each has had itJ pbce, along with many othen, une:u-ily CO!"xisting, in\'Oked by competing group', ronlused ".jthanolh".111 thcmailer of distributi\1: justice, history displal'S a greal , ..rietyof arTllngemenls and ideologies.But the filst impulse of philooopheris 10resist thedisplaysof history, theWOfIdof appearat>CCl, atH:! tosarchforsomeunderlyingunit)': ashort list ofbasicgoods,quicklyabstracted to a single good; a single distributi,'Ccriterion or an ;nlcrcoo-necled set; and the philosopher himself statH:!ing, S)'mbolically at least,atasingle decisionpoint. I shall arguethat tosearchfor unityis tomisunderstand the StIbject matter of distlibutiw justice, NC\'ertheks.,4ComplexEqllOllityinsomt $fnM: thcphilosophial impulSf isE"tll if choost plur,l1ism. I JhoIll do, choice 5ti1l rtqlJires a oo1Iermt On:thandoubting, this standard phi\osophinl a..umptilm. The questionsposed by the theory of iustitt of a range of ans"'CT1.aoothere isroomwithintherangc fofcultural di"CIsilyaoopolitial5SPHERES OF' IUSTIeEchoice. It's not onl)'1IlJIlIttef 01 implementmg 50IDe singulll'or sd: of principle:! in differenthisloOclil settings, No one ""Ollkl denythai thereis 1I rllnlle of 1TIOI'a1ly pennilJible implemcntatiolll, IWlIntto lITgllC for more than thi" that the principles of justice lire themsckc:splllflilislie inform: thllt diffcrent socialgoods ought10be distributedfor different rell"""S, in acwrdlInce with dilte.ent proccdllfCS, by dilte.entllgents; lindth3ll1l1these dille.enecsderive: fromunderslllndc.idclIlAnswcu10 thcoc questions lurnedinlo disltibuli,-e principles, which lite supposed 10 control theroo'.e11lCTlt of good.The goods, bylIbstr.tetion, lire tllkentobemovable in lInydircding of whlll aellJ:llly Iuppcns,lind it forces us too quietly to mllkc Lillie lISSC.tionslibout hUlJIlIn natureand morlll lIgCTlC)'-niI'jl dnJ ..HIt 1OQd.....hidlth.,. thendilln'butt"'J'1C118 .",,,,."",""Hefe, theoonc:q>tionlindcreationprecede lind conlrolthe dililibulion, Goods don't jrn;t lIppear inthe hllnds of dislributi"e agents who6ComplexEqualitydo wilh aslhey likeOf gi,...,them oul in accorwllu ",'illl someger>eral p.incil'k,l goods ...ilhlheir me:lIlings-hecaus.-oflheir meaninp-are the crucial medium of social relations; lhey comemtoprop,,"', mimlsbefoTe Iheyeomeinlo lheir hamls; distfibulKmJarC patterned in aCl;Ofdanu ".. ilh shard cor>cq>IKmS of whallhe: good1:a'e and...hal lhey arc lor. Distributive agenls arc ('(mslrailled bylh.cgoods lhey hold, one might almOilsay lhat goods dist.ibule Ihems.-hcsamong PfOPk.Things >Iein the...ddltAndride mankind'Bullhc:sc arc alwa)'1 parlicula, things md pallicular glOups 01 men amiwomen And, of eoursc, wemake the lhe saddle, I don'lwanllo deny lhe imporlancc of human agency, "nly to shill Our allen-tionhomdislributionitself 10 conul'tionand creal ion thenamingof the good" andthegiving olme:lIlif\&, andthe oolledi"emaking.Whal....e need10 "plain amllimil lhe plunlism of dislribuli"e possi-biliticsis a theory of goods. For ourimmediate purpose, that llll:OtY(';Tn be. summedupinsix propositionsI. All the goolion .nd crelliion are sociall'rQ.For lhe same rellSOll, goods ha"e differenl meanings in diffe.enltocict;e" The ",me "thing" is '-alucd lor differenl reasons, Or il is ';lluedhere and dis'-alucd there. loon Stuarl Mill onu complained Ilral"pe0-ple like in c......,ds: bUI [ I.IT0wof,>0 othe. w.l.y to like or to dislike socialgoods4A lOIitary person couldhoudly underst.nd the me.ning oflhe:7SPHERES OF' JUSTICEgoods or ligule out the lea""', foftlking thcm allikablcOf dislikablcOnce people likc in C anothclbut abo",'ith theIIloOr.II and malc""l world in which they livc Wilhoutsuch a hiltory, which beginl at birth, they wouldn'l be men and "''OIIlCIIinany IcalgniZllbleSCflSC,md lhey wouldn't ha"ethefirst notion ofhow10go about the businessof giving, allocating, andachanging.....). Thne is 00 single sct of primal}' or balic goods cona:i"able aclOssall rrKml] and """Ierill] Wot theonly idea Ihathalbeenheldabout offices-il pL.inlyvisible in.'crysocieties...'heresimonyand nepotism, under difFerenl names, hnelimiL.,lybeenthoughl sinful or unjust. (But thclehasbeen a wide dhe.gcnceof views about ",'hal sorts of position and pL.ce are properly called "offi.ccs.")Apin, punishment h;.$ been widelyunde.stood3$ a nepti"e Ihal ouiht togoto people who arejudgedto d.ese"."it on lheNsis of a ,.".dict, not of apolitical decision. (Butwhat ooostilutes a,-erdictr Whois to deli,'cr il?How,in ,ho.t, is ilJJticc tobe donetoal"'CU.ro nlen..,d womenr About these: qllClltlons theK hn been siinili-cant diugrccment) These ex:Imple:. in,ite empirical investigation.........,.,.;,j .............. MmsaO!. ""'" ,It.Ifi -,Io'e,mig.ht like to do, But dominance is al....)'S inromplete and monop-01)' imperfect, the rule of C"ery mling class is umtable. It is continuallyehJllenged by other grouP'!inthe name of altemati\'ep;lllertls of ron"erSIOll,I);ll.ibution is what social H1Aicl is all about Maris hea'")' empM'sis on producti"e p";.:a-leS should not conceallromuS the simple truththatthe st.ugglefOf control of the maIlS of p.oductiona di$t.ibuti,'estruggle. Land capital a'eat Itake,andthese a'egoodsthat canbe slu.ed.di"ided, e.changed,am!endlessly COfI\"etted. Bulland aooC:llpilalnot the only dominant it is po6lihle (it has histOficallybeenpossible) 10 rometothembyway ofother goods--mililaryorpolitical pll\'l'el, religious office lind cM'isma, and so On, History '''''''lIlsnosingledominJnt KoodandnoIlJtu",nydominant good, but ""Iydifferent kindsof magicandcompetingband$ of magicians.SPHERESOFJUSTICE11le claimtomonopolil.e a dominant iood-whcnworkedupforpIlblic pIllposa Institutes an ~ , Its standard formis to conocd lq:itimatcposscssioo....ilhIOlTle set ofper50lIal qualitia throoghthemedium of a phi\osophica.l priocipk. So arillotracy, 01' Ihe rule ofthe 001, il the principle of tOO"' ....ho by cbim 10 bro:dini and inldli.gence:they are commonly Ihe monopolists of boded wealth and lamil-;;,1reptllalionDivine supremacyisthepriocipk of thosewho cbimto bl(l\Ol the "''Ord of Cod: they arJo.gies are rudily corrupled, but thcil cofluplion i. not the JOO5I inleresling Ihiog about them.11 is intho: study ofthese struggles lhat I ha"e sought Ihe guidiogIhreadof myownargument. The strugglc:s ha"e, 1 Ihiok, ap.>radigmatic form. Some group of meoandwornen--class,collte, 11",la,0dincfor aperiodic .dum10theor";na!condition.Only a cenmlized andadn-itt Ihle wouldbe stronc: enou&h 10 forcesuchardum;andil isn't de... llut s1ale officialswouldxtualJ)' beableOf "';!lir\&10 do that, ifmoney werethe dominanl good. Inan)'case, the Oficinal conditionis unsbbleinanotoo""3)". 11"1 not onlytlut mOllo...J},..;0reappear, bulallo that donunannWill disaPl""'"In practice, brakincthemor.....,.oly of rn(IMyneutnliz:es itsdomina,,". Other IJOOds come inlo pby, mil inequality bkes on new forms.Consider .inthe lqime of .simplc: eqoulityE''el')1hinc is up for ""Ie...ndtwlheAIIM: amount of So e--ayone tw,say,anequalability10 buyaneduealionfor hischildren Some dothai,and othen don't. Ittumsout 10 beacoodinvutmenl: other socW&oodI aK, increasingly, ofkraIlor sale only 10 people ",ith alucationalcertil1ala. Soon in''aU in edueation; or, more likdy, 11M: ptIf-chZICisuniYenaliadthrouchtIM: In J)"tnn. Butthentheschool ish.lmal inlo a compdrtM'IO'OI'kI ""Ihin ..hid money is no longer damirIOInl. Natural blent or bmity upbrincinc or skillin",--,-;ting n:amina-tionr is dominant instead, and aluationaJ IUX'eII and catil1ation arebr lOme _1"OOP.l.et'lcaO thern (.hat they cd them-whu) the: "&roUP of the: blenlal:' E,'mt1.u1lythemembers ofthiscroupclaimtlu.t the goodtheycontrol shouJdbedominant oubicktIM: school: oIIica, tila. prnopti,u, "'Gllthtoo, shouldaUbepas- themM:hu, This is lhe Olttf opetI to t3lmt!, equal opportu-nity, and ,g 00. Thisis ".Iu., fairnessrequi'eI;talent ",,11 out;andinany aM:, takutal men and\O'OIlM:n ",U enbrgetIM: raou'ca a""ibbleto else. So MichadYoulli'S meritocrxr is born, "'lth all ibattende-nt inequalities,'What should"''e do now? Itis poI$,ble 10 leiIImit510 the:IX\O'conComplex "el3ion to recognize bUI COflstraill the l1lorlOpOll' po...cr oll hetalented. [take this to he till' purpose ol John 1tl...lss diffCTence prine;pie. dIhry areall themore impOltant once the various social and eoon< """" h,;" uI.u tt.. """;boo,,,, a, """.md to..,...... 11>< """,undrno.ndinp uI ........,odo ..,.nd .ho' '1..,.."lor 16... it ...,boughtherewill he many small irll'qll:llities, inequality wi1100t be mullipliel!)"OO havc fourtccnhat" ""C arc equ:ll Alld it i' all to thegoodif hat, arc domin.ant, 1m then our equalityis cxlendalthroughall theof social life, On the view that I ,hall take hc'c. hO""C,'cl."'"C simply hne the$amc number of hats, alld it i, unlikd)'that hallwill be dominant for bng. EqUlllity i, a complexrelation of !l'"rlOllI,mediatedbythegoodswe"uke, ,harc, ai>d divide among ouncl"n;it is not an identity of possessions, It requirr:cmyactions: ilaruler wantsto dothat, hemustbepenuasi'"C,helpful, enrour:lging, andsoOIl.TIl=argumentsdependfor theilforce 011 lOme shared undnltandingof kllOll'\cdge, influence, andJXl"'e. Social goods ha"e socialmeaning.., of partieulor menand"tl'Il('Il, Oil Ollr understandingof it, ..... nonlybedislributed b)"themlC'lvcs, andthl1' arerarelyguidedin lhesemaltCT:I by consider-ations ofdMC"'-11>e.....se is cuetl)" lheumewith inAuence. Here, let's say, isawoman,,'idclythought tobe stimulating andencouraging to others.Perhaps she deserVCI 10 be aninAuential member of Omrommunity.But IIId ollie; it made a falsesbtement about wOO one "'as When a,6COl11plel Equalityking or a prime ministeras a commoner in order to learn some.thing about tile opinions 01 his subjedl, thil was a kind of politi!: deceit.Onthe other hand, the diflicultia of enforcingthe clothing code (Ihelumptuary Ia",) suggcstlthat there wa$lIUalong linlIl!emati'-e SCUleof what clothing meant. At some point, lItlealt, one Clll1 begin to recog theboundaries of a dillioct !pllere withinwhichpoopkdressinlIccordance "'ith whatthey clln alfnrd (W what they afe willing to spendorhowthey w:mttoIook_sumptllllry lawsmay ltill be enfOlced.but nowone canmake--.andOIdinarymen1Im1womendo, ill flId.make-egalitarian argumentsagainlt them.Canwe imagine1Isociety inwhichan goods are hierarchically COIl'CC'ived' Perhapl the calte lY'Ilemof lIocient India had this form(Ihooghthat is a far,e:Khing claim, ami it ,\'Quid be pmdentto doubtitltluth: foronething, political po'o'"eT lmlalwayltohaveescapedthe La"'l ofcaltel. Wethink 01 calit'llil rigidly segregated group:!, ofthe casle l)'Itenlala "plural society,"1I "'Grid of boundaries I? But lhelyslem il COOl eneomie$) mighl beenlitled10 our hospitality, assistance.andgoodwill.This ackJJO\\'ledgment can be formali7.eU as Ihe principII' of mulual aid,which sugge$ls the duties Ihal we o...-e, as John Rolwls has wrillrn, "notonl)' 10 definile individuals. say to lhose cooperating logetherin!OIT1efOCial arrangemenl, bUI 10personsgenl.'l'ally.") /o,-Iulua\ aidextendsacross polilical (andabocultul1ll1, religious, andlingui$tic) fronhcn.The philosophicol groun-tory provida ill pTlIctical ground), I doubtlhatRa,,'lsis righllo argoclhal ,,'e can c:stablish it simply by imagining "whal a fOCiety wouk!belikeifIhisduly...ere rejccted"J_IOf rejectionis r>oI anissuewithinanyparticular$OCidy; lheissuearisesonly arnongpeopk"'00 don'lshare. or 00,,'1knowthemsekes 10 share, a common life. PCOIJ1ewhodoshare aCOIl'm(lll lifeha,-emuchslronger dulies,It is the absellce 01 any coopeTlIti"e arrangement' thaisetsthcCOlitexl for mutual aid: two stTllngersm""t atseaOJ in lhedeseiple for lhe diltribulioll ofmembership, a principle lhatdoesn't dependuponthe pre..-ailing view ofmembership withina parlin1lar society_ The force of lheprincipII' i, uocertain,inpartbecause01its ownvagueness, inpart becaU5Cil ,ometimes comesupagainJI33SPHERESOF' IUSTICEthe internal forceof social meanings, Andthese mcanings can bOlitical community.Wemight opt foraworld.... ithout I"'rticular meanings andwithout poIitic;l1 communities: ....here 00 oneIOOl5 arnemkr or whefet\'tryone"belonged"toasingle glotxll state. Th"t bttn distributro, equally; andthele ,",ooldbenothingmore todo. TlJt, first 01t11t2arr:;mgements suggestsakindof glohotllibeltarianism; theseeond. akmdofglob.:r.l socialism. alethetwo conditions ur>'e tobe made. IT\C1l andwOmen talen in or re!used.Ci,"tll theindetelminaterequi,emcnts 01mutual aid. thesetions of it. Iu a pohtical community (rathe. than a pl..ce),it is, after all,weactual1ystt onlyits symbols, offices, and I suspect that ".., uotthey might not do.Per/oct labor- mobility, 1'-.OICdinto closed or parochial rommuniliC! (k>"ing aside oIlepl coer-cion) ",'h""",',,, lhe It,tewa.1 open, in the cosmopolil,n citi.... ofmul-tinational empires, fOfexample, ....here Itate offici,ll don't fOlleran)'identity bul permit difh:renl grOllPl' to build tbeir "",'n insti-tutionalst,uctures (... in ancienl Alenlld,ia), or in the receiving cc:nters01mall immigrationm",'emenll (e.;nly 1...centuryNeYl' Yo< 11I- b< "", """. I no _ ""h ,,.t.oto -.. Inro.. wrihwlour """"" -" I _ill ""'" 10 ,I>< qoeot.... ..- "11I-"' .....(poe< ",I4'SPHERESOF JUSTICE residents ond cilium_bofdCl of the politic:ol COm.munity"'';IS dra",n )'QIS agoSO asto le....e,-mages andto.... ns011wrong silk; perholps they the children or gr.".dchildren of emi.grants, 11lC')' nokg;Jl membershiprights, but if thC)' perse-cuted in the land where they 1;,(:, Ihey 1001: tooot onlywilhhopebut .ho wilhI .minclinedto uyth.t sucheXpbtions .re legitimate Greeksdri'(:nfromTurkey,TurksfromCrre, .fter thewars .nd"""OlutiQ.slo-';Ikia,w"",.".d cared forbythetwo Cerm.nin E"enifIhese: st.teshad bttnfree ofall responsibilityintlK: e.pulsions, theywouldstinh....e hadatothe,dug.,.,. MOlt st.tnrCllgni'.c:obligations ofthissort inpractice:; som.. doSOill law.TerritoryW"might, then, think of rountrin asn.tionalclubs or families, ButcountriesaT".lsostates. Althoughclubs andf.miliesOWnproperty, theyneitlter l'Cn of Ihe ,ight to a place in tI", world to ",'.-erride the colkdi\'Cversion. 1ndeed, it ""ould deny Ihal n.lional dubs .nd families can C'\'CTaC'quil'C a Iirm litle to. pilllicular piece of terrilory. A highbirlhrateina neighboring landVl'Quldi,nmCpeflodmiaions C'e..... to attIXt and ben-e--lit thepoore:ll peopleifl theworld? Sidiwick seems to ha\'C optedfor47SPHERES OF' JUSTICEtheoft""""possibilitio; pfl)pOSftl ap.imiti.,., andp;lrochial ofRawls', p.inciple immigration canbe 'e$lricledal .oon;uto do to wouldmateriollly .., with the efForts ofgo-.'nnmCbound10helpmen"",menpc,scculcdor opp.essedbyoornd to be in bylike BritainandIhe UnitedThe repression0/ poIiticoI tr.msform admissionl policiesrootedinaparticular romrnunity'sunde:utallding ofit.IClf.5'SPHERESOF JUSTICEAlienage andNaturalizationThe members ofpolitical communily have collective riiht to theresidentpopuLJtion-aright$ubj.ect tothedoublecontrolIdcsefik,ltlle mcaninE of membership to CUrlcnt memobers lhe principle of mut""l Ci'-enthese two, pilrliC'llLJr COUntriespilrticubr timn likely to include theiT residents menand women ",'hoare in dilferent ways alien, These propk rruly be mem-bers in their tum of minority Ofgroups, or they may be rdugets01 immigranll newlyLet uSaSSume lheyrightfullywheretheyumthey cbim citiIlShip andpoliticalrights withinthecommunitywhefctheynowJive?Does citizenship gowithreside-r>ttlInfacI, there is KCOOd admissions plOC'CSS, caBal "naturaliza-tion:'the critC'Tia tothis serornlprocns must .till bedetermined. I should strC'$ltru.t what is alhere i. citizen.hip andnot (except inthelegal soeJlSC oflheterm) nationality. ThenationalclubOf familyiscommullity diffe.ent lromthe.tate, for reasons [h.we already sketched HeneC'-er be,funmemohers of the family_Whcnthi, ailCrtion is no long... possibk. when se,-.... llis corne to be seen as hired...ml:crs. the g,eathousehold begins itsslowdecline_ 1be p;lllerll of li.-inginis gr.JdlJ;lllyrt\'CTsW;enh"hi!elCT\':Inh sedhoulCholds of thei.own,nle AlhenulIT Mel;erIt is not possibk toa ,imibll histol'}' atthe Ia.... of the politicalcommunity. Li,'einlCIVanlsha"enotdisappearedfromthemodcm"llI"ld_As "guest""rken" theypbly animportantrolein its1lI0st advanced economies. But be/ore OOllsidering the status of workers,I wantto tumto all older eumple and considerthe status ofresidentaliens (Illches) in ancientAthens. The Athenian polis "'as allllostiiterally a family with Ii,-e-ill lCf\'anls. Citizenship was an inberitllnce p.a.ssedon fromp"rentsto children (and onlyp.a.ssed onif bothp.a.rcnts "'e.ecitizens: after,cs andaliellS hedill the,calm of necessity;their fate was determined by tm- cooditiom of OIlomie life. Citirens.by contrast, Ii"edintm-realm of choice; thei. fale wal dclelmillcdillthe political alena by thei. own collecti>'e decilions.But the distirlCtiollisFalse one In fact, eiti'.em made alllQft. of decisionl tMt ,,'erethoritativelorthe s1a,cs andaliensintheirbavineto do with war, publicthe impfO't:lllCnt of trade, the di.tribution of ro'll. and110 OIl. Economic conditions "'ere subject to political conhol, though the extenl of tMI control was al,,'3)'s f.ight.... inglylimited. Hena: sla,"CSandaliens wereindeedruled; theirli,'owerepolitically as well at ecooomically. Thc,', too, Itood within thearCfl,:l, simply by of being inhabitanh of the protectN space ofthe citystate; but they hadnO >vice there, They could not hold publkoffice(If attendthe assembly(If scn'e011a jury; they nOofficersOfpolitical OI'gani1.atious of their own were neVel consulted aboutimperldinl decisions.If "'e take Ihem to be, despite Aristotle, men andWOOlen ,,"poble of rational deliberation, thenwe h.."e to say tlrat they"'ere theSUbjectl 01 a band of eilir.cn-Iyrants,gm"ern-cd without COn-scnl. Indeed, thit seems to """"e bn:n implicit ,'icw of otherC,eekwritCT:i, Thus lsocratcs's elitique of oligarch)': whenIOlile citi-54Memlx:rshipttlIl monopolize political P'O"l:1, Ihe)' "tyranll" turn Illeirfdloderllanding of the age. All1cnian metics ..."Ie IhemlC'h-es heleditarycitizens of the citin: from whieh lhey Iud rome; and lhough Ihisslatusofteledthemnoplactical protection, it helped, perhaps, tohalttlheir1oY.' standinginthe cily whercal workingclass dri"en toaro:pt jobs hithertothought unde.irable. But thiswouldrequirea difficultanddangerouspolitical camp;rign Or, the wages and....orking conditions of the unde-lirablejobs might be dramaticallyimplO\'ed!IOaI toattract wo.kCII,",'enwilhinth" conlt...ints rithelocal markel. BUI thiswwld",i,.,coot. Ihroughout Ihe anomy and, wbat isp.obablymoreimportanl,challengetheCli.tingsocioll hier."chy. Rather IhanaOOpt cilher 01th= d",stic measures,the economicnlllnase.., withthe help 01thei'p't:rnmtnt, shift the jobs from the domestic to thc internationallaixHmarket, making them .... ilable to ...urktrs inJlOOr;nhipperiod, 011 conlr3ct to 3ernp1o)'CT; if they lose their jobs, thrytoleave; theyh.1\'e toin3"y ase when their visal eopi,e. 3reeitlIC' plel'entedordisrour3gedfrombringing dependents310ng withthem, 3ndthey 3re housedinb;Trr3Cb, SC(:IQ3ted by seo,00tl>c outskirtl of the cities....hele they woditiom 3re sorne....h.1t miti-gated. FOl' ce.uinjobs. workers a'e gi,'cnlooger visas, allowed to bringin theil families, and admitted to man)' oIthc bendilS Qf the ,,'elfarestate. But their positionremains pr-arious. ResidellCCis tiedto emplorment, and the authorities m3ke it a rule tbat any guest "'Orkr whocannot support himselfandhisfamilywithout repeatedrecoursetostate,,'clfarepTOflrams. canbe dcpofted. Intime of rcehow mis:sesisgoing 01' 111nccdy, toshare theirwealthwith fOfeign friends, to hOllOf the achic\....mcnts of fOfei.gn u!isls, ars,and scicnlisl.l,10 d>oosclheirtradingpartners, andto enter intocolleeli\'e KC\lIityarrangementswilhforeignstates. But theright toanadmissionspolicyis morebasic thananyofthese, for it isnotmerely a malter of aclinginthe W()Ild, exerciJing ..,..'ereigl1ly, aridpursuing national interests. At stake here it the shape of the community6,SPHERES OF' JUSTICEt.... tin llle wocld, exerciscs J(I1.-ereignty, md so On.Admi'llion andaclusion are at the COI'e of l:Ommunal illdcpendence. They suggeeurity and...The sphere itsell is as oldasthe oJde,t community. h.&:ed,onemight saythat the Oliginal communityil asphere of >eeu,it}' and \I-e1fare,S}'ltem of communal provision. distort-ed, nOdoubt, bygrossinequ:llities of 'l,englh ...dcunning. 8ul the$}'Stem hal, ineedsof a ruling c1au,or il may beorganized, a$ .... commonly think it shouldto gi"e to individuab .... they i"di"idually deser'c. Simone Weilhill arguedthai, withregardto justice, r>ed Oper.ltes at both th'eget>-er.ll the pIlrticularc.imir1.llls nttd to be punishrd.l ButIhat is anidiosyocraticuse 01 the "".d need. /l.lod.Bllt nttd docsO!>C'raleboth andparticularly lor other goods: heahh na"obvious examplethat r will latc. conlide. insomc detail.Despite Ihe inhe.ent lorct'fulllCl:i of the wo.d, needs a.e dUli'-cpie don't jUlt ha.. nttd., tltcy ha,-c idcu abouttheir need.;they haveprio.ities,degrees of need; andthesep.iorities and degrees .dale\',: tornadciple a"wdfare statc." Every set ofofficials is at leutputati.-dy committedtotheprcy a\l(l contributedtheir timeandcnngy: fromtheirrann came ahost of mino< officialsinvolo.cdin thc endless "'Ork of collcetion and dist.ibation. Hence, the dole "''asa andOOl1tinUOUJ dnin, accepted as a religious obligation. withnocnd in sight until thecomingof the Il1CSsiah. This was divine iustice....ith a touchof Jewishirony: "Yoo must help thepoor inpropoTtionto their needs, but )'QU a'c not obligatedtomakc themrich.'l(l tilt dole. there ...ere additionalfOfTT\.l of p;lrticular pl'O"ision,most importantly for educationalpUrpclscs. In fifteenth--ecntury Sp;lin."'me .ixty )'carl beforethc expuuion, aTemarkable c/lort "'Of. m.deto establish JOmething like un;"e,...1and C'OmpullOT}' public education.The Valladolidsynod of 14}1esbbli.hed Ipceialtaxes onmeat ."d....inc:, and011-.idings, circumcision., .nd burials. and Ofde.edthat t\'Cr)' community ofhouseholders IOf morc) .h.llbe obligedtom.in!a;n'luolificddtmenbrylcochcf to;nlfnx;l their thildm. inScripturt. . The(>c_]fafe,laic (IlIt ofwhatis left, lor",'e ",ill alreadyha'"f:till:welfare state (IlIt of whal ""f: ha,'c subtlacted. Surely till: pritt of socillsur...i''3l iroctudcs stale upenditUlcsfor military 5WJrity, say, and ptJblichealth, andeduCOItion. Socially needsarethcfilst charge"SPHERES OF' JUSTICEag;Iinlt the social prodllCl; there is no rc:allllrplul until theybcc:nmet. \\'hat the: IUrplul financa il the produc:tion and uchange of com-moditia outside: thc sphere of nc:c:d.Men and....OmCn who appropriate:vast IumsofmoneylorthemlChu, while: needsarestill unmet, actlike ty,anls, dominati"8 and distOlling the disl'ibution of Ott"rity and"'ellare.[should stress again lhatr>ttCT logic of pf1)','isionis alwa}"S OJ immediately undentood,But the: crucial cha,gc against thepensioncr was that he wasn't seriously disabkd. and his crucial 'c:sponse"'"lhat heindeedfcll withinthc category01disabkd citizens a, ilhadal",,)'Sbcc:nundel$tood.EdOOItionraises harder quation, oi cultul':ll definition, andSO mayse,,'c to oomplic:ate our uAlkl$tanding of both the possiblitic:s and thelimit. of di,tribuli,.., justice: in the: sphere of Ottllrity.n tileconcrete of subsidized IChooling.11>a.t domiruloce occasionally chalkngro by writers ,,'ho pintedt theimpftance ofreligious oIlIIc""ntt inthehousehold, o. to thereligious significance of childrearing, Of (less often) to the contributiooswomenmightmake to religiouskno",Jedge.l4n.., argumentnccasar-ily focusedOfl Kligion, andilJSllCCCl dependeduponSOlnemoralorintellectual enhanment of the roleol WQmen in religious life. 8ecme rigidly hier:lrchic:alsociety. that ",ill neve' he itsfrrrral77SPHERESOFJUSTICEorpubliclyproclaimed purpose, it will ne\'erbe its 0Il!yAndif the publiclyproclaimedPUrpoKis, for e'"lmpk. toedueateehildren to readdiscuss Scripture, thencommonedUoCalion commonlyplO'oided"'OlI1d seemtobethebestCoileinnot.,.movemrtllinthis directionin thr communiti.,. hehasstudic:d, but Ihinksthe r.".>OI1S,,'eleLorgdyfirumc"P' Pe,h..psthe ",bbi, of Spoin had grzprd lhe value of the comll>on schoolhenceIhe ekment of compulsioninlhe schemethe)' de\ised. Inanyc;I'C,wherle"er thepurpOllC of communal prO'o'i,ioni, 10 openIlle"';Iytocommunal portieipotion, il will make senseto ,ecommend a formofprovi.ion Ih..t i. the umefor Ihemembrrs, An'.... "1: findO\Il'Sl:Wa confrooted with dillirullies and dangl'JS of that 5Ort, "'eIo:d;forcommunal auisl-liticldeterminationindetail. Thccout.act i.amo.albond. It connects the Itron,the weilk, I"" lucky and thc unlucky, thc rich andthejlOOf,creatingaunionthatt.anseendsalldifferences of intc'ell,Security Welfare its JhengthfromhiJtory, culture, religion. Llllguage,so011 Argulnents about ronl1nunal prO\lision are, at the deepn.11C'e1, ill-terprdatioos of that union. 1be cbser andmoreindusi,'!: it is, thewider the le>g:nition of the the number of -.ciol goodsthai ale drawn inlo the sphere of security andweiFare.14I don't doubtthat ITJCrhl"",,-.....I ......- ..,ot h< oIl!'tiJ ""no... st,",..,Willknitandbr'Cok blm tb'au..t;Mahtho: ....., Iq>rooy ador'd; pbc'C And ,;"", lbem htle, kntt, andaw.oo.tK>oI,Witb "I>;lto.. 00 tbebench, thisiJitThaI INk.. Ihe wapprn'dw;oo... ,,-cdaga;n,Sbe wl>on'the spital,houseandulttroussorcsWould CI.t the Pie 1'1,this embalm. and .pi"",To IheA"",1d.>y "iI;n, Come. d.>mncd "",tb,Thouoommoowbon: ofmankind, that putt'.IOOdsAmonltbe 'out of""Ii(",", I "m "",h lboo00thy ricbl ""tu,e.'Timoo has been brought 10 a state of nihilistie dc::;pair, but this is nCVl:l1h'edhere by.n aesthetic, not. moral, seruple. The point. oo..""..,r, is thesame, tbewidow ;s lramrormed byhe!' mooey. So .re ...., .11, if only"'e.rerieh "nough. "\Vhat I.m .ndcmdo,"'.-roteM.rx,"i. not.1.11determinedbymyindividll.11ily, I amugly, but [ (:InbuythenlOSl beautiful ..'OrrICnfor mysdf. Coosequcntly, I .111 not ugly. , .I .m stupid, bulsiocc money is the ,eal mind of.n things, how Jhouldito pc:>eI'Or be .tupid?"l111;S is110" "righln.tule" of rnoney-pelhaps especially so in a eapit.list society, bul more gencraJ1y too. f>1arJ., after aU, "-as quotingShakcspcare, and Shakespeare put his ""Qfrn into the mooth ol.n AtheniangcnllelllOln Whem'Cf moocyis used, il panders betwttnir>l'OlTt-patiblcit breaks inlo "the sell-subsistent entities" of wcialhfe,it ill\'OlIJarmies "'-cre mused for lutlle; fire 1'0""" wal grC-es; andthough the Llw was Cllforcx:d, oothillgit wasC"\'e' Wuthetr:uk ;mJOttnt ;nthemilitias,",ilen lillie mOfCw:lS i"''I)ked a few hours of drilli..g and mJrching?apoliticaltheorist wouldsayNo, andhe couldoncchaw.: madea stroog app"alto the republican CO-:llued inbefore theCivil War, and Rousseauianpun;shm..nts for non-atlendalltt--OStrOlCism or .-xpulsionfromthe comrnunity-"""ldhave5CCmed .-xcessi,'CtonlQ:'lt Ameri-cans. Pnhapsthefille capturedthcmeaning ofthescrvice, n.c casew:lSdifferctlt,.......'e'o'C., ""henlifeitself wa.l al slakeIt's not that threehundreddolLlrs"''as too chcopap.ice, or thatdangcrousjobscouldnot be IIOld fOf mOfeorlessthanth:lt amountO\l the laborRather, thcstate couklnot impose adangerousiobOIl IIOmeof itscilizensandthenCllemptothersforaprice. Thatclaimspoke to adccp ofwhat it meant tobeacitizcnof thestatc--oI to uyIhat simila.c/ioctsha,.. 'lOtbeenlOIJghl. O,dy mdhods ha,.., bn:n 1= di.oct and tIle'MUlls kss aehieo.-cd, as intIle case 01 draft dcfn.als 10. col-legeor 01bonuseofor conscri"", whoBut weac-now the prillCiple of cqualt.catment-bcause of the politi-cal llruggles of 1863; and weknO'o'"'roughly where the boundary is thatit ma,h: out So we can oppose evenroundaboul and clandestineCf'OSS.ings, throughlegislati>'" of",h:lt cannot boot personality, C\"'nthough libertyis undoubtedly a .... llIe lor.some of Personal liberty is not, how.cvcr, proof against conscriptionor imprisonment; il is proof onlyagainst sale and2, PoliticalllO"'cr and inllller>cc cannot be bought and .sold CitiZey, emigration, The Sm'idUnionhas adopted a poliey of this sort, chiefly as a mhanismto ba, emig,ation altogtther. Used diffe,ently, it seems fai, enough, C'-rnifit thenhas diffe'ential dl'ects on IUCttSSful andunsuecttl/ul citi'.ens. Buteiliulll can claim, in thei, tum, that they nc"er sought the healthmd educationthai they,cui,-ed(aschildren, say) arw.! /)'o4-enothingin,etum. That daimunderestimates thebenefitl of citiumhip, butnicely captures its consensualAnd10 it is best10 let themgo,OIlC'I'theyha,-c /ullilkd those obIigalion$-in-kir>d (military se,,,i)that a,e fullilledin any case br young men and ..'Omen woo ucn't retfullyoonscnti"i cilium. No one canbuyhisway out of theJe7, .... nd 50, again, frommilitary service, fromjury duty,ami from any other form of oommul1ally imposed work cannot be soldby the or hought by'COl",nSI gi,..,....8. Political officesClInnot be bought; to buy woukl be a kindof simony, fOl political communityis like a chulchill thit Je11JC,tlut its services "",Uer a grat deal to its membe,s and .. it 1>0a andinspite of their soc..l meanings.Thenllllkrlwhere exchanges ofthese""rt. arefree i blackmalket.andthemenand"'Omen "'00 frCdservices we PfO\-'ick: are wlued b,. potential C(lIJ$umers in such-and-Iucha "'''y, and these valuesareaiirq:ated b,. the market, ",'hich o:Jcterminestheprice""e JCi'e. Andthatprice il our desert, fur itexpressestheonly "''(lIth ourgoods andservices canha"e,, .... worlhtheyactuallyh:I,-e for olher pOI'e than this "it has established limits onthe construction ofnew dep;ittnw:nt ltmcs, disrount hous.es, andshopping eent(1'l, thU5.Iowi"g oo...'n the: impact they ho,,,, on small rclail.tOfc:l. "lIll,e: policyis 3imed31 maint3ining thc st3bility of ne:ighhothoods. andthat m3Ywell be a"'i5("policy; gi"cn a celtain of neighhothoodas 3distributed good md of the city as 3duster of differentiated zoocs,itmay e"en be a mOnlUy nessary policy. In 3ny cas." it offcrs pmtrc--tion only to mc:rehontl who I""'eout of the: Ialget" ronlpctition. is 00 hc:1p forMacy'lli'-ak exceptas theyCOIn help them-...I\cs. AndSO long as a sUCCCSIIlike of ReM'larni Macy is rontainedwithin the .phcle 01lllOIley, the rest of usonly " .. it with theg",e admir.tion (0' e:nvy) thot"'C mightfeci10.3uthor of a bestseller.The.e:is, I,uppose, 3 looselC115c: in it mightbe 13K! thatsue-cessful entrepreneur! Ole monopolists 01 wealth: as 3class, theyuniquely enioyitsspecial prc:rog3ti,'es; thc goodsit canpurcha... 3t thei. beck caU as they are 3t no Olle el...' . Simple c:qwlity wouldmake thi! sort 01 thing imposs.ble, but simple equality canool be sus-tained... ithout eliminating buyi"i and selling (3nd "''''I)' othe. sort ofexch3nge lelation, too). Arnl3gain, .. long as montyrontrohron",lOd-noSPHERES OF' JUSTICEilia:nothing else, ",'hy shooldweWOI'ryitsaocumulatioo7Theob;ections are xsthclie--;as with Timonthe widcMo"-notIIlOI1lI. They 10 do moTe with withdomination.Blltthe ruccess of the Stl1l\IU famIly ""1.1001 inthisWoIy.I.idorandtheiryOlmgeT blOthelOsearnlO'Oed easilyinto wider world thanRowbnd /\bey h;td e--er known Isidor was a friendand ;tdvi5eT of Pre:lident Clevebnd, took an active p,art in \'aTiow aimpaigns for tariffreform, Tan sllCttSSfully ro.- Congressin.894. Nat .... nWoISin NewYorkpoIitia, amember of Tammally,sllCCali\'e1ypark commissioner and president of the board of Oscar was Sec-retary ofCommeTce:andLaborinTheodoreRClO$C\'elt'scabinet latel held a numberofappointments. The thrcc togethermake uleflll example, for tllac were not robber Nroll!OTUnioo busl-ers (Macy'scigarmakers strock sllCCaIluUy for higher "'agesin1895,and the store's prinbhopWoIS fully organizM lI)metime in the.8Omicaspects of membership. I suspect that Corlreallyprefers the bUfld,yroom and the te,"isionfOombecause he thinks oflhem as commuflal.llem.oti,'CS 10 bou.geois pri,...tiutior>--pbccs....herepeople "ill meetandtlllk, plan assigrl3tiom, ma)"be ....'en .'gue aboutpolitie:s. ThC$l' arepublicgoodsinthesensethat....-crylen.nt, ....hethe. or 1>01 heusesthe .ooms. will benefit ffOOl the heightened soci.bility, the rf>Ore"4MoneyandCommoditiesfriendly atmospher.... 01 the apulln...nt hCJ,."e as a ",hole. YdtheyaT'"the Jllrts of pxIs lhat tmel to &d bt in the indi\ldu.alillic shullk olthe market. They don'l cd bt b:a1lSe ol the power ol t(Mplulo: man-aco:n and departmenlII...... OOlTleT'1....noI primarily beawc olthal,but lalher because ollhe ",duuit'el ol alml""...,n.lOtio mabtOOlthoica. as it ..ono: b)' one. each ono: thinking only ol himxlf (mortatamItdy: 01 his home and bmilyp. Wouk! consumo:no:'- dill...,enlly if they voted as membtn of a voull7 I'm noIll".... but ttrbinlylhe market would at'(OOlmodatt them if lhey dad. n.o.e people ..'110,libCon, b,ucoIlo:ctiwO\"U' ",ivalo: ronsumptionwouldh:l\o: tomab theirtaX, and theywould win or be, or "in inthisnoeighborhood01apartment howo: and\0$0: inthat one.$lIongpoint inCoIZ'J argunJo:flt i$ th... o:laim thatthero: $houldbo: a forumwho:ro: tho:caw: canbemado:. ThtmaTko:! ilnot lOCh a forum, bul tol3y that ilnot to nilitiu tho: market; it il only to ir"ist that itmUlt Iland along$ido: of. andnot replace, Iho: Iphero: of point is tTToboxIy wants). We could .boIish the maTket in labor in the Arne way as theOIaTI.:et in commodities-by assi&JT-ingjobs. by assi&JTing sbon, through tome political orprocess. The.rgun>e"t.gainst doingtMs is the salliei"bothcases.Leaving aside questiont of ellicimcy. it it an algllment about how indi-viduals relate to jobs and commodities, what these t,,"O mean in ir.dividualli,'eS,how they are sought, used, en;o,..ed, I dOIl't ...-ant to JuCiest.nynettlthat differential! willr>oI bela.gc_Thishasbeenexperierltt so:Ir infactories0WllCdOf managed by....1)sper;ty, S2y---.,xactlya. ,,., do.101I'withc:lpilalisr firrm.Incomeis delennined, lhen, by a rombinatio" of l'QIitical.nd m.r-kel factors. I shall have to defendin chapter u the p;lrlicula, aceounloflhepoIitiC poos;.bilitiesbec:aU-'iC of his low stalus orpolitical t'O"'erlcssllCSl,I ha'-e followedinthe3CLUI pagt';I anargllmc:-n! first slekheo:l outbyR. H. T.....neyin t.... )flr1 before theFilS! World War. The algume:nt is worth qooting .t!lOme: length:\\Ihen most menWdthenthnewi11be lessroomforthe social ,ecoguition of needl, Butat some level of taxation. if ootneces.saril)- atprCl..iling levels. the p0-litical communi\}' can't besaid to;n...de thesphcreof money; ilmerely claimsits o.....n,Market imperialism,equi'aanothsort of redi,tributioo. ,,'hichil not so muchamatter of drawing:I line ., oi redlawing it Whatis :It is",e now is the dominance of money outside it. Iphere, the ahili\}'of wealth men and women to ":Ide in indulgences, purchase state offices. corrupt theCOIlrU, exe,cise political power. Commonl)' eoough,the m:l,ket halit.. occupied territories, and....'C ean thillk oi redistlibution as a kind of moral irredentism, a process of boundary ,e"ision Diffe,ent princip\c$ guide the process at di!ie,ent poinb ill time and spacc.For myimmediatepurpOt'itual objects; and it is "'lti,,,ly legitimate 10 bargain. tv haggle, to 5kp,i''ateadvantage.The gim...'ali isflee; itcanbeCOIrricdon betwnany two lIromg"rs; and the shiking of a b.argain le"ninala the trangetioll 1l>ci'l.lJn.dcrsdr;lwasn.,plinebetwnthis ""tof lradeandthe of gifl5. When criticizing bad condoctintt", Kula, they""illlolly that "it "''a$ done like a gim"",li. ".,Atthe Arne time, iUCCCS$inhade pUle and simpk will one'i itatu,in the Kuia, for the:exehallge ofncckl.lJces andbr.lCl::klsisacrompaniedbyotherKIrts ofgiltgi'-ing andby cl.lJooratcfcaslings, md10 r"'luirelcomidcrabl-e reSOtlfces. IlUppooe it is Ir..eo{ us, too, that SllCCC$$ ill buying and selHngchanges one', positioninthesocial round. But "'.., arflgwayroundthe circle ortradedfOf other IOrts of things. They nJO\'C in;ldiredillll, 00;1 ccrt.. inschedule.to theaccompaniment of ttrlainritesandere-the of .......t..eh is p'Cmcd by 01 11K>-tuahty and obIiplion. The boundaries ale as h,ud to dra... here any"'Me eIx;intheUnitedStatestolby, they a,e dra..'Ufa, morena,IOOl'ly than in tnc l'apoIeooicCode. But ou, 0-... conorptionsofmainlcNntt,alimony, and dwd elle AlgOl tnc existence of apoolof bmilial W'C:lIlth.llIlher Iik the pool of communal.alth, ..-here IIClCdisbunementit notpa-1I\ittod. It milhtbethatA)", it mob/iption lredy....he-n one marries and has childrm.But no il'ttmmt. no contract, noindmctual undenhndi"l IICU tncshapeof theobIiption, This OIl cd\c'Ct;"'dy. not indi\-idually. dctamined; andthe dctnmination rdIa:b our col\ccti>e undentandi"lil of.'hat afamilyis. 1Cll'=fi1ly. how.'C\'c:r, in:Jmthe founding of the I'CJ'O,IbIioc on.Aroma""ha>'C bcm 'ClNrbb!yflClC to do ,,-hatthey hh ....ththeirmoney, The bmily has been las omtnl hcIC than in Europe. probablybcalDCof theabKnl'Cof aput; and:lli a rauIt. wealth has mo.-ereadily paucd out of bmilUl control I n hit Principia of PoIiac.t Econ-omy, 6nt pubIWtedin.8.+8. fohnStuart MiDpnitcdthisfeature ofAmerican life,quotiDi Cha.1aLydI'lTrIIt'tb;nNol'th..... meriaI:Nat only iI it a>m_ro. rich apiulisls10br a...;/1, portion 01Ihrir fortune Iow.Irdo lhe caodow".enl 01 "'1.....1""'iNtlOllS, ....t indmdu-sis du..... lhm hfdime ma4 1IYIfl.&ra.1 annlS01 .-.ey ro. the I'U""ob;ccts.iI here ..... a>mpuloooy b", loa- the equal partition 01 ptOPt111"''''''I childma, "" III on the llIbc.-luind, ..... C\I$IOm 01 Of primOI"'''!IIIC, in Encbnd, 110 INllhc ,fllunll fttllhcrnor:h". allib-nty to wre Ihrir""",lthbct...ftIl their kindml andthe public."l\'loney and CommoditiesBul if phitmthropy il uncontrolW, e'o"Ctl encouragtd by the sbte, liftJandbequests of othtt sorts aooIepcic:Ilokinare stmIUbjedtothebw---flOt as to theilso to speak, but as to their silt, Allhemoment, Ihis \cpl control dor5n'talJ1(Unlto much, but 1M principle:is establishtd,andit isimportant to tty to understanditsmoral bIsisaooto altl"nlpl_ condusionsabout itspn;lpft pIXIM:a1ellient.Mill oIJemlautilibrUn X'CDJnl of theIimibtOom on Ixquest andinheritance, If .. estinute a brge fortuneal ib true\"Ilue, he aid."tldl of lhe p/owro and that anbe withil,"lhen. 'it must be applolOlt to e'o'ayone, Ildllhe diHncntt to th.: pol'__beho'CCII anoockult indrpmdmttand Ii\" lima asmuch. illinRcniliont ..'hen wrichal againstthe mjo)menl Ildt micht be,n'Ol, . , by toIl'IC other dill> wi 01 the fourfifths,"'" But I doubt ''elY muchtldl Ihil 01 the: maOfnlOUl fortunes ""hiehno one netrh for any penoN1pllfpoK but OItOlliltion or improperJIO'"'"et ... leu01-tenlation is wlety unimportant; it i1a common foible ..ithin the sphereof money and, shott of sumptuary1cne'"cr owncnhip is "estedinthefamily or the lineage_ It is xpeci;rl fature of ou' eulturc, opening thc"'11)' tospcciallOfts ofgencrolity public-spiritedness lpeci;llsortl of whimsyme,lnness, too) It isn'tgenerous 01'publiNpi'ited,ho\o.'cver, to trytop.:ISI on a political ofIice---tible with their faculti.,,:' In fact, however,Ihis happy OtJlrome.e-qUill'S the pll'iti.-e ",wk of the Itatr:: adminisle.ing (urns. establishingcrit(.iafor tr.liningmdCr.lt.7The cflJC'ia.largument in all these examplesofFice holding itself, 3IId notmerdy tlte power to distribute olli lheirfd\ov.'S onthe IC'lcctioo rommill.... 10 choose'Y, who .har.,. the'ir commilrncnt.Theymayberight orwrongaboulwhat theywant 10 do withthehospital, bul th'")' ha,-enot heatedXunlaillyWithoutlhe "common agreement" lhalI h..,c stipulaled,tf>es,c IwocalC'll might klok kss 1/ we make lhe ideas of dc=t and qu-ali-fic-:rtionrontlO'-Cllial, alIheyare, thenil mighl plowibly besaidthaiIlll'prir.c: mdthe oflitt shook!go 10 lhoseindividu-als who bat iiithclHolinilion1"mlced out.Still, lhe mc:mkn of1hC'jury ought toIdrainflOmreadingtheil prival.. lit..rary programinlothcdcfinitionof desert,the members of lhe scl.:clion commitlC'C alc not boundby any limilarself.cnls about alion, HencethCl'cwill be kgil;mate complaints aboullh.. awarding01aIitCl'arypfizcif thcplOCeDhasbr:cnewerllypoIiticizcd-.oose-r> in a ....ythai verdicts Cln't belong to Ihe members of ajury.Evcnthetille of"doclor," thoughit is like ap1'i1-cinthai il callbe deserved, is unlike aprize in Ihat it cannot be dcscf\ed once andfor alL A prize is gi,'en for a performance:, and because Ihe performaneecannot be unperformed, lhe prill: cannot be taken ."..y. A subsequentdi5CO\'ery of Fraudmight lead10 the dishonoringofthe ,,"inner; 001so \ong as the perfmmallCC slands, 50 docs the hoOOl, ",'halC\'e. happensafICTVo_rd. ProFessional titles, byc:ontrasl, arcsubject toront;nllOllSp u b l i ~ S(:rutiny, andreference: to Ihe examinationsc:oJilin! proceduresa.cav;\ilable: plcsitt10 qualions of do:zc.l, the laUnwillirefcrcllCC 10qualiolll arc of ;nl=l 10 ",Iclested menandwomen,If we WCTC to rcgilrd all offices as prilel and distribute (andrcdistTil:>-ute) both title, ano: candidoltes'kllOl"\edge of tl>o: da",ics and, nlOfe important, their abIlitytothinkina"Confucian" manner. The coodilioos of thetest werealwaYI the specialof a rna", examination, the tenlion multi-pliedbytheltales. Lockedin a small compartment, witha 11m]] boxolloOO,tl>o: candidata wrole cbborate essays aud J"Zml on the cbssi-cal texis and also on contcmporary plObkml of philosophy and g(l\'efI1'menl-I' But long process ol routini7.ation, generated by a lind of rollaborationbet"-"l:eIl thee:mdidata andtheexamillC1's, ledeventuallyto the suppression olthe mQl'e speculative qlleltionx. Instead, examin-ers inoklingautonuticlor nndidatcs who get sochamllIlch score. The committee i. appr()-because of ill rcpresent;ti\ccharacter. What is at ,take, afteran, is notsome aMlract oflitt butIhi. pbce, this ;n lime,inthisOfpniz:olionor ;gcocy, ,,'herethescothel peoplearc....dywOlking,where thc:sc issues a,e being debootcd The committeerC-/lectsthetimepl:ll':e, speaks lorthe othe, people,isit..clla,ena for lhe continuing debale, 11,e choi"" thaI it makes. thoughdidatcsshould be consideml is that theyall shouldha"c (roughly) the sameto theil credentials and to make the bestCOIse they comOntheirown The casethey tryto makeis theyCOIndothejob and do it wel1. AndinOI'dCTtothat COIse, the>'h.vetobe toformlOme notion of doing it "'ell mean" wh.t ,killsit requires,attitudes and values aTe appropliate, and 10 on, If they aex:t'pted or rejectedfor that h.ve nothing to do with of this, thell it call't be said that theil qualifications h.ve been .ttendedto. I/ ...-e ....'CI'e oot abk to di,tillgui,hlrom qualities. then"'-e woold n('\'CJ kno..... whether individuals h-e h.d ch.nce to qualily.Nor "'QUid it be possible lor indi"iduals, like m}' im.ginary IiVe-)"t'al-o- ..hom 'ho _".......... dlud;' Ibo: ."". "'-ond .. l hod to bt aI.bloohod bt ""it+._"'""k ....... .......,j for ,I>< OWledge the posscMion of a P'I'tieulor body of men(J11OIerttC'ntly, of ..umen, tooP'This i. an effort umlertakenby Ihe officeholdenOf]Iheir OII'n behJlI. n.eir moti'"a are, in p;irt, malelial;aimto limil their numbel! SO that they cancommanod highfenar>dJalaries. Thi. i. the seconod "",... rd of ofli holding.But there i. moreIhJn money at stc'.It is allOJ way of establishing p"""" relatiooshiPJ. ProfasionJls exelcisepoo..... dlno.'nthe ..urkhie"'.ehy andallOinthei, ",ithdienU. Properly speaking, they ilSur: commands 10 Iheir subordinales,but only hypothdial imperati'"a to dients. If)'OU",...nt to get ",...n.theysay, dothis andthi. But the greJter the diltJnce Ihey aIe Jbleto establi.h, the gleater the Ottret,at their rommand, Ihelesshypo>thetical theirimperatives Jre. O:mtemph)OUl of omignoraf'ICC, theysimply tell us what to do. There are, ofCOUI'JC, men andwomen whoresist the templation to from authoritati"e kooY..lcdgelo authoritarianconducl, bul IhetemptalionJndtheopportunitya,eJt.....y.there: thisis the fourthr..,.".,.rd of office.Theexp.1nsion of office Jnd therise01 proieuiol'Jlismgo hJndinh.1oo; for as1I0OI1 as we sct out to en.ul'edpeople to serve a.bmcauCT;llS, doctors, cngin....n, tcacherJ, and so 0O()le their ro-wmke", it i. difficult10 see in what sen""they can be said to "control" their workpbce, And if they do hal'e cont r o ~ lhen One can a!STJITIC that IOOe "'ill be diffe,ent lOris of w.,.-kplace.run On diffe.ent principles. ineluding those ol.,lhnic, reliKioo.....d ~litic;al homogeneity. Andil maywell happenthaIat a giventime. IIIa given plaa:, the most successful fudory will be run largely by Ilalians.say. or by f..lormons r don', lie"' alllthing....rong with thaI. 10 IOIlg assuess i.nt co'lI'crlible outsideit. proper sphe'ePolitical Patronagen..,.e aremanygo>o",rnrnent jobs. especially al Iocalle'",Is, Ihat doI>Ot''''lui,e any g'eat skill and lhat ,tem sen'CltoIorally, rommitment, and pal-ticil'"tion, and it may "1'11 be a necessary lcatu'e of anykr.al-iSIOT dccenl ...lized democracy.A uni"elSal ci,illCT\1ce il l"oWblyuinoomp;lliblc"1thtownal with fllclorydcmoxl'llC)'. Or,local p'cmment. like smallbUlinCSl, WOl'Q bal whenthe'eis ,oom ro.iTicndship andthe olla,'OfS. Once again,thisis questionp;lllty oflClIle, partly of the chmcler of thejoinstak[ don't 10 deny the impo.tance of animpersonal, politic:llllj neu-tnl hu,eaocnC')', but lhat imporhmce will be0.1ess for diflelCT\tsorls ofpublic Thele i,nnge of fOf wbichp;I.tiundilC'Tdion seems,ifnotwholly app,opl;'le, at lea,tnot inapp'''P'ialeOr>e might C\'en make it a matter of gene"l aglccmentexpeclalioncerlainjobs",ould"rotate"arTlOllgpoIitic;a1 depending0"thei, luttCSl O' failureon election dayWhat theseth.eeeumples suggest is: that lhe Cllablilhment of a "....,ld .equi,e a wa. not only agoi",t the plu",li,mandcomplexityof anyhumanlQCil'ty. but againstdemocutic and complexity. But wooldn'lthat be a just war,acamp;lignfor "fair equality ofI tliedtoa.gucthat equality of opporlunityis: a ltandald fordistribution of )Omejobs, rIOt of all jobs. It is mOlt appropriate in centralized, professional-ized, md illprobably tends togenente suchs>,teTTU. He.e communal cont.ol arK!irK!i,idual qualifi-catia"necessal)', andIhe clUCial p.ineiple i, "f:ai.neu:'Ami hCTe"'t: must endllle therule of majorili" andof staleofOCials, and,63SPHERES OF' JUSTICEthe .:Iuthority of qu;ilifid mtll.:lm! women. But there are deally delirable: jobs that fall OIJtsick theH: systtms, that are justly (01 not unjustly)controlledby pri....teindividualsorglOUps, aoothat do001 h a ' ~ tobe distributM"failly."The existc:ncc of suchiob5 openstht waytoa kind of S\lCC'eSS 101 which people dOIl't r>c:ed to qualily-indc:ed, can'tqualify_nd $0 ldslimits on the .:Iut!>ority 01 the qualified. There areareas of social and economiC' life "'here their writ doe!n't run, The prr-c:ise boundaries of thesealCe byma-chinery. Mad,in....,. m",t work ro. lI$ in thc COli n,i,lCI "Id do aUlanilary""lees, and be Ist"hr of st ..mell. and dun11>0 .Ireets, and run llldSIgosonwet days and do anl1hing th.t iltedious and dislrO$Sing.'But that was always an "meali,tic sol"tion, fOi a great deal of hard "..:wkis lequireess---ool ",-enactol-$the01 dallger.1will ha'", to ronlidel Dlore compkx distri-butiolll_ t'egati'-e goods ha.'e to be dispersed not only Itnong individuals oot also among distrihuth'e Iphera. Some we can Ihare in the sameWII)' that "-e shan' the COSIs of the "",lfaresome, ifcolldi-.,.,SPHERES OF' JUSTICEtions are roughly erplita,ian,can buy and sell; some require politicalarguments and democrntic decisionmaling. Butanthe3e formshaveonethinginCOfTIIl1Oll: the diltributiongoes agoin,t the grain of the(nqati'-e) good. Elptin the case of ptmishment, it just illl't pouibleto lit the distribution to the social meaning of the go:>d, because thereis no "'CC or sex Of caste andno C()r>CCi,,,ble set of individuals ,,'ho canproperly be singledout .11 oociety's hard IO'Orlen. Noone quali-fies-thereis noPa.sc:;Ilian company-and 10 all 01 us, in differentwa}'Sarid 00different occasioo., ha\o'Ctobe a,,,ilabk.DangerousWorkSokIieringi. a special kind01hardwork. I"many societies, inlact,itis not COT>C'eiyed to be hardIO'Ork at alllt is the normal ocrupationofYOOllg men, theil social function, into "'hieh they are not so muchdrafted as ritually initiated, and whcrc find the TC\'I"3rds of cama"'-de,ie, excitement, .r>er 'c:a>n why the ronsc,iption of ordinarycitizc:nsforcoal mining hasnl:\'CrbeenurgedbypoliliCOlI mmoe"",nlorbe.come the subiect ofpublic discussion.Therisksthat minen Ii,."with>Ie not imposed by ptJblic enemy, and they don'lin"o"'e the speci;lltCTrors of killingbeingkilled. ToSOUleC'lItent. iOOttd, lherisksbynegligent orpn>f;to:'Cring owners, andthentheypolitical mailer. But theobviousremedyis 10rultiorullizc: theminesorregulate theirthereSC'Crns no.-d to consc.ipt miners.It makes lClUe to SC'Ck similar remedy for the risks imposed by rl3ture.[n Athens, themen whoWOI'kedthesih'C. mines,,'Cre stolleslava.in these....iC'C olthe city. Millerstodayfro:'Ccitizcrll,hutwemighl think01thcm, oo.."C\'ertheminesO'o'.rn:d,as citizens in the serviC'C of the mt;"".And then "'e mightlreatthemas if they ,,'cre ronscripts, not sMring thei, risb, but sMring lhe costsof the remedy: .esearch into mille $SafJI to march On' '0 ..lay at honle;1'I",nil i. II-pen, and thai happcn.-d, too, in somdhing lik.. a Romseaui,,,, commu-nily.TheIsroeli KibbutzFromitobeginning, Zionism lhe crealion of a 'ewishworking cbss, andorlC or anotherform ofMaUli.1idCQ!ogy, callingthe power 01 the workers, was al",'JI.)'1 a significanl tendency ",'ilhin Ihemovement. But the.e wa!, fromIh.. bqinning again. another tenden-cy, philosophically and politically more original, which called oot thepower of theworKen but the dignity01 thework, and whichaimedto create not a class hUI a community, Th.. kibbutz, or colleclive settle-ITlCnt, tllC product of th", secondtendcl>C)', .epOkin&. dcanil\i'Alldholdil 110 disgr,lCWIII .d-vallce: of maling it thai h.the eleaning 10 someone ebe.BulKlmepeoplc--patienll in a hospitaL 10' eurnp\c---ca,,'1helpbutle3\'e it to IOnlCOfle dsc, and ce:.tain 10.11 of cleaning a best OI'gani,.cd011.large sok. Wo.l ofthis IOrtmight br do"", aspari of. natiooalservice J'fOllf3m. Indeed, "'... and ",..st. seem theideal SUbicctl of natiorull sc[\'ice: the first. becausc of the speci.1 risks i",."I,'ed; th(" second,becau'iCof the disllOllOl, Pe,h:lps thew",1:. lhouldbedone by Iloeyoung, not because they will enjoy ii, but because il isn'l without edoca-tional ,.. Iue Pe.haps each citizenshouldbeallooo.'Coted. day; andloa,,,, toho: k own uke ,nd becall5C it c:onllttts inlI5Cful .... )'I wilhmy earlierdisclWion of office.nd with Ihe arguments still to com. ,boul honorandpower.11rt S4nFtilfu:isco San'tn&trsForthepali lixly)"CI". r""8hlyh.lf of the garh.ag. of Ih. city ofSan Francisco hI! been collected and disl'O'Cd of by the Sunset Sea,..,,gn Company" Cl.o< phyw>lOocn"7-. '" .... to'" -a- ..... " '""' ... ...,..w "'_U,.. ""!' and carrying the canS. ThroughoutmOlt01the\"COI1omy, the di.'ilion of labor has deI'dopedI..,ry differClltly,continually ICparating out rather than intq::ratinllthe hardatlOrt5 01W(lTk.Thilis especially tmein the a,ea of thehUlnan 1C"iccJ, in the""'"wepr()ckgroundstool< their tunu as orderlies and .1Ieodants---the inter""llife of lI.o$pi-tab,as)'lums, ar>doldage homawoold minlybe changedfor thebette. Perhaplthis sort ofthing is best organiUot allaedto call hc,,stlf a nuf3C, hut i$dubbed 'subpfOfeuiooal' Of 1lOIl-professional.'That iJClCICtly right.National !lervice mightbC' effecti..e because,lor a time,t lent, the rokof neighbor 01 citizen WOIJId C\-eT be too quick to allow their e..en ill the nameofdficicrlC)" ortechno\oeic:ll ad''t ha"e abolishall13rd"'0O! taint the idea ollcisure, bulthc artisan's table01vasc 01 slalue do, is a tbought likely to appeal only to philosophen.From a m()r,Il.tandpoint, it SffmS more importanllhal human acti"ilyb.- directet1l th"me,,,lyphrsicll. .hounds01 WOfki"i day. It .....,pothetime for growth, de>dopmcnt,.ndhealthym:lintt1l>""'" ofthebody.'oPhysiol bounds th",,, surely"", though thc:sc 're flighteningly minimal: "thefewhoors ofrepoK ",,;thoot ",'hiehlaoo.llO""e, absolutelyr"fuseJibl"1Vi:s again."" If cardul or in'-.:nli,c Ormaximallypm.dudi'.., work nwanted, the bour>ds a,e mor"a few hoof! won'tbe"llOUgh. Indm:I, producti,'ityincrcunwithrot, at least uptoapoint; andrational capitalists, precisely of their "..-ere-wollhunger," OU&ht to 6nd just that point nut thi< iJ a malt"r of prudenceordlicieflCY, not ol justice. Moral li,nit. ar"muchhanlel to spiFy,fofthey will vary from one culture to another, depemling 00the commonunderst:mding of a -dopmellt, for thefulfilling of .IOCial functionsandforsoci:sl intercourse, for the f,tt pby 01 .. bodily.nd mental ac-ti'ity. "I JPolitics, whichpbyed soch animportant part inthr:fre.: time of th"C,ttka,tisan, is not ""e"mentioned; flOr arereligiousObse",UlceS.Noris th"much-K'nsehe." of whatanychild could ha,.., aplainedtoMarx, the\-'all)(: of doingnothing, of "passing" thetirne-uulm"Irce play"is meant to include random thooghts, stargacing, and fantasy. Wemightinrorpor.st"Aristotle's definitionof leisul" ami l;IythatpurposelmrleSS, the stale of being ,",;tl1ootfixedgoals, is o"e (thoughonly 00") of leisure's charact"ristic purposes.But ....,.,..""'" thesepurposes aredelcribed. theywill rIOt singk out,88FreeTimeany group of men and women as l1lOfe or less CIlhlled to fTeelime. TI,ereisflO ""'-y of qll31ifying for IIis indeed possible 10qll31ify for sortsof leisurely wmk, as in thecaJtof Ihe profcuions.Similarly, one can win alclbr.'Ship lhat sets time freefor rCSl"31Chorwriling. Sociely has an intCfCSt in seeing to it thatin philosophy,ny, 3re lallllht by qU.31ificd pc""ns, but it has no intercst in ...110 thinksphiJosophical Of unphilosophical thOllllhlJ, TIte f,ee p13yof bodies andminds is ... free.1bc quality ofloafina: is not judged, He,ltt, leisure, as itis cona"ived in a particular time and pba., seems to belong to aU lite in-habitant. of thatlimc and pbc.:. No plinciple of selection or exclusion is The ancientasJOci31ion of wealth andpower wilh idlellCSl isonly 3nothcr formof tlunny. Because I am powerful3nd command olJcdiCIICC, I shall TeSt (and you shall wmkj, It would be mOfe approp1i3te to$;Iy that the re-o.rd of po...."r is its "ercisc, 3nd that po...'ff'S iwtilic>tionis its conscienlious or dledi,." ClercilC-llnd Ihis is a form of work, oneof whoseplJ1pOIC:$ is Ihal others can resl. TIrllS, Shakespeare's Henry V,repealing Ihe common self-; of Ih..diflCfCllt SOfb ofWOIk andworkers. 1 have ahetdyquotbbathACCOIding to the Deuterooomic accoUllt,Sabbath was institutedinof theescapefTOmEgypt. SlaveswOfkwithoutcease atbehestmasters, and so Is.aditnthoughtitIi"t mark of afreepeoplethat itsmembefl enjoy a fi.eddayof lest. Indeed, the commaod Il' reportedinDctJterooomy hal'9'Free Timethe of thels.aelites asill prima!)' objl.'Cl: "tlut thy marHer...antand thy maidlICflOI"t rna)' rat as ",ell as thou" (): '4)'Egyptian oppres-sion was not to k repe:lled e.en though !Ia"e!)' itself W::lSllOt abolished,The Sabbath is::l rolll.'Cli"e good. [I is.dsome mforcement me.:hanism.there rouldbe1"10 holidays atall. That;' why.ill obligation andenforcement ha'1: declined, holidaY' ha'1: ceased tobe public occosions, ha'1: been .tt""hed to "'-eekends. ha'"I: become un-differentiated pies of individual 'Olcations One can Stt here an a'gu-mentfor"blue: ta,,'S,"....hichcan be justified muchastnationis justified; bothha'"I: thef",m of achargeonp.-odocti..., or wage-carningtimefor the sake of communal provision.Sabbathresl is mOTeegalitarianthanthe'-acation because it can'tbe purclused; il i, 0"" more thing llul mQIlt")' can'tbuyIt is enjoinedfor....'erJolle. enio)l:dby ....'Cf)'OOe. * This equality has intercstillg spillough Ihe CO\'enant ;s neo,'er individuallydesigned.W",,1d people choose printe I;lca.tions 01..". public It ;'0'1easytoa "tuationin...hiehchoice"'OII1d present it",,1/in such Ihalp and limpk terms. In aoy community where holidays areposJible,hofida)'S \\ill already exilt Theywillbe part of the commonlife thatmakes the community, and Ihey wililhapc and gi"e meaningto individual live of the members. The history of the WOld I"-els of blOO'lcdge-JIlI these h.veto be distributed, .nd the dist,ibuti'-e patterns annot simplymirro.-the patterns of the economy.nd the order, because: the goodsin question are diffc,cnt goods. Of C'OUrsc. educationis .Jy.a}S supporti'-e of $OITle particuLir formof adult ];fe, andthe .p""al fromschooltosociety, from. conceptionof educational justicetoCOI>cq>tionof iustice, islegitimate. But inIlUkingthisappc;ll, must tothespecial characlerof the sc:hool, thete.cher-stOOcnt rebtionship, iotd1edual discipline generally.ReLitive .ulonomy is. functionof w.... t the education.1pr(loCn>: i ..,d of theJOCialgoods that it in'lOI,.-es.s 10011 as it ceases to be direct and unmediated.I "''ant to stressthe '-erh of being: ""hat the educational process js to do not only with the e!feels hutallO with theof education Theschoolsfill'n sp;ltt hctwttllandlOCiety, andtheyabofiJI .nintermediatetimcbetWttll infancy.nd .dulthood. Thisis.no doubt,. sp;ltt.nd.timO'idedintomle.. andruled,itwould seem. fromthe standpoint oftheleadlCfl,thaithe doctrineshouldbetaught 10 an}'Onewhopresentshimself and is capabkoflearning it. "If there were one dau inthe .1.le." w.ote Aristotle, "surpassing allothers asmuchas gods andheroes ."" supposedto lurpaSSmankind:' thentheteachersmightplausibly di=ttheirallention tothat class alone. "But that is adifficult assumptiontomake.andwenothinginactll3l1ifelike thegull bet.."ttTI kingsandsubjeocll",hieh thewriter Scylaxdescliks aseristingin India,"1 Except inScy\ax', India, then, 110 ehild,en canrightly be exeluded fromthe enclooe.:l community wherethedoctrine of government istaught, Theume thing is tme of othet doctrir>es; nor does itrequire a philosophertoundeutarnlthis,Hi!ld alltheRoofAnold Jewishfolktaledescribesthe great Talmudic ugea,anim-PD'"l:rished loongmanwho "'':Intedto study atone of the)eruulemacademies. Heearnedmoneybychopping wood, but barely enoughlllOfley10 keephimself ali>'e, let alooepaytheadmi"ionfees fo'Ulgal irrelevancies of daIS andincome;' wrote R. H. Tawney, "it ap.art ofleachct'. hOllor.'1(1When sehoob uclu,r.'C,it il bcn.- theyha,'C bno:nCOIpturC'dbya social not bcn.-theyarc schools.BUI it is only the dcmocratic (01or synagogue) th:ltin-";,1::1 uponinduJ;""IIChooIl, whnefutule citiumCOInbelorpolitical (or religious) life. Now diltribution;$by what school i, for and1101 simply by what itis, by social meaning of warorWOIt 01"'orship----or of c;liunship, whichcommonlyincludesallofthese. Idon't meanthat dcmocr.tC)' mjuiresdemocraticschooiJ;AthenJ got along "'Cll enough withoullhem. Bulifi. a body ofknowledge th:ll citiZet1J mwt gnlp,Of IhinkmUltgrasp,10 a' toplay theirparts, lhe.. theyto go 10 IIChool; andthenallofthcmto goto school. Thul luistotle, in oppositionto plllctices ofhi, own city: "the JyStemof educalion in a st;tc must. . be OIlC andthe same for all. and fkJlfO"ili(lrl dlhis .)"tlemmUllbe a dpublic adioo.'11 Thil it a simple equality in t""ofedOOlllion;andwhile simplicity il soo.. Iost-for110 edOOlltiol\al syllem canC\'Crbe"thefOl all"--C\'nthelowfixesthepolicies ofthe dcma.cratic school.simple equality (If stt>dents i. 10Jimpleequalilyof citizcns:penon/one\'Otc, onepbce intill:,,,Educ:ltionMucalional J)'Stem. We canIhinkof educalional equalityasaformof _lfa.epn)\'ision, whereall child.en, C(lIlceil'edasfutureeilizens,hal'e the urnI'nerotoknow, and wheretheideal ofmembclshipisbeslsen-M if they a.e all taughlthe same things. 1bei, education canflOt be allowed to hang on lhe socialSl.3nding (M lhe ttOfIomic capacityof theilp.arents, (Itlemaill5 a question whether it should hang on litemor.J1 and polilial corll'ictions of thaI p.arenls, fOl dcmocr.ltic cititensmay well dil3l'ee aboul whatlhei. child.en need 10 koow; I shan come~ k 10 thispoint.)Simple equality is COlHlekes.I omitted '-ariolls complicating !atmes of Cummings's analysisthat are not immediately relevant here. My pmpose has been to suggestthe clfcc:1s of oormati\.:= schooling mKlet democ,at;e, conditions. The...cRects anbe summedup'"Cry simply. E\eflt. It is possible, of to gather children intoschools ro. the sole purpose of not edocaoting them there or of texhingthem nothing more than a Nre literacy. l1'ell education, b,. the defaultof the schook,isin effect unmediattC:IlionHlUlt he lhapc:d10 the inlerests ofindividUllI It..dent!.Andthe ochoohlh.c-mlChes mUlthell10fe lettpli,.., 1ce Ihal he canlea", it eJpl"cially....e:ll,Educating is a mailer of communal JHO\ision. a kind of "",I- I ...'OUld lugg'C' and enfOlcc lhould be intrimicto wQrk, not 10 the status of the ",ork. They should ha,'C 10 do wit hachievement, IlO!withthettOllOmic andpolitical rcw:mls of achie>'c- theyshouldbeinwardlyfocused, mattersof prllisc andpride",ithinthe schools3IldlhenwithintheprofC3$ion, but of standing inthelargel "mid. Of unttrtain standing: for achico.'emcntmay still carrywithit, gi''C1l alillie lock,not "-calthandpownbUIauthority aridI amdesc,ibing notSCImolI for ",ints but onlycenlers of bruing llIthc. ",ure iruulaled than atprnent from the busince, again, the importanceof a common "prep" for all children in strong and ir>deper>dent5Chooo.Bul how em one pre..-entfrom spending theil moneyan littleedrapT(p.lration! ifall parentshadtheA'TICincome, lOmeofthemwould be more leadythan otheuto lise ",hat they Illidlor tbeirchildren'sedocation. Ande'enif5ChooIslikeClOllSgates\\'treabol-ished,legallyNnlled, palents could still hiretutonfor their children.Or, if parentsknowledgeable enough, they could lulor their chil-dTell themsel..-es, professionals andoffieehoIdelSpalling ontheir instinctsfOi 5UMval andadvance, Ihefolkwa)"! oftheil Clall.Short of separating children homtheirparents, thereisnoWily ofprC\'eI1ting this.TOf1 of thilli. It can, ho....e...el, playa greater or a lesselrok in social life genCTally. Palenlalsupport for schools like Crossgates.fOl eample, "'ill \'a", "'ilhtheIteepness of thel(lCialhieran:hyand,,';Ihthenumber of acsl points10 speeillli1.edlTaini"garK!officilllpositi",nl.";\S loldthaiwouldeither do",ell onIhe eamlor end up as a "little officeboy atfortypourHIs a )'car. ")(I HisfateWilSto decided,....ithno chance of reprieve, at the age of If lholtis an ;lCC'lIrale picture, Ihen Cl(lllgales Ioob almost like a sensible insti.perhaps, but notirrational.But suppose the piciUle"-eTeSupposethat theStlttr withwhichone said, andthe",th"'hichoneheard, that awful phrase"office-bo,. al fortypounds a year" Were both ofthem ;nappmp.iate. SupposethatoflicesdifFefentlyorganizedfromthewaythey""Cfe in '9'0. 10tholt"boys" 0lIl1d 1II0,'e up (or around) withinthem. Suppose tholt the pu\).lic schools were one-but not the only-I'.ay of finding inlelesling arHIprestigious ....ork to do. Then Cro:ssgates might begin 10 app""r as unat-tracti"e to parents as it "'liS to many of the childlen. The "plep" would less crilical, the nam less "ighlening, arK! theSp;lCC and lime available forlearningwouldbe greatly enhana:d.Even .peeialiud ochoolsrequi.e $OfJlCheedomfmmsocial pressure if lheyare 10doIheirwork------hrnceasociely organized10 yieldthat heedom, Schools canneverbe enlirely f.ee; but ifIheyare to be f.ee atall,lhefemUll beroIlltraints in othe. spheres. constraints roughtly of Ihe SOItIha'"Calreadydescribed,on"'hat mol\e)' eanbuy, fore:oample, andOnthe nlenl andimport...ce of office,"3SPHERESOFJUSTICEAssociationMild Segregationedut", i$00 need, to pick outlpc' on.gi'-ethemtlleirproptrn31l1es, asit tMothers hadtheir challtt 3t illlpilation. To dosoislimply to ac-"recruit""'nl'" of citizenl h:l.lh311 begun-andit willbemilted, ex;Imple luggestS.inItrongschools. especiallyprim3,-yNor is it truethat thetrllcksthought!>qmayhelptoform, tM 01 ;wult citi7.crll,adultworldil ootsegreg3tw br All sorll 01 work up and downthe statlll hicnlchy, require mixing: and, more important,poIitiCl ""luirnit One could oot concei'-ably org;mize a societywithout b.ingingtogclhClpeople of e"a)"mdkind of3"d belr. of talent-not only in cities and townl but aoo in lIloO\'emenU (nottolpe:llr. of bureaucracies andarmies). nlelactthat people tend to m...y 3t thcir intellectualil ofinteT'est. let- publicedUC'3tionina societ}' ilonlyincidentallyatuininglormarriage01for priY.lte lifegenerany, If tMrewerenopublic lile, /)f il democrlltie politics "'ere ladically devalued, th...., tr3elr.-ingbytalent "'Ould easieTto limited usesof seglegationpc'midg....rymanderedschool distriels, thi,n""erronsi.tentlytrue.cross any p:nticub, city or to"'n; rmnot lu,e whetherit isIDOIC01less true oow th." it u5fti 10 be, With regard to racial mixing, "4EdllC;ltionthe C'identt isooghoorhood schools keep black whilr chil-dren FOf Ihi'lea""" theassociativeprinciple ofneighborhood romrurukrharsh critici'm.11 i" fle\..,rthdes" the prrFrmd principle:. F'or politics is trrri based;the neighboeyor>dthe,each of justice. Theyarc judied inother te,ms, or ....., arc taught not to "" judgmental. People Joo,..., as bestther can, andtheir feclinglO an'! be,cdi.jribuled. Itmight Ix, I"""as&lmuel Johnsoo llnec said, thai ":-'Imiages wouldingenelal be nhappy, md ohen more so, if they werc allmade by the Lord Chmcel-Ior."l But no one has s.eriously propos.ed a1mding the Lord Chancellor'sP'O""CI in this way,IlOl even for the sake of greater happiness (and,ilthat, why not equal happiness?).II would, r>e\'erlheless, be a miJtaketo think of kinship and\o\"e as a sphe.e dillerent fromall the others,as asaeR'll precinct, likelheVaticaninrepublic:ln [taly, safefromphilosophical criticism. In fact, it is closely connected to oth.". di'lribu-Ii,..., spheres, highly \'ulncr;lbk1(1 theirintencntiOIll anditself pcrvll'.i...ly inA""nl",!. III boundaricooflen h.., lQbe dd..,KIM, if nol.g.in.l t Lord Ch.ncdl----t qU:IrI..,ing of troopo;n priv,ll.. homa,!Of ..umpk, Of I....doerqulatiollJalelikelytorepresc:nt, as I ha"ealreadysuggestedin mydilCul$ion of gift, andthe exlcmill,."fOlCf:mffit of prineipies originally inlernalto aparticulal understandingof familyliesFamily andEconomy[nearlymodempolitical thought, tloefamilyis oftendescribedasa"Iitlle Ilale>O within which children ale taught the "i.lues of obedienCf:andPlepared lor ciliumhip (or,more oftm, subjection) inthe largers!:ate, thepolitic:ol community as Jwhok-uThis looks like a formulafor integration. but il alsohadanother pmpose. If thehmily"''as alittle l!:ate,thenthe btherwas Jlittle king,andtherealmo'"l:r ""hicbhe ruledWolS a reilm the ting himself eoold lIOt in"adeThe litlle s!:atcsboundedJndcontainedthelarger one of ",'hicktheywerealsothep.uts. Similally,we canlhink of lhe familyasaneconomicunit. partianyinteglatcdinto,but also fixinglhebourn:!:,,;'" of, lhe sphere ofmoney and commodities. OllCf:, of course, the integration was perfect.TheGrcek "''Ord fromwhich our tcOnomy derives means ,imply"householdit dcscribaasinilespheredillinet fromthJIof politics. But whCfIC"ICr theCCOllOmy tateson anindependenteharxter and mata for the company not of rebti,"CS but of strangers,Whcne-.Cf the market replaccsthe sellsub3iSlmt household, our understamling ofkinshipsets limits ontheteich of establishingawithin whichmarkclllOfllll don'l apply. We can sec: this mostclearly il ""e COllSider a period of lapid ccooomicas in the cadyIndustrial RC\'Olutiou.MDnchtslcr, ,8.,4Engels had a great deal to say aboul wo,tingdass familiesinhis JC'rount of fJctorylifeinManchester in,8#_HetoldaItOlYnotonlyof miserybut alsoof moral cataslrophe: men, women. ami childr""wOlling fromria..'nto dusk; infants leftbehind, loch'llupin lilly un'3'KinshipandLoveheatedrooms;radical failurf ofsocialization;brakdownofthtstructures ofmdmutu.ality; a lou of kin,hipfeeling Undf'coodi-tions thatthose feelings no room no realization16 Histori-anstOlily that EngdsthestrfT1gthresiliency of the andhdpII was ableto pTO\'ilk. un.11is de-signed10l'aeilitateal wellasnpressthene", syllemof freechoice.Thep;lrenll are there. above all, to sienalthcil acquiesc:ence. thoughalso no doubtto qll;llify the fleedomin subtle andnot SO wbtle ..... )'1.11le cily's er>dorscment ho, anotherplllJ'OSC'; it confilll1sthefamily',(p;lrl;;,l)"'p;l",lionfrompolitical andC'COfIomic life ilndguanlltces,or at least protects. free choice in kn'e, I" e""etlythe same ..... y.cily'36Kinship andLovemagistratesmisht .p01110' afair Or amalket andgUOlr:lI1t.-efrecexehang:c_But thecityinanyscnsefill inlorthe lost pllYo'Clof Rousseau actuallyproposedthat a "Queen of the Ball" beelcetedby a$cl of judges;but themagillratesdon't l-ote, nOl'00thecitizens,on "'ho shall marl}' whom. Idtd of IhtI[lte;!nto d"ellfor abit 011tllCSCmechanismsforthe distributionof 1o\'C andmaHiage bK:ousethe)' play sucha crucial j>art in t\'erydaylife and to rarely liguleindisowions of distributi\'ejustice Wethinkof them now almo:st entirely in terms of freedom, the light of individu-als to do as the)' please ....ithin $OrneJt1OI1II and legal framewOIk (....hichess.mtially establisha the r;ghb of other indi,-idUOlls), Thm the old b",ag>inst copubtion, exlramalital scx, are underllood .imply as infringe-ments of individualfreedom. So they are, I suppose, atleasttolIS; aoo"'C are inclinedto believe that they 3re enacted IOkly lor that purposeby.mallminded IegisbtOls offendedby other people'spleasures. Butthc3e",ther, the system of Illoral and legallestraint of whichtheyeonstitutethetaUeled rcmains--aredesigned"'ithbrg:crgoalsinmimi, They ale$0 many eftorts to defend lOCial goods the "honor"ofa....omanandhel family, forexample, orthevallie ofmarriageorofthe Clchange or the alliancethat marriage embodies, Ami they be-eometyrannicalonly whenphysicallol'C is publicly cooceivcd (l hal'Cno doubt that it has always been p,intel)' colleeh'ed) as a goodin-itself.0.-, whenitis eonceiled as a goodinstrumentalto free choice inmarriage;"an exercisc" by whichl'Ol.1ng men and "Omen "showthemsell'C:J oft ... to the people ",hose interot it is to them....ellbefOiebeing obliged tothem."Wereit notinstrumentalto married kn'C (at least sometimes), I suspect that "''C ...ould worry more than""e 00 about thepli\1Iteassignation, whelechildrenareentirelyfreeandtheporenlalprescoce di$;lppear.The oomesticated \'ersion of the assignationis the "date," probablythe most commonform of courtship in the West today, The early hil-tory of the date is staid eroough. We can get JOme scnscof it, for exam-ple, inthe following brief acoount of courtshipinrural Sj>ain:'11>ercyoung men choose thcil girls at the Sunday CI'Cning prome,udc....he.ealltheunmalfiedpeopIcofthe\'ilbg:c circubtetogether. Thesuitorfirst "1Ilb....ithhisgill inthe th.." goeswithher totheedtohe:1i....'C...1eh.illian doct.ine wal slupedbythat distribtJti,'e ruk,"Render unto CaCSOl. the things....hich afe Caesar's; and unto Cod thethings God',' (Matthew 11:2'). Often m'erridden by impcri.alor crusading enth",i.asms, therulew;uregularlyre.sse.trowhenevefGod's scrvanlJ oreae... ... foundit OK!U!. And, in one form onothe.,'44DivineCraceit survival to serve the pl.nJlOSCS of the early modern oppor>ents 01 religious pe1loCCution. Two "renderings," t...'O jurisdictions, t",'Odistributil'Cspheres, in the one, the magistrate presides, "procuring, prc:scrving, andadl-aocing:'a' Lockethe civil interests01 his subjects;'in theother, CodHimself presides. His power invisible, leal'ing His seekersand ",'Orshipers to adl-ance their spiritual interests as bat they COIn, andassureIhemsell'C$ or one another ofdivir>efal'Ol' TheyC-en--whatWOt1ldh..-e bnmorelike'"inse>-enlcenth-ttnluryEnglaud-toauelection bymaleproperty OWRCr.,1n neiloo case woold"His people"won a majorilyof the votes. Cromwell hoped for a day wrn,n dectioos wook! be possible, thaiis, for a day whenthepeople IhcnlKlvcs,all of lhem. WOt1)dbe Cod'selttl_"I wouldthat all ,,"ftcfit tobecalled," Bul "whoklKlVo'Show soon Codmay filthepeopleforsuch thing?"7Meanwhile, itwasueccssaryto i0oi: for lhe oulward,igMof inner light. Hencemembers ofParliamenl wCre chosen by a JCarchcommillu,nolan electorate,andEnglandwasruledbythemooopo--1i.s1J ofgrace.Locke', argumenl, and the argument embedded in the: United Stales'46Divine GraceConstitution, i, the saint,free tothci, monopolyto rul.esociety(church Or sect)theyCrxeisno doubtgratprivilege,butthereis no w;lytogh'e it OIltto thos.c who di,bclic\'e inits or who adoptof it r.odi-cally diffe,e"tfrom 01 the sa;nb, or\\'ho hold the same "iN.'butwithIcssfe,,"Of; nor i. therewayto forceuponth.c gint.lTlOIe und II -...., ..... ,Iooy , .. *"a_ '" ..,. ,_a 0I.ah>oI be"''Cdit is an oper1 ques--tion"'k!JH.r willumemberwho they are tomorro"'.mediamake it look as if IttOgnitionis a goodin plentiful supply; allocations unstable but in principle unlimited. In plattice, ho..:(\'er, Ik roodis lCalce, QIlI cvel}-daycomparisollJ hal"C:the effect oft.ansformingoneJ)C11OIl'S gam into another's loss, CI"CTl,",hen !Iothing has been lostbut rdative.landing, Intheofrecognition, n:lati"c standingisveryimportant.The'e must be tima ...hen OM longs for the comlort of a fixed place.A society of misters is a ,"'Ork! of hope, e/fort, and Cfldlw anxil'ty. l1teimage of a r-acc, first WOfked out by Hobbes in the ","cntC'Cnth CCTltury,has been a eentr-allature ofOUIsociall."OnS die."\Vj'r do '"''ru"r 'lhc:reis nootl>o:l goal, nor other ga,land,"..rotc'54RecognitionHobbe$, "bul king foremml"llBulthis claim dralO1l00 h0 01 _ --.... tolUI ,lid , ,.not (kod;," ''lr .........Mtr) ... "" "" modOl "lie that the rompe.litioowould he las l..cn Ih.nin theW'OrIdHOObc:s described, 1/ lherewe.e more winnl'''(and a greatel ,,,riery of possible vielorics), therewould still, inevitably, he IOrnl' losers.Nor docs romplex equalily glL:lr-ani"", tMI"':cognitions would he distributed to individuals who wereinlOme: ob;ttti,"C sense: worthy of roxciving them. Of course:, there eobjeccli\'e standards, at last lor some of the Iorm. of recognition, TI-.erearc nOplau,ibleIormof social insurance.But perhaps ....""" minimal respectis in lact common !"opertyinthe society of misters Wemight usefully distinguishwhat I willcalllimpl, rerognitionFrom the mou oompkx lorms of rOjnilion a, thisor that. Simple rerognilion i. today amoral 'elS, whichis not withoutits cxcitemenl. The eagerness of American.10 droplhe "mister"andlISe'first namcs deri,"esFrom a desire to reduce thc !e-d of e.citement, to'58RecognitionfindIOllIe way 10 rein abit. We thinktheelIgcrnns dilhonat ....heneo.-c. "-C knowthat neithn rcallyintends to rdn.Thisnegati,-cintention r-cprcsmll a minimal and balic respect ''TIIC)' ro:lgnizethemsch'cs,"Hegel "'rote, "al mutually ro:lgnizing elIeh other. "17 Butthil anbea''l:rytensebUliness.Public HOllor andIndividual DesertI ha.'e been writing abolJlthe sphere of reOJ is to 5O'arch out not the dC:\Cfving poorbut ,imply the dae,ving, wbetber tbey are poor or not Butlhe Karehwill certainly turnupmenandWOmenhnoic action, ,i,,&ul.rachie\'ement,OI public $ol't\itt has,lor whatn"Cr re3$01l, been negkws, Heoce it i, in lQ'lle 5O'nse a remedial di,tribution-notbecoI...., it eve", up theof ho'lOI' but becoIuse it gellthe utte\Tn-neuright It, agents(ide.:Illy) are1TIOe' 10 u to make sure IJut they ale enoouraging n-adlylhey wanllo mcourage. This possIbility (,,hieh mirrou anoldagainsl theulilibrianac0 ...'Orkrohardfromlhosewhomerely"''Orked.) But inehoosingSlakhanov, r>ot iusl 10 bchonored, but to ",neasthehing of socialist honor, Stalinwa.s praumably endorsing Ihe idea of dcsc:,l.dcsc:n'ed to be honoredbt:call5C hehad drro-ewhat he did,and what he did waJ honoeS theymistakell; indi"idual corruptparti",n Somdimesdisagreements arCtoodeep alldflO'"CTdictis polSible;IIOmetimesmembersmerely .trikea bargain. But thc criticisms that "-e conHTlOt forAllredNooeTI will), Ihatwe aim ollly al the "moot outJlanding" achie-.-ement!;w.e can aim simply al all achievementl that stand oot. This il the moot common formof public iloIlO! in modern socielia, where the honors list il al..Oly:l pub-lished, the honorrollalways ailed, "'ith implicit apolocies to anYOlleinad"ertentJ)'lcft ofI, who deserves to be On, Tn= il perhaps a certaintemion between lhe eJlended lill and Ihe grandprize, Inhismtnl of Po/utiveinstilulions10as10 hringus a. doseto suretyas l'OSliblc.l1tere is a kind of moralthat lhe I'racti of I'unish-menl andprobablyhasas mIlCh 10 dowiththe dishotlOf allwilh thec:oereionandpainlhat pUllishment im"()hcs. Coercionandpain neallO afeature of military wherethC)'don't generate the sameanxiety or setuslooItly, it "'"OUk! oot bepunish-"",nl al.1I We e:lll see this bestif we coosider t",'o different distributi'-ernoxhanisms, ....hieh I ""ilI call the"election" .ndthe"seafch."Wemight ,-otefor thepcq>1ewepunish, thc .!\Citnt Athen;'n.did....hentheychose citizens for o:rtr.lcism; or ....elIIight lookW. themo:rt qU.illificd candidates, as contemponry advocates of pr",-enti"e de-tention",'OUk! ha"eusdo, Both of thexareeminentlyprxtinl ..... ngemenlS; but imofar as dislJibute dishonor, do110,I think,tyrannicallyOrtr'ed from thi3 ",oudule, as finlc).' sa)'s,th.t ostmcumwas an"hooor.Jry exile .., ....ithoutloss of pwpcrty and....ithoutsocialdisgrace,"1QBul....hen tlte practice of OSlrac;sm "'2.l dropped m lhe \'Cl')' latc century, fink)'goes on, "OfdinaI')' e.ile on 'cr;minal charg... remained'7'Recognitiona possibility.")' It was possible, that is, 10 use the iury 10 inflielIhe unle sorl of political defeal upon an opponentOfa ri''al fa" ollice ItfoIk>ws upon actions, not qll3lilieatiolls;1O.'e punish indi\"idll31s who haveal.eady performed badly. One might defend this"iew of punishmentby reference to the wluc of Ir....-dom: e>'Crlmen and WOmen of whomit call be saidthat theyprobablywill cornmit crimesba,-ea right tochQO$.e forthemscl,-cs whether theywill aet1l311y do so.nBut I thinkit makes more sense toput the argument somewhat diffcrc-ntly. If wevalued freedom less, we would ba,,, deo,-iJed a form of honorary deten-tiOll, like the of people with contagious dise;ucs, fo. whichindividu:llsmilht qualify(thoughwe assumeth.t theywouldpreferIlOl to qualify). It i, becaUJoeh..='tdoneth.t_hnen't choocnto, h"'en't hem able Io-Ibat Jlfcventivedetenlion is un;mt De-t-ainedmen and women are punisl>ed lor leasons that don't ronnt ",-ith Ourordiwlry undel$tanding of wbal puni,hme-ntis .ndhJ;,w it OUiht10 bedistributed. The detention, then, is all act of tpanny.SeU-E$teemandSelf-RespectHonor and dishonorare especially becausethey so readilyt.ke the relk>;i,,, form. Indeed. it is an old argument Ihat coocc:ptiomof the:self arenothing but intemalized50Ciai judgments. There i, 00:sell-knowledge without thehelp of the othen. We ltt oursel'eJ in amirror lormed by their eyes, WeadmireO\lnd"eJ ""hen ",'e are .dmir""bytlICprople around""'. Yes. but it hal to be added, not only theil,.nd001al"'-a}'s e>'enthen The circleof 'C'COgnitionis problem.tic.Consider somcorJe who il coneeited or puffedup he admires him",11mOTe thanrest of u, do. Con.iderIIOC with. a deep inferiority'7'RecognilioncompleJOhethinks himselfinfc'io"therest 01US don't Pe.hapssomeone else ooce thefint personorhumiliatedthe scrond.Still, these are b,eak) in the CiTCIe, aootheyalert us to tile difficultin of therelkJi\'eform_Whalwe dislribute10 onear>otllC"i. n-teem, not self-etecm; reopdwo,""n, ....ithdrinking and eating 'hot'sulrstanccs. meat andshoog Iiquor. Linkedwiththis is tlleir heticlthat theyaTehotbloodedandhighlysexed."ll We can callthio compensation, if "" like, as if 10 sayIhal it hasonly subjeeli\'e\..but that is\0I1uenonethelm. Fromlheir own heighll, the s"-ccpen look downupon the panid abstemious-ness oflhe"highC!"cast...,[don't " ..nt tQpretendthat thesweepenWO\Ildn't haveg,ealer....IF....tcem if the hier.lrtcdbyhun"nityingcr>cr:ll l9But this suggestionn"""'. too quick1)-, I think, fromcia.. and""tionto "humanity in general." Weha,"maslel behavcsbad1)-),'7RelgnitiOllmaywellbf' anaHncti"e figure, hut heis not likely10make a goodcitizen. Thet,,"O bf'long to different social "mlds. In the ...mld of mas-ters and K1'\,;mts, citizenship is unimaginable;in the "",Jd ofpeT5011al scrvitt Udemeaning. The dcmocntic 1'C\oIution doesn't $0mIlCh redistribute a, rw:>ncq>tua1iT.c ""If.respect, tying it, a, Tocque--"ille ,uggests, to a single set ofnOrl11l. It ,e,""ins possible, 01 course.tobeaSl'lf,espcctingtcache', doclor, tradeunionilt-imdalsoaSl'lfrapcctin.g SCI"CIlgcr, dishwasher, hospital ordedy; ndthc:sc: occuroles pto\'ide, proNbly. themost immediateCJlpcrienccofSl'lfrespttt. But the e.perienceis connectednow to a sen.w: ofOfK"'Sability10 shape andcontrol thework (andthelife) oneshareswithothen. HenceNosclf.CIpcc!ini: citizenwooldenduresuchtreatnlent .t tn.. bonds oidate officiob(orCOfpOnte ofliciJl.01bosses, ."pc....;,,,,,.rodforemen),Democratic ciliT.o:mhipis a ,t.h" ndic:ally disconnected from everykindof hierarchy.Thd in the political persist in most democracies,....ho5c ciliz.cnsare nonctheless capable 01 respecting them""h"cs. Whatis nett:lSOT)' is Ihatthc idea of citizenship be shared among lOI11C groupof ['!COllie",110reeesl.".lIal andthe",Rexi"eIorml of honor. Prolongedunemployment andpo"e,tyaresimilarlyth,eateni"g: they 'epresent a kind of ecollomic exile, a puni.hment that"'C are bithe to say that anyone dese",'o.11.... welfale .tole i. an effOitto avoid thil punishment, to gather in the ffe 1",,1thina:; il more nearly resembles thelystem 01 public honor alld dis!)(morthan the Hobbesianrace. Now COfIsciencc is the COUlt, andCOTUCiCTlCl:is a shaled knowledge, aninternalized :>cUptonec of C'C)mmulI3l sIandard., Thestandards are not all that high; we are requi,e.J tobeblethren and eitiuns, oot saints and heroes. But we can't ignore the,,8Recognitioo md....'('e:m'tjuggle,'('rdiet. We dorrlc.lSUI'OI meuuring up. Hence, sellraped: dependsupondeeper''3lucth.1t I will ol!"selfpossessioll,"the owr>enhipnot of one'l body bllt of o"",'s qualities,iIClio"s. Citizen-ship il one mode of selfpossession. We hokl oursekes responsiblc, and""I: al'd he doesn't "desire po,:r..-n O\"r thewhole world." He is the \l:Tyopposile of the tyrant, who uses hi!: noblebirth, or hil "ulth Of office, or C\'Cn hi!: celebrity, to elaim otOO goodsthathch.1,notto....hichhe hnno right. Plato ch.1.-xt.,rizrdthe tyrant, inp'ychologial tcrms, as a pclson ruledby amasterpa.!'lion." Int.,rms ofthemoral tt'OI1OInythat Ih:I'"I:b"describing,th., tyrant ;, apcrll)n ....,ho exploits a muler good tomaSlCTthcmen "'Ome" him. H.,isnot content wilhvlfpossession; but'79SPHERES OF JUSTICElalheT,thf1:TUgh the, mediation of money or pow..... J'OS'eS= him""Uof oth.eT sd,'n. '" amugly, but I can buymost beautiful \\'Ol"enlor myxlf. Cooscqutotly, I amnot ugly, fo.r efl""t of uglincMis annulled by money.... I am a detestable, di.honorable, unICrupu-lolli, ami stupidman. butIl'IOllcyis honored andso abois itsposses-ilOf,"48I don't want to suggest that a ""Irapcchog dctatableman...wldseeksueh honor_though a ,;mib, ideamayliebehinda ceJt.Jin IOrt of proud misanthropy. Mor., gerlelOllly.sdf-respectingcitizen ",'ill001seek what h., cannot hooorablyhave.But h., will certainly seck lecognition fromth., other mnrlCn of theHobbesian ratt (he isn't a dropout) andJIIlblic honor fromhis fellowcitizens. Thne aregood thingsto hne.JOCiaI eoods, and ""If-rapcctis 001 a replaCf:mcnt fOT them. OneClInnO mo.-e abolish th., rdativityof valuethantherclativityofmotion I sh.c:>uldthink. hO'A'C"cr, thatself-respect WOIJIdIcad on., to...-ant 0TI1y the frcdy g;,..,orrcotl:nitionsand the honat \'erdicu of ooc', pcml. Inthi, sen"".it is a way ofac--k""""lcdgingthemoral meaning of complcl equality. Aridwe mightassume in turnthat th., e.pericnccof oomp1cxequalitywill breed.thoughit canl1ever""If-fapcct.,Political PowerSo,-ereignty andLimitedGovernmentII,qinwilhro)1Ie,eignty, polil;C;I] aulho,ilali,'c &:ci-sionmaking-the roncept\l31found..lion of theJ1'KJdern st:lle. $0\'1:,-eignly br110lIlC'ans the lield of power, but it es!I)CUI QUIattention 00themost significant and dangcrowformthai 1'0""----bul also forth.. del..nse---of criminals, 1l>ey guard the'to;Ill be-t....een chureh andn...,. regulate the .uthority of p;lrents, providecivil marri.:lges, alimony11>cy define thejurisdiction oflhe tchool and require lhe .ttemuncc of ehildren. 1lle)' declare anddrequiredto .npect th., meaningandpurposeofps)"Chialrictherapy.)4.Slate officials eolnnot sdlpoliliol\)(l."e, or auction oRp;lrticulardecision,; liar eoln they use tllei. pawcl 10 .d.ancc tbe interests of th";lfamiliao.distributegll\'''rnmcntofficcIlo,clati.-aOr"cronies."'5 A!I,uh;ttts/citilClls are equal belore the law, and110 state officialscannot actin "'...y' that discriminalc ag.>inst'acial, ethnic,Of religiousgroups, nor.,.,..". in "''''rsthat degr.tde orhumiliate individuals (e.ccpt.. a result of criminal tri.l); nor can they cui