Spirituality, Religion, Spirituality, Religion, and the Supernatural and the Supernatural

Part IIPart II

Animism: Animism: AA belief that natural objects are inhabited belief that natural objects are inhabited

by spirits ORby spirits OR All things in nature may be thought of as All things in nature may be thought of as

having the same spirit. having the same spirit. In both forms of animism, the spirits are In both forms of animism, the spirits are

thought of as having thought of as having – Identifiable personalities and other Identifiable personalities and other

characteristics such as gender. characteristics such as gender. – A belief in a powerful, mature, or protective, A belief in a powerful, mature, or protective,

personality. personality. – The spirits may be benevolent, malevolent, or The spirits may be benevolent, malevolent, or

neutralneutral

Animatism:Animatism:

It is a belief in a non physical essence or force It is a belief in a non physical essence or force or power or whatever you want to call ior power or whatever you want to call i– the power is usually impersonal, unseen, and the power is usually impersonal, unseen, and

potentially everywhere. potentially everywhere. It is neither good nor evil, but it is powerful It is neither good nor evil, but it is powerful

and dangerous if misused. and dangerous if misused. Among the Polynesian cultures of the Among the Polynesian cultures of the

Southern Pacific Ocean, this power is called Southern Pacific Ocean, this power is called "mana"mana– Some things or people have more of it than others Some things or people have more of it than others

and can be potentially dangerous.and can be potentially dangerous.

Animism vs. Animatism:Animism vs. Animatism:

Both:Both:– Beliefs are often found in the same culture. Beliefs are often found in the same culture. – Can have the two beliefs combined in one Can have the two beliefs combined in one

objectobject A tree may have an individual spirit and also hold an A tree may have an individual spirit and also hold an

impersonal forceimpersonal force

Difference: Difference: – Animatism does not have a personality--it is an Animatism does not have a personality--it is an

impersonal "it" rather than a "he" or "she".impersonal "it" rather than a "he" or "she".– Animism can have gender and/or personality Animism can have gender and/or personality

characteristics similar to peoplecharacteristics similar to people

Religious Specialists:Religious Specialists:

All human societies include individuals All human societies include individuals who guide and supplement the religious who guide and supplement the religious practices of others. practices of others. – Such individuals are seen to be highly skilled Such individuals are seen to be highly skilled

at contacting and influencing supernatural at contacting and influencing supernatural beings and manipulating supernatural forces.beings and manipulating supernatural forces.

They may have undergone special They may have undergone special training and may display certain training and may display certain distinctive personality traits that make distinctive personality traits that make them particularly well suited to perform them particularly well suited to perform these tasks.these tasks.

Priests and Priestesses:Priests and Priestesses:

Priest or priestess: a full-time Priest or priestess: a full-time religious specialist formally religious specialist formally recognized for his or her role in recognized for his or her role in guiding the religious practices of guiding the religious practices of others and for contacting and others and for contacting and influencing supernatural powers influencing supernatural powers – He or she is the socially initiated, He or she is the socially initiated,

ceremonially inducted member of a ceremonially inducted member of a religious organization.religious organization.

Priests and Priestesses:Priests and Priestesses:

With their god defined historically in With their god defined historically in masculine, authoritarian terms, it is not masculine, authoritarian terms, it is not surprising that, in the Judaic, Christian, surprising that, in the Judaic, Christian, and Islamic religions, the most important and Islamic religions, the most important positions traditionally have been filed by positions traditionally have been filed by men. men.

Female religious specialists are likely to be Female religious specialists are likely to be found only in societies where women are found only in societies where women are acknowledged to contribute in a major acknowledged to contribute in a major way to the economy and where gods and way to the economy and where gods and goddesses are both recognized.goddesses are both recognized.

Shamans:Shamans:

Societies that lack full-time Societies that lack full-time occupational specialization always occupational specialization always included individuals with special powers included individuals with special powers and skills that enable them to connect and skills that enable them to connect with and manipulate supernatural with and manipulate supernatural beings and forces. beings and forces. – These powers have come to them through These powers have come to them through

some personal experience, usually in some personal experience, usually in solitude. solitude.

–

Shamans:Shamans:

Shaman: a person who enters an altered state Shaman: a person who enters an altered state of consciousness, at will, to contact and utilize of consciousness, at will, to contact and utilize an ordinary hidden reality in order to acquire an ordinary hidden reality in order to acquire knowledge, power, and to help others. knowledge, power, and to help others. – The shaman has at least one, and usually more, The shaman has at least one, and usually more,

‘spirits’ in his or her personal service ‘spirits’ in his or her personal service The word shaman originally referred to The word shaman originally referred to

medical-religious specialists, or spiritual medical-religious specialists, or spiritual guides, among the Tungus and other Siberian guides, among the Tungus and other Siberian pastoral nomads with animist beliefs.pastoral nomads with animist beliefs.

Shamans:Shamans:

Typically, one becomes a shaman by passing Typically, one becomes a shaman by passing through stages of learning and practical through stages of learning and practical experience, often involving psychological and experience, often involving psychological and emotional ordeals brought about by isolation, emotional ordeals brought about by isolation, fasting, physical torture, sensory deprivation, fasting, physical torture, sensory deprivation, and/or hallucinations. and/or hallucinations.

By means of various techniques such as By means of various techniques such as fasting, drumming, chanting, or dancing, as fasting, drumming, chanting, or dancing, as well as hallucinogenic mushrooms, shaman well as hallucinogenic mushrooms, shaman enter into a trance, or altered state of enter into a trance, or altered state of consciousness. consciousness.

Shamans:Shamans:

The widespread occurrence of shamanism The widespread occurrence of shamanism and the remarkable similarities among and the remarkable similarities among shamanic traditions everywhere are shamanic traditions everywhere are consequences of a universal neurological consequences of a universal neurological inheritance. inheritance.

At the same time, the meanings ascribed to At the same time, the meanings ascribed to sensations experienced in altered states and sensations experienced in altered states and made of their content are culturally made of their content are culturally determined; hence, despite their overall determined; hence, despite their overall similarities, local traditions always vary in similarities, local traditions always vary in their details.their details.

Shamans:Shamans:

The shaman is essentially a religious The shaman is essentially a religious go-between who acts on behalf of some go-between who acts on behalf of some human client, often to bring about human client, often to bring about healing or to foretell some future event. healing or to foretell some future event. – In return for services rendered, the shaman In return for services rendered, the shaman

may collect a fee; fresh meat, yams, or a may collect a fee; fresh meat, yams, or a favorite possession. favorite possession.

– In some cases, the added prestige, In some cases, the added prestige, authority, and social power attached to the authority, and social power attached to the shaman’s status are reward enough. shaman’s status are reward enough.

Shamans:Shamans:

In many human societies, sleight-of-In many human societies, sleight-of-hand tricks and ventriloquism occur hand tricks and ventriloquism occur at the same time as trancing. at the same time as trancing. – Some Western observers regard this Some Western observers regard this

kind of trickery as evidence of the kind of trickery as evidence of the fraudulent nature of shamanism. fraudulent nature of shamanism.

– The shaman regards his or her ability to The shaman regards his or her ability to perform extraordinary tricks as further perform extraordinary tricks as further proof of superior powers. proof of superior powers.

The Shamanic Complex:The Shamanic Complex:

From an From an anthropological anthropological perspective, perspective, shamanic healings shamanic healings can be understood can be understood by means of a by means of a three-cornered three-cornered model we call the model we call the shamanic complex shamanic complex or ‘magic field’.or ‘magic field’.

This triangle is created by the relationships This triangle is created by the relationships among the among the shamanshaman and the and the patientpatient and the and the communitycommunity to which both belong. to which both belong.

Rituals and Ceremonies:Rituals and Ceremonies:

Religious ritual is the means through Religious ritual is the means through which people relate to the supernatural; which people relate to the supernatural; it is religion in action. it is religion in action.

Ritual serves to relieve social tensions Ritual serves to relieve social tensions and reinforce a group’s collective bonds. and reinforce a group’s collective bonds. – More than this, it provides a means of More than this, it provides a means of

marking many important events and marking many important events and lessening the social disruption and individual lessening the social disruption and individual suffering of crises, such as death.suffering of crises, such as death.

Rites of Passage:Rites of Passage:

Rites of passage: a ritual that marks Rites of passage: a ritual that marks an important stage in an individual’s an important stage in an individual’s life cycle, such as birth, marriage, and life cycle, such as birth, marriage, and death. death. – Rites of passage help individuals through Rites of passage help individuals through

the crucial crises or major social the crucial crises or major social transitions in their lives, such as birth, transitions in their lives, such as birth, puberty, marriage, parenthood, puberty, marriage, parenthood, advancement to a higher class, advancement to a higher class, occupational specialization, and death. occupational specialization, and death.

Rites of Passage:Rites of Passage:

Arnold van Gennep divides ceremonies Arnold van Gennep divides ceremonies for all life crises into three stages: for all life crises into three stages: – Separation: in a rite of passage, the ritual Separation: in a rite of passage, the ritual

removal of the individual from societyremoval of the individual from society– Transition: in a rite of passage, isolation of Transition: in a rite of passage, isolation of

the individual following the separation and the individual following the separation and prior to incorporation into society.prior to incorporation into society.

– Incorporation: in a rite of passage, Incorporation: in a rite of passage, reincorporation of the individual into reincorporation of the individual into society in his or her new statussociety in his or her new status..

Rites of Passage:Rites of Passage:

Aborigines of Australia:Aborigines of Australia:– When the elders decide the time for When the elders decide the time for

initiation, the boys are taken from the initiation, the boys are taken from the village (village (separationseparation), while the women cry ), while the women cry and make a ritual show of resistance.and make a ritual show of resistance.

– In the In the transitionaltransitional stage, the novice may stage, the novice may be shown secret ceremonies and receive be shown secret ceremonies and receive some instruction, but the most significant some instruction, but the most significant element is his complete removal from element is his complete removal from societysociety

– On his return to society (On his return to society (incorporationincorporation), ), the novice is welcomed with ceremonies, the novice is welcomed with ceremonies, as though he had returned from the dead.as though he had returned from the dead.

Rites of Passage:Rites of Passage:

Mende girls in West Africa:Mende girls in West Africa:– After they have begun to menstruate, the girls After they have begun to menstruate, the girls

are removed from society to spend weeks, or are removed from society to spend weeks, or even months, in seclusion (even months, in seclusion (separationseparation).).

– Shortly after entering this Shortly after entering this transitionaltransitional stage, stage, the girls undergo clitoridectomy, a form of the girls undergo clitoridectomy, a form of female circumcision that they and Mende in female circumcision that they and Mende in general believe enhances their reproductive general believe enhances their reproductive potential.potential.

– Mende women emerge from their initiation Mende women emerge from their initiation ((incorporationincorporation), then, as women in ), then, as women in knowledgeable control of their sexuality, knowledgeable control of their sexuality, eligible for marriage and childbearingeligible for marriage and childbearing

Cultural Relativism:Cultural Relativism:

Anthropological commitment to cultural Anthropological commitment to cultural relativism permits an understanding of the relativism permits an understanding of the practice of clitoridectomy in the Mende female practice of clitoridectomy in the Mende female initiation rites. initiation rites.

Cultural relativism does not preclude the Cultural relativism does not preclude the anthropologist from criticizing a given practice. anthropologist from criticizing a given practice.

Not surprisingly, female circumcision; Not surprisingly, female circumcision; commonly referred to as female genital commonly referred to as female genital mutilation (FGM) and practiced in various mutilation (FGM) and practiced in various forms in Asia and Africa especially; has been forms in Asia and Africa especially; has been much condemned as a human rights violation much condemned as a human rights violation in recent years.in recent years.

Rites of Intensification:Rites of Intensification:

Rites of intensification: a ritual that Rites of intensification: a ritual that takes place during a crisis in the life of takes place during a crisis in the life of the group and serves to bind the group and serves to bind individuals together.individuals together.– This unites people in a common effort so This unites people in a common effort so

that fear and confusion yield to collective that fear and confusion yield to collective action and a degree of optimism.action and a degree of optimism.

– The balance of the relations of all The balance of the relations of all concerned is restored to normal and the concerned is restored to normal and the community’s values are celebrated and community’s values are celebrated and affirmedaffirmed

Rites of Intensification:Rites of Intensification:

Funerary ceremonies can be regarded as Funerary ceremonies can be regarded as rites of intensification that permit the living rites of intensification that permit the living to express in non-disruptive ways their to express in non-disruptive ways their upset over the death while providing for upset over the death while providing for social readjustment.social readjustment.

According to Malinowski, funeral ceremonies According to Malinowski, funeral ceremonies provide an approved collective means for provide an approved collective means for individuals to express these feelings while individuals to express these feelings while maintaining social cohesiveness and maintaining social cohesiveness and preventing disruption of society. preventing disruption of society.

Rites of Intensification:Rites of Intensification:

The performance of rites of The performance of rites of intensification does not have to be intensification does not have to be limited to times of overt crisis.limited to times of overt crisis.

In regions where the seasons differ In regions where the seasons differ enough that human activities must enough that human activities must change accordingly, they will take change accordingly, they will take the form of annual ceremonies. the form of annual ceremonies. – These are particularly common among These are particularly common among

horticultural and agricultural people, horticultural and agricultural people, with their planting and harvest with their planting and harvest ceremonies.ceremonies.

QuestionQuestion

The anthropologist Arnold Van Gennep The anthropologist Arnold Van Gennep analyzed ceremonies that help individuals analyzed ceremonies that help individuals through crucial stages of their life cycles. through crucial stages of their life cycles. He said that each ceremony may be He said that each ceremony may be analytically divided into three stages, analytically divided into three stages, _____________, transition, and _____________, transition, and incorporation.incorporation.

A.A. inculcationinculcationB.B. separationseparationC.C. revitalizationrevitalizationD.D. intensificationintensificationE.E. initiationinitiation

Answer: BAnswer: B

The anthropologist Arnold Van Gennep The anthropologist Arnold Van Gennep analyzed ceremonies that help individuals analyzed ceremonies that help individuals through crucial stages of their life cycles. through crucial stages of their life cycles. He said that each ceremony may be He said that each ceremony may be analytically divided into three stages, analytically divided into three stages, separationseparation, transition, and incorporation., transition, and incorporation.

QuestionQuestion

The major difference between The major difference between animism and animatism has to do animism and animatism has to do with whether the supernatural force with whether the supernatural force which occupies an entity is which occupies an entity is _______________._______________.

A.A. personal or impersonal (a being or an personal or impersonal (a being or an impersonal force without identity)impersonal force without identity)

B.B. natural or supernaturalnatural or supernaturalC.C. a god or an ancestral spirita god or an ancestral spiritD.D. a priest or a shamana priest or a shamanE.E. an example of witchcraft or of divinationan example of witchcraft or of divination

Answer: AAnswer: A

The major difference between The major difference between animism and animatism has to do animism and animatism has to do with whether the supernatural force with whether the supernatural force which occupies an entity is which occupies an entity is personal or impersonal (a being personal or impersonal (a being or an impersonal force without or an impersonal force without identity)identity)..

QuestionQuestion

Ceremonies such as bar mitzvahs, Ceremonies such as bar mitzvahs, elaborate wedding ceremonies, baby elaborate wedding ceremonies, baby showers, and graduation parties that showers, and graduation parties that help individuals make major changes in help individuals make major changes in their lives are referred to as rites of their lives are referred to as rites of _______________._______________.

A.A. TransitionTransition

B.B. IntensificationIntensification

C.C. SeparationSeparation

D.D. PassagePassage

E.E. IncorporationIncorporation

Answer: DAnswer: D

Ceremonies such as bar mitzvahs, Ceremonies such as bar mitzvahs, elaborate wedding ceremonies, elaborate wedding ceremonies, baby showers, and graduation baby showers, and graduation parties that help individuals make parties that help individuals make major changes in their lives are major changes in their lives are referred to as rites of referred to as rites of passagepassage..

QuestionQuestion

The anthropologist Arnold Van Gennep The anthropologist Arnold Van Gennep analyzed ceremonies that help individuals analyzed ceremonies that help individuals through crucial stages of their life cycles. through crucial stages of their life cycles. He said that each ceremony may be He said that each ceremony may be analytically divided into three stages, analytically divided into three stages, _______________, transition, and _______________, transition, and incorporation.incorporation.

A.A. InculcationInculcation

B.B. Separation Separation

C.C. RevitalizationRevitalization

D.D. IntensificationIntensification

E.E. InitiationInitiation

Answer: BAnswer: B

The anthropologist Arnold Van The anthropologist Arnold Van Gennep analyzed ceremonies that Gennep analyzed ceremonies that help individuals through crucial help individuals through crucial stages of their life cycles. He said stages of their life cycles. He said that each ceremony may be that each ceremony may be analytically divided into three stages, analytically divided into three stages, separationseparation, transition, and , transition, and incorporation.incorporation.

QuestionQuestion

Cultural relativism does not Cultural relativism does not preclude the anthropologist from preclude the anthropologist from criticizing a given practice.criticizing a given practice.

A.A. TrueTrue

B.B. FalseFalse

Answer: AAnswer: A

Cultural relativism does not preclude Cultural relativism does not preclude the anthropologist from criticizing a the anthropologist from criticizing a given practice. given practice. TRUETRUE