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Chapter Focus

Section 1 Structure of Local Government

Section 2 Serving Localities

Section 3 Challenges of Urban Growth

Chapter Assessment

http://www.gov.glencoe.com/

• Structure of Local Government Describe and compare various forms of local government.

Chapter Objectives

• Serving Localities Explain how local governments provide a range of services to residents of the community.

• Challenges of Urban Growth Identify problems that metropolitan areas face and potential solutions.


Structure of Local Government

Key Terms

county, county board, township, municipality, special district, incorporation, referendum

Find Out

• What are the similarities and differences among the three major structural forms of municipal government?

• What are the four basic types of local government according to the areas they serve?


Structure of Local Government

Understanding Concepts

Federalism What is the relationship between a state government and local governments?

Section Objective

Describe and compare various forms of local government.


The Metropolitan Water District (MWD) of southern California is a special district of local government created to handle a serious problem. Set up in 1928 to supplement local water supplies of its original 13 member-cities, today it serves 15 million people in more than 239 southern California communities. The MWD has developed long range water-management plans that include studying methods of reducing demand and conserving water, forecasting the area’s future water needs, and researching ways of assuring purity in local water supplies.


A. Local governments have no legal independence; each is dependent on its state government.

I. Created by the State (page 663)

B. State constitutions set forth the powers and duties of local governments.


A. The four basic types of local government are

II. Types of Local Government (pages 663–665)

1) the county,

2) the township,

3) the municipality, and

4) the special district.

B. The county is normally the largest territorial and political subdivision of the state. Counties vary in number, size, population, power, and influence.

C. In most metropolitan areas, the county government has been growing more powerful.


D. In most counties, a county board has both executive and legislative powers. Board officials are usually elected by the voters.

E. Townships exist in less than half the states, and their powers and duties vary from state to state.

F. In New England, select men now make some of the decisions citizens once made in the direct democracy of a town meeting.

G. The municipality is an urban unit of government that has legal rights granted to it by the state.



H. The special district is a unit of local government that deals with a specific function such as education or transportation.

I. Some states also have a separate tribal government that serves its Native American population.



Do you agree that New England town meetings are “the perfect exercise of self government’’? Why or why not?

Answers will vary. Smaller towns still exercise direct democracy; larger towns and cities do not because the process is too cumbersome for large groups of people.



A. A municipal government may be formed when people in a community ask the state legislature to permit their community to incorporate.

III. Forms of Municipal Government(pages 666–

668)

B. Urban areas in the United States use one of three basic forms of government:

1) the mayor-council,

2) the commission, or

3) the council-manager.

C. In the most widely used form of municipal government, the mayor-council form, executive power belongs to an elected mayor and the legislative power to an elected council.


D. There are two types of mayor-council government:

1) the strong-mayor system and

2) the weak-mayor system.


668)

E. The commission form of municipal government combines executive and legislative powers in an elected commission that passes laws and makes policy decisions.


F. Under the council-manager form of government, the executive and legislative powers are separated. The council acts as a legislative body and makes the policy of the municipality. A manager carries out the council’s policies and serves as chief administrator.


668)



668)

Which type of mayor-council government do you think is preferable, the strong mayor type or the weak-mayor type?

Answers will vary. See description of mayoral powers on text page 666.


1. Main Idea Use a graphic organizer like the one below to compare the separation of powers in the mayor-council form of municipal government to that of the federal government.

Checking for Understanding

Municipal: mayor has executive powers, council has legislative powers. Federal: president has executive powers, Congress has legislative powers


___ county

___ township

___ municipality

___ special district

___ incorporation

___ referendum

A. a special election

B. the largest political subdivision of a state

C. the process of setting up a legal community under state law

D. a unit of local government that deals with a specific function

E. a unit of local government found in some states, usually a subdivision of a county

F. an urban unit of government chartered by a state


B

E

F

D

C

A

Match the term with the correct definition.


3. Identify mayor-council form, commission form, council-manager form.


A mayor-council form is a form of municipal government in which executive power belongs to the major and legislative power to an elected council.

A commission form is an elected commission that combines executive and legislative powers.

A council-manager form is a type of municipal government in which legislative and executive powers are separated.


4. Analyze the structure of county government.


elected county board has legislative and executive power; board members head departments; board members may share executive power with other officers who are elected


5. Compare the methods of selection of the heads of departments in the three forms of city government.


Mayor appoints heads in mayor-council form. City manager appoints heads in council-manager form, and elected commissioners are heads in the commission form.


6. Drawing Conclusions Why do many large cities prefer the council-manager form of municipal government?

Critical Thinking

Political experts believe it leads to better management and responsible government because executive and legislative powers are clearly separated, making it easy for voters to assign praise or blame.


Federalism The four basic types of local government that exist in the United States are the county, the township, the municipality, and the special district. Choose one type of local government that exists where you live. Create a diagram that shows how it is organized. The diagram should indicate the officials that make up the government and their functions.


Serving Localities

Key Terms

zoning, mass transit, metropolitan area, suburbs, real property, personal property, assessment, market value

Find Out

• How do special districts and regional arrangements help local governments serve the needs of communities?

• What are the major issues surrounding the services local governments provide?


Serving Localities


Political Processes What are some examples of changes in local government structure or function that helped address issues of concern to citizens?

Section Objective

Explain how local governments provide a range of services to residents of the community.


The Texas Board of Education recently asked the Texas Education Agency, which administers the public schools, to consider replacing classroom textbooks with laptop computers. If Texas adopts this plan statewide, it may lease laptops for the state’s 3.9 million students and use computer technology to update or even replace textbooks.


A. Local school districts provide most of the money and make most of the decisions regarding the operation of public schools.

I. Local Government Services (pages 669–671)

B. Local governments use zoning to regulate the way land and buildings are used.

C. Police and fire protection make up a large part of the local budget.

D. Local governments make vital decisions regarding road maintenance, water service, and sewage disposal and treatment.

E. Many local governments offer important services to citizens who have special needs and provide recreation and cultural programs for their residents.


Name the local government services that you think are most necessary. Explain.

Answers will vary. Students may mention education, fire protection, water supply, etc.

I. Local Government Services (pages 669–671)


A. Urban communities differ greatly in size.

II. Metropolitan Communities (pages 671–672)

B. Cities are densely populated areas with residential, commercial, and industrial sections.

C. Cities in the southern and western United States are the fastest growing.

D. In the nation’s early years, most Americans lived in small towns. After the 1860s, cities grew faster than towns and villages. Between 1950 and 1990, suburbs, small towns, and rural areas again attracted many Americans.


II. Metropolitan Communities (pages 671–672)

What shifts in population, if any, have occurred in your community in the past 10 years?

Answers will vary. Discuss causes of growth, decline, or change.


A. Local governments frequently establish special districts to solve problems.

III. Special Districts (page 673)

B. The school district is governed by the school board.


III. Special Districts (page 673)

What are some ways that students below voting age can participate in school board elections?

Campaigning for a candidate; helping get out the vote.


A. In the 1990s, local governments joined to develop new approaches for handling regional problems.

IV.Regional Arrangements (page 673)

B. Cooperative efforts have solved land use, water supply, waste management, and law enforcement problems.


IV.Regional Arrangements (page 673)

What are some examples of cooperative efforts among local governments?

Answers will vary. See Regional Arrangements on text page 673.


A. Local governments finance services by levying taxes, such as property taxes.

V. Financing Local Government (pages 673–675)

B. Most Americans view property taxes as unfair: they place a heavier burden on those with low incomes and may result in unequal public services.

C. Revenue sources for local governments include local income taxes, sales taxes, fines and fees, government-owned businesses, bonds, and state grants.


V. Financing Local Government (pages 673–675)


1. Main Idea Use a graphic organizer like the one below to compare the advantages of using mass transit with those of driving personal automobiles.


Mass transit: more efficient, less polluting, uses less energy. Personal auto: independence.


___ zoning

___ suburbs

___ real property

___ personal property

___ assessment

___ market value

A. movable belongings such as clothes and jewelry, as well as intangibles such as stocks and bonds

B. the amount of money an owner may expect to receive if property is sold

C. the means a local government uses to regulate the way land and buildings may be used in order to shape community development

D. the process involved in calculating the value of a property to be taxed

E. a densely settled territory adjacent to a central city

F. land and whatever is attached to or growing on it


C

E

F

A

D

B



3. Identify Metropolitan Statistical Areas.


Metropolitan Statistical Areas are large urban areas.


4. Analyze three goals of zoning.


Students should discuss planning for regulated growth, preserving the character of neighborhoods, and preventing the decline of land values.


5. Why is the property tax considered by some people to be an unfair tax?


It is regressive and results in unequal public services. In addition, determining property values on a fair and equal basis is difficult. Property that some institutions own is exempt from property tax, so nonexempt property owners pay a larger share of the tax burden.


6. Analyzing Information Why do local governments, with state and federal assistance, provide social services to residents?

Critical Thinking

People without jobs, without proper health care, or without money for food, clothing, or shelter need assistance.


Political Processes Obtain a copy of the most recent budget of your local government. Write an article identifying the services that account for most of the budget. Also, identify the main sources of your local government’s revenue. Include your suggestions for change, either in spending priorities or in sources of revenue.


Challenges of Urban Growth

Key Terms

urban renewal, infrastructure, revitalization, gentrification, metropolitan government

Find Out

• What large problems do metropolitan governments face today and in the future?

• How have shifts in the population affected cities and their governments in recent years?


Challenges of Urban Growth


Federalism What is the financial relationship between local governments and state and federal governments?

Section Objective

Identify problems that metropolitan areas face and potential solutions.


In the 1990s one of the most significant shifts in population was from large cities and suburbs to small towns. Two million more Americans moved from metropolitan centers to rural areas than migrated the other way during that decade. There were many reasons for this population shift. Some families moved to escape the social problems of the cities. Some were attracted by the lower taxes, more affordable housing, and the slower pace of small town life.


A. Municipal governments attempt to manage land use to encourage orderly growth. This is difficult since population shifts have caused inner cities to decline.

I. Population and Housing (pages 677–679)

B. Mayors of large cities in decline appealed to the federal government for help in the 1950s and 1960s.

C. The federal government provided massive spending to help cities address their housing problems. The results were not encouraging.


D. Urban renewal programs added new low-rent public housing, but slowed construction of other types of housing.

E. For many years, suburbs and smaller communities excluded African Americans and other minorities, and apartment owners discriminated against the elderly, the poor, and families with children.

F. Many large cities responded to the housing shortage by renovating older housing units. The federal government also provided loans to local housing authorities through public housing programs.



How do you think municipal governments should deal with the decline of inner cities?

Answers will vary. See Managing Decline on text page 677.



A. Large cities face serious social problems.

II. Social Problems (pages 679–680)

B. Unemployment and housing shortages contribute to the problem of homeless people.

C. The federal government, through the media, has publicized drug abuse and spent huge amounts for drug treatment and prevention programs.


II. Social Problems (pages 679–680)

What social problem do you think most affects your neighborhood?

Students may mention poverty, homelessness, crime, drug abuse, alcohol abuse.


A. Large cities also have many problems that add to their financial burdens.

III. Meeting Future Challenges (pages 680–682)

B. The infrastructure of older large cities shows severe signs of wear and needs repair.

C. Local governments encourage the public to use mass transit to reduce traffic and air pollution.

D. Cities struggle to solve their financial problems, and recently have focused on stimulating greater economic development.


E. Beginning in the 1980s, middle income suburbanites and recent immigrants moved into the cities, often restoring old houses and other buildings. While this improved many neighborhoods, it also displaced residents.

F. In the 1980s, the nation’s attention seemed to be shifting from city problems to suburban opportunities.

G. Many people feel that metropolitan government must be reorganized to serve a larger region and to reduce government waste and duplication of services.




Discuss the pros and cons of gentrification and how it affects neighborhoods in large cities.

Pro: Restores vitality to the city, brings in new business; Con: raises property taxes, drives out long-time residents.


1. Main Idea Use a graphic organizer like the one below to compare challenges that municipal governments faced in the 1950s to those they face today.


1950s: job losses, deteriorating housing, poor sanitary conditions, rising crime rates Today: repairing infrastructure, maintaining and developing mass transit, providing for economic development, dealing with issues resulting from gentrification


___ urban renewal

___ infrastructure

___ revitalization

___ gentrification

___ metropolitan government

A. the basic facilities of a city

B. the phenomenon of new people moving into a neighborhood, forcing out those who live there and changing the area’s essential character

C. a type of government that serves several different communities in the same region

D. programs under which cities apply for federal aid to clear slum areas and rebuild

E. investments in new facilities in an effort to promote economic growth


D

A

E

B

C



3. Identify Drug Enforcement Administration, Office of National Drug Control Policy.


The Drug Enforcement Administration is a federal program that enforces the controlled substances laws and regulations of the United States.

The Office of National Drug Control Policy is a federal program that establishes policies, priorities, and objectives for the nation’s drug control program.


4. What are the positive and negative outcomes of gentrification?


Positive: It restores vitality to the city by reclaiming deteriorating property and bringing new business to decayed areas. Negative: It accelerates property sales, inflating property values and increasing taxes; property becomes too expensive for poorer residents to remain in these neighborhoods.


5. How would a metropolitan government address urban problems?


Metropolitan government would reduce government waste and duplication of services; it also might provide services such as water, sewage disposal, and sanitation.


6. Predicting Consequences Analyze additional problems cities will face if governments are unable to fund replacement of urban infrastructures.

Critical Thinking

more traffic congestion; problems with services such as water, sewage disposal, and sanitation


Federalism Mayors of large cities must present strong arguments to get federal funds to address city problems. What could a mayor say to the president and Congress to support the cities’ cause? Research the types of projects that would benefit your community. Write a proposal explaining the need for federal money to support that project for your community.


Reviewing Key Terms

1. Basic facilities such as streets, water lines, and public buildings make up what is known as the _______________________ of a city.

2. The government does not tax property on the _______________________, or the amount of money the owner may expect to receive if the property is sold.

3. To promote economic growth, local governments have tried _______________________ through large investments in new facilities.

infrastructure

Write the term that best completes each sentence.

county real propertymunicipality infrastructurespecial district revitalizationzoning gentrificationmarket value metropolitan government

market value

revitalization


Reviewing Key Terms

4. In the South and in rural areas ___________________ government is important.

5. Local governments may use _______________________ to control growth.

6. Local governments rely on _______________________ taxes as a main source of revenue.

7. Some people feel that the best way to address urban problems is reorganization using _______________________ that serves a large region.

county



zoning

real property

metropolitan government


Reviewing Key Terms

8. Originally, a charter for a _______________________ was much like one that states granted to corporations.

9. A public school district is a _______________________ established by local government.

10. Sometimes called “displacement,” _______________________ has often changed the character of an urban area.

municipality



special district

gentrification


1. What document specifies the powers and duties of local government?

Recalling Facts

The state constitution specifies the powers and duties of local government.

2. What are the three main forms of municipal government?

The three main forms of municipal government are mayor-council form, commission form, and council-manager form.


3. What is the single largest public service provided by local tax revenues?

Recalling Facts

The single largest public service provided by local tax revenues is public education.

4. What is the biggest government expenditure for many large American cities?

The biggest government expenditure for many large American cities is social services.


5. Describe four kinds of population shifts in metropolitan areas since 1950.

Recalling Facts

Cities and suburbs in the South and West grew rapidly, cities in the Northeast and Midwest lost population, the population of small towns and rural areas increased, and people moved from inner cities to suburbs.


1. Federalism What is the relationship between a state and a municipality within that state?


The state creates the municipality by granting it a charter to govern.


2. Political Processes Why did some state supreme courts rule against using the property tax to pay for local schools?


Some state supreme courts ruled that using the property tax to support local schools was a violation of the Fourteenth Amendment’s guarantee of equal protection of the law. For example, a wealthy community with a large tax base can afford better public services than a less wealthy community with a small tax base. The court held that the practice discriminated against students in poor communities.


1. Making Comparisons Use a Venn diagram like the one below to compare a local government’s charter to a state constitution.

Critical Thinking

Local charter: provides structure and rules for local government. State constitution: provides structure and rules for state government. Both: established by state officials.


2. Identifying Central Issues In your view, which of the federal government’s goals in dealing with the illegal drug problem is the most important? Why?

Critical Thinking

Answers will vary. Some students will support prevention, others treatment, and still others controlling the supply.


1. Whom do the two figures represent?

Interpreting Political Cartoons Activity

Uncle Sam (the United States federal government) and United States cities


2. What statement is the cartoonist making about the state of cities?


Cities are experiencing difficulties because of a lack of funding and unfunded mandates handed down from the federal government; cities are disabled and need federal attention.


3. According to the cartoonist, what can the government do to help cities?


The government can send more funds to cities and take a bigger role in solving urban problems.


By population, what are the five largest cities in the United States? According to both the 1990 and 2000 census, they are, in decreasing order: New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Philadelphia.


1) Special districts with 31,555 units 2) No; only 48 states have counties, 20

states have townships, and 45 states have local school districts

3) small physical size

1) Jacksonville has the second smallest city population, but the third highest property-tax rate

2) Chicago; it has fewer residents, but they live in an area less than half the size of Los Angeles, meaning there are more people per square mile

3) Answers will vary.

1) single men

2) New York City has a disproportionately large number of homeless people.

3) Answers will vary.

Visualizing Local Government Supplement your exploration of Chapter 24 by preparing posters that serve one or more of the following purposes:

• analyze the local government structure or a local government service

• campaign for a candidate for a local government office or for a local issue on the ballot

• participate in your local government in various ways

Use a wide variety of media (for example, paint , photography, computer-generated artwork) to illustrate your topics. Display your finished poster in the classroom as a study aid for the chapter.

Trash Talk In the late 1800s and early 1900s, residents of New York City dumped food, toilet waste, and coal or wood ash into sidewalk gutters. Trash was towed out to sea on barges and shoveled into the ocean to wash ashore on New Jersey beaches. Today most people take for granted a service such as garbage collection. For local officials, however, this service continues to pose a serious problem. “Everyone wants you to pick up their garbage,” said one official, “but no one wants you to put it down.” He might have added, “. . . especially in their backyard.” Many local governments find that providing a basic service like garbage removal is a critical but controversial issue.

Washington on Cities In 1791 George Washington wrote the following to the Marquis de Lafayette—a comment that seems prophetic until one remembers that he was describing cities of his own time: “The tumultuous populace of large cities are ever to be dreaded. Their indiscriminate violence prostrates for the time all public authority, and its consequences are sometimes extensive and terrible.”

Louisiana’s governmental unit of the parish goes back to the time when Louisiana was under Spanish rule, when areas were organized into religious divisions called parishes. Originally, a parish was the area committed to the care of one pastor or priest.

Some projects to revitalize inner cities have restored rundown or abandoned market buildings or docks instead of replacing them with new buildings. Successfully recycled cityscapes include San Francisco’s Ghirardelli Square, Sacramento’s Skid Row, Baltimore’s Harborplace, and Boston’s Quincy Market.

Board may seem an unusual term to describe a group of people (as in a school board), but it reflects an archaic meaning of board as a synonym for table. Councils or groups of magistrates once sat (and often sit today) at a table, or board, as they held their meetings.

In many American cities, it pays to be mayor. In at least 20 major cities, mayors earn well over $100,000 a year. Topping the list are the mayors of New York City and Chicago, whose annual salaries are about $200,000. Some city managers do even better: salaries in San Diego, Oakland, Los Angeles, and San Jose, California, exceed $200,000. Becoming the city manager of Dallas really makes “cents,” with an annual salary that tops $260,000!

Super Salaries

Gentrification Stage an informal debate about encouraging or trying to stop the gentrification of a hypothetical neighborhood. Supplement the discussion in the text with additional research.

Watching Local Government Attend (in person or by watching cable broadcasts, if available) local government meetings, such as a session of the county board, city council, or town or village board. Prepare oral reports on the meetings you viewed, providing information such as which officials attended, who presided over the meetings, what issues were discussed, and what resolutions were reached.

Voters and School Policy Prepare graphs, based on data from the local board of elections, showing the percentage of eligible voters taking part in school board elections over the past 10 years. How much do voters seem to influence school policy in this community? Propose methods of increasing voter interest in school board elections.

Technology

Economics

Technology In most cases, town meetings are not televised—or, if they are, the broadcast is carried on a local cable channel. Politicians in the national spotlight, however—leading members of Congress, for instance, or presidential candidates—have learned that appearing at a town meeting and getting national media coverage for it can boost their public image.

Economics Incorporation usually is associated more with business than with government. A business that incorporates is recognized as a “person” under the law, and it allows many individuals to invest their finances at relatively little risk. Interested students may enjoy comparing economic incorporation to government incorporation and sharing their insights.

Gillian Kilberg said of her grandmother, “She was an amazing woman who was always there for me.” Kilberg has continued to show that she is there for Grandma Rita’s Children, enlisting volunteers to chaperone trips for children to various sites in the Washington, D.C., area. In 1998 the federal government recognized Kilberg by selecting her as one of the 29 recipients of the President’s Service Award.

Activity: What would you do to help other people if you received a $20,000 inheritance? Compile a master list of charitable works.

Gillian Kilberg

More About Teen Courts In most cases, offenders cannot appear before a teen court unless they have already admitted their guilt. In some teen court programs teenagers serve not only as attorneys and jurors but as bailiffs, clerks of the court, and even presiding judges. Opponents of the program suggest that teenagers do not have the maturity to render legal decisions, pointing to cases in which judges have had to step in and change an overly severe ruling from a teen court. The educational benefits of the program, however—coupled with the peer pressure exerted in these cases—suggest that teen courts are worth further evaluation and that they may be effective in reducing crime.

At the turn of the century, a trend toward reform in local government was echoed in the Midwest by the reforms instituted by several mayors of the time. In Detroit, Mayor Hazen Pingree established new schools, parks, and work programs. In Toledo, Mayor Samuel “Golden Rule” Jones set up municipal ownership of public utilities and tackled police corruption. And in Cleveland, Mayor Tom Johnson reformed city services so much that Cleveland became known as the best-governed city in the United States.

Reforming Mayors

In New York City’s Harlem, Clara Hale was ready to retire from years of caring for foster children—and then a drug addict with a baby came to her door, sent by Hale’s daughter Lorraine. Thus, in 1969 Hale began Hale House, a nonprofit children’s center supported entirely by private donations. In 1985, President Ronald Reagan praised the work that “Mother” Hale and her daughter (who now directs Hale House) were doing to meet urban challenges. Today, Hale House specializes in caring for drug-addicted and HIV-positive babies.

Clara Hale

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