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Nationalism in the Middle East



• During World War I, the Ottomans sided with Germany, which caused Britain to attack Ottoman Arab states.

• The British convinced Arabs to revolt against Ottoman rule.

• Arabia declared its independence in 1916.

• After losing hundreds of thousands of soldiers, the Ottomans made peace with the Allies in 1918.

Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire

(pages 781–783)(pages 781–783)



• During World War I, the Ottomans had killed or been responsible for the deaths of nearly a million Christian Armenians.

• The Armenians had sought independence and were brutally attacked and deported by the Ottomans.

• The Allies denounced the genocide, or deliberate mass murder, of the Armenians, but they did nothing to prevent it.

• A similar process of mass murder would be called ethnic cleansing in the Bosnian War of 1993 to 1996.

Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire (cont.)

(pages 781–783)(pages 781–783)



• At the end of World War I, the Ottoman Empire collapsed.

• Turkey was all that remained under Ottoman control.

• When Greece invaded western Turkey, Turkish leaders decided to form a new Republic of Turkey.

• Under the command of Mustafa Kemal, they were able to drive the Greek troops out.

• In 1923, the last Ottoman sultan fled the country.

Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire (cont.)

(pages 781–783)(pages 781–783)



The Modernization of Turkey

(pages 783–784)(pages 783–784)

• Mustafa Kemal, known as Atatürk, became president of Turkey.

• He tried to transform Turkey into a modern state.

• Although Turkey had a democratic system of government, Atatürk did not allow opposition.



The Modernization of Turkey (cont.)

• Atatürk made changes throughout Turkish society. These included:

• eliminating Arabic elements from the Turkish language

• adopting the Roman alphabet

• and forcing people to adopt last names

(pages 783–784)(pages 783–784)

• established factories and directed the economy.

• He tried to modernize farming, but it wasn’t successful



• Atatürk wanted Turkey to be a secular state, one that rejects religious influences in politics.

• In 1924 he abolished the caliphate and forbade men to wear the fez, or traditional Turkish Muslim hat.

• He forbade the Islamic custom of women wearing a veil.


(pages 783–784)(pages 783–784)



• New laws gave women equal marriage and inheritance rights and, in time, the right to vote.

• Turks could join non-Islamic religions.

• While devout Muslims did not accept the reforms, Atatürk’s influence on Turkey was lasting and profound.


(pages 783–784)(pages 783–784)



The Beginnings of Modern Iran

(page 784)(page 784)

• A similar process of modernization was taking place in Persia during the early twentieth century.

• The Qajar dynasty (1794–1925) was faced with increasing domestic problems.

• The dynasty leaders invited Great Britain and Russia to help defend them from the Persian people.



The Beginnings of Modern Iran (cont.)

• In 1908, oil was discovered, which attracted more foreigners.

• Oil exports rose, but most of the profits went to British investors.

• The foreign presence led to the rise of a native Persian nationalist movement.





• In 1921, Reza Khan led a military mutiny and seized Tehran, the Persian capital city.

• In 1925, Reza Khan became the shah, or king.

• He was called Reza Shah Pahlavi.





• Reza Shah Pahlavi tried to follow the example of Kemal Atatürk in Turkey.

• He reformed and modernized the government, the military, and the economic system.

• Persia was renamed Iran.

• Reza Shah Pahlavi did not try to destroy the power of Islam.

• However, he encouraged Western-style education and forbade women to wear the veil in public.




• To free himself from Great Britain and the Soviet Union, Reza Shah Pahlavi drew closer to Nazi Germany.

• During World War II, the shah harbored a large number of Germans.

• Great Britain and the Soviet Union invaded.

• Reza Shah Pahlavi resigned and his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, replaced him.





The Problem of Palestine


• Great Britain controlled the mandate of Palestine after World War I.

• Palestine was the ancient home of the Jewish people, but few Jews had lived there for nearly 2,000 years.

• In 1917, Britain issued the Balfour Declaration, which supported the idea of a national home for Jewish people in Palestine.



The Problem of Palestine (cont.) • The British promised that the rights of

non-Jewish peoples in Palestine would be protected.

• However, Arabs were angered that the British would create a Jewish home nation in a land that had long been 80 percent Muslim.




• Jewish settlers began to arrive in Palestine.

• As the Nazis increased the persecution of Jews in Europe, more and more Jews arrived in Palestine.

• Tensions increased between Jews and Muslims.

The Problem of Palestine (cont.)




• In response, the British tried to restrict Jewish immigration to Palestine.

• In 1939, Britain limited immigration to 75,000 Jewish people during the next five years.

• After that, no more Jews could enter the country.

The Problem of Palestine (cont.)




• What different forms did protest against Western rule take?

Preview Questions

Nationalism in Africa and Asia

• How was communism received in Asia?



Movements Toward Independence in Africa

(pages 786–788)(pages 786–788)

• Even though black Africans had fought for the British and French in World War I, their hopes for independence after the war were not met.

• The Versailles peace settlements took away German colonies only to give them as mandates to France and Britain.



Movements Toward Independence in Africa (cont.) • Many Africans became politically active

after World War I.

• They sought reforms that would allow them the same ideals of liberty and equality espoused by Western democratic nations.

(pages 786–788)(pages 786–788)



• In Kenya, the Young Kikuyu Association protested in 1921 the high taxes imposed by Great Britain.

• Their leader Harry Thuku was jailed.

• When a crowd tried to free him, the British killed at least 20 of them and exiled Thuku.

Movements Toward Independence in Africa (cont.)

(pages 786–788)(pages 786–788)



• In Libya, guerrilla fighters under Omar Mukhtar fought the Italian rulers and defeated them several times.

• The Italians put Libyans in concentration camps and eventually killed Mukhtar, which ended the fighting.


(pages 786–788)(pages 786–788)



• Colonial powers usually responded to revolts with force. In some cases, they made some reforms, hoping to satisfy African peoples.

• By the 1930s, many new African leaders emerged.

• They insisted on independence and said that reforms were not enough.

• Many of the new African leaders had been educated abroad.


(pages 786–788)(pages 786–788)



• W.E.B. Du Bois and Marcus Garvey influenced Africans who studied in the United States.

• Du Bois was an African American and led a movement to make all Africans aware of their cultural heritage.

• Garvey was a Jamaican living in New York City who stressed the need for African unity.

• This was called Pan-Africanism.


(pages 786–788)(pages 786–788)



• Jomo Kenyatta was an African man from Kenya who had been educated in Great Britain.

• He argued that British rule was destroying traditional African cultures.

• Léopold Senghor and Nnamdi Azikiwe were leaders in Senegal and Nigeria, respectively, who worked to end colonial rule.


(pages 786–788)(pages 786–788)

Click the mouse button or press theSpace Bar to display the answer.


What did the new African leaders think about the reforms made by colonial rulers? What did they advocate instead?

They rejected the reforms as not enough. They advocated independence instead of reforms.


(pages 786–788)(pages 786–788)



The Movement for Indian Independence

(pages 788–789)(pages 788–789)

• Before World War I, Mohandas Gandhi had been active in the independence movement to end British rule in India.

• He was known as Mahatma, or “Great Soul.”

• Gandhi organized mass protests.

• He insisted that the protests be nonviolent.

• Gandhi used civil disobedience–the refusal to obey laws considered to be unjust–to achieve his goals.



The Movement for Indian Independence (cont.) • In 1919, British troops killed hundreds

of unarmed protesters.

• Gandhi was eventually arrested for his role in protests against British rule and was in prison for several years.

• In 1935, Great Britain passed the Government of India Act.

• The act gave more government positions to Indians and the right to vote to a small percentage of the population.

(pages 788–789)(pages 788–789)



• In 1885, the Indian National Congress (INC) was formed to seek reforms.

• However, by the 1920s, reforms were not enough.

• After he got out of jail, Gandhi went back to work to spread his message to the Indian people.

The Movement for Indian Independence (cont.)

(pages 788–789)(pages 788–789)



• Nonviolence was the core of Gandhi’s campaign.

• He said that it was wrong to harm any living being and that hate could only be overcome by love.

• He advocated noncooperation, such as not buying cloth imported from Britain and government-made salt.

• He told Indians not to pay their taxes.


(pages 788–789)(pages 788–789)



• The British raised the tax on salt and prohibited Indians from harvesting their own.

• In 1930, Gandhi protested by walking to the sea on the Salt March.

• At the ocean, Gandhi defied the British by picking up salt.

• Thousands of Indians followed suit.

• Gandhi and other INC leaders were arrested.


(pages 788–789)(pages 788–789)



• In the 1930s, Jawaharlal Nehru emerged as an important leader in Indian politics.

• Nehru had studied law in Great Britain and was an upper class intellectual.

• The independence movement split into two paths.

• Gandhi represented the traditional, religious, and Indian path.

• Nehru represented the modern, secular, and Western.


(pages 788–789)(pages 788–789)

• While the two paths shared the same goal, the division created uncertainty about what the future of India would look like.


(pages 788–789)(pages 788–789)

• Another division in Indian politics was that between Hindus and Muslims.

• Muslims objected to the Hindu control of the INC.

• By the 1930s, the Muslim League under Muhammad Ali Jinnah was beginning to believe in a separate Muslim state of Pakistan in the northwest.



The Rise of a Militarist Japan

(pages 789–791)(pages 789–791)

• Between 1900 and 1920, Japanese society adopted many aspects of Western societies and became an increasingly prosperous and industrial country.

• The zaibatsu were large financial and industrial corporations.

• With government help, these firms developed into vast companies that controlled major parts of Japanese industry.

• By 1937, the four major zaibatsu controlled a large amount of the economy.



The Rise of a Militarist Japan (cont.) • As wealth became concentrated among

the relative few, more and more people had less.

• Food shortages, inflation, and other economic problems led to riots and unrest.

• The Great Depression had a severe impact on workers and farmers.

• Traditionalists called for a return to older Japanese values.

• They rejected the influence of Western ideas in education and politics.

(pages 789–791)(pages 789–791)



• In the early 1900s, Japan had trouble finding sources of raw materials and foreign markets.

• Until World War I, the Japanese had expanded their territory to meet these needs.

• This policy worried many Western nations, especially the United States.

The Rise of a Militarist Japan (cont.)

(pages 789–791)(pages 789–791)



• The United States wanted to keep Asia open for trade.

• In 1922, the United States held a conference that produced a nine-power treaty that recognized China’s territorial integrity and the Open Door policy.

• In return, Japan was allowed to control southern Manchuria.


(pages 789–791)(pages 789–791)



• During the 1920s, Japan tried to use economic and diplomatic means to realize its interests in Asia.

• The policy was unpopular.

• New heavy industries developed in Japan.

• To run these industries the Japanese needed new sources of raw materials.


(pages 789–791)(pages 789–791)



• At the end of the 1920s, problems arose that led to a rise in militarism in Japan.

• A group within the ruling party gained control of the political system.

• Many in the group thought that the Japanese system had been corrupted by Western ideas.


(pages 789–791)(pages 789–791)



• During the 1930s, extremist patriotic organizations emerged, some as part of the military.

• In 1931, a group of army officers directed an invasion of Manchuria.

• The government opposed the move, but the people supported it.

• In time, the military and other supporters of Japanese expansion dominated the government.


(pages 789–791)(pages 789–791)



• Japan was put on wartime status.

• In 1938, a military draft law was passed.

• The government controlled all economic resources.

• Labor unions were disbanded.

• There was only one political party which called for Japanese expansion.

• Western ideas were purged from education and culture.

• Traditional Japanese values became important once again.


(pages 789–791)(pages 789–791)



Nationalism and Revolution in Asia


• Before World War I, Marxist ideas had no appeal for Asian intellectuals.

• The mostly agrarian Asian societies seemed ill-fitted for revolution.

• After the Russian Revolution, however, it became clear that Marxist ideas could be used to overthrow an outdated system.



Nationalism and Revolution in Asia (cont.)

• In 1920, Lenin determined to spread communism to the outside world.

• The Comintern, or Communist International, was a worldwide organization of Communist parties dedicated to revolution.

• Comintern agents were trained in Moscow and then returned to their own countries.

• By the end of the 1920s, almost all Asian countries had a Communist party.




• The success of Communist parties in Asia varied greatly.

• Some cooperated with existing nationalist parties to overthrow Western colonial rulers.

• For example, in French Indochina, Ho Chi Minh, who had been trained in Moscow, organized the Vietnamese Communists.

• China had the strongest Communist-nationalist alliance.



• However, in most Asian colonial societies, communism had little success in the 1930s.





• Against whom were the Nationalist and Chinese Communist Parties aligned?

Preview Questions

Revolutionary Chaos in China

• What obstacles did Chiang Kai-shek face in building a new China?



Nationalists and Communists

(pages 793–794)(pages 793–794)

• In all of Asia, revolutionary Marxism had its greatest impact in China.

• By 1920, two political forces emerged to challenge the Chinese government: Sun Yat-sen’s Nationalist Party and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).



Nationalists and Communists (cont.) • In 1921, young radicals formed the

Chinese Communist Party in the city of Shanghai.

• Comintern agents advised them to join with the older Nationalist Party.

• Sun Yat-sen welcomed the Communists.

• In 1923, the two parties formed an alliance to drive out the Chinese warlords and the imperialist powers.

(pages 793–794)(pages 793–794)



• The two parties worked together for three years.

• They trained an army.

• In 1926 they began the Northern Expedition and took control of all of China south of the Chang Jiang (Yangtze River).

Nationalists and Communists (cont.)

(pages 793–794)(pages 793–794)



• Eventually the Nationalists and the Communists came into conflict.

• After Sun Yat-sen died, Chiang Kai-shek became the Nationalist leader.

• He pretended to support the Communists but did not.

• In 1927, he killed thousands of Communists in the Shanghai Massacre.

• The Communist-Nationalist alliance ended.


(pages 793–794)(pages 793–794)



• In 1928, Chiang Kai-shek founded a new republic in Nanjing.

• He worked to reunify the nation but continued to think that the Communists were his main enemy.


(pages 793–794)(pages 793–794)



Why did Sun Yat-sen welcome the Communists as allies?

He had alienated the Western powers in China through his opposition to imperialism. He felt he needed all the help he could get to achieve his goals. He also wanted the expertise that the Soviet Comintern could provide. An alliance with the Chinese Communists would facilitate that and increase the power of the anti-government forces.


(pages 793–794)(pages 793–794)



The Communists in Hiding

(pages 794–795)(pages 794–795)

• After the Shanghai Massacre, the Communist leaders went into hiding in Shanghai.

• They revived the Communist movement among the discontented urban working class.

• Some Communist leaders went south of the Chang Jiang to Jiangxi Province.

• Mao Zedong was their leader.

• Mao was convinced that the Chinese revolution would come from the rural peasants rather than the urban working class.



The Communists in Hiding (cont.) • Chiang Kai-shek was able to push the

Communist leaders out of Shanghai.

• They joined Mao in the south.

• Then the Nationalists attacked the Communists in Jiangxi, but Mao used guerrilla tactics to fight successfully against superior numbers.

• Mao had four slogans about fighting: “When the enemy advances, we retreat! When the enemy halts and camps, we trouble them! When the enemy tries to avoid battle, we attack! When the enemy retreats, we pursue!” (pages 794–795)(pages 794–795)



What happened to most Communist Party leaders in Shanghai after Chiang Kai-shek attacked them?

They were forced to move to the south and join Mao Zedong in South China.

The Communists in Hiding (cont.)

(pages 794–795)(pages 794–795)



The Long March

(pages 795–796)(pages 795–796)

• In 1934, Chiang’s army surrounded the Communists in Jiangxi.

• Outnumbered, Mao’s army, called the People’s Liberation Army (PLA), broke through the Nationalist lines.

• Mao led his troops for 6,000 miles to northwestern China and reached the last surviving Communist base.

• This march became known as the Long March.



The Long March (cont.) • The Long March took one year.

• The Communists had little food, faced freezing temperatures, and had to fight all the way.

• Ninety thousand troops began the march.

• Nine thousand reached their destination.

• During the Long March, Mao became the undisputed leader of the Chinese Communist Party.

(pages 795–796)(pages 795–796)



What were two effects of the Long March on the Chinese Communists?

They lost 81,000 people. Mao Zedong became the sole leader of the Chinese Communist Party.

The Long March (cont.)

(pages 795–796)(pages 795–796)



The New China of Chiang Kai-shek

(pages 796–797)(pages 796–797)

• After the Long March, the threat from the Communists seemed to have ended.

• Chiang Kai-shek was trying to build a new nation.

• He vowed to form a republican government, but as Sun Yat-sen had stated, he felt that the Chinese people would need a transitional form of government to prepare them for a democratic state.



The New China of Chiang Kai-shek (cont.) • Chiang instituted a period of political

tutelage (training).

• Under his leadership, the Nationalists tried to dictate land reforms and to modernize industry.

• However, the Chinese people were not ready for reforms.

• Eighty percent of the people were very poor peasants who were mostly illiterate.

(pages 796–797)(pages 796–797)



• At the same time, the growing urban middle class took on Western values.

• They accumulated wealth and paid little or no attention to the needs of the peasants.

The New China of Chiang Kai-shek (cont.)

(pages 796–797)(pages 796–797)



• Chiang tried to blend modern Western industrialization with traditional Confucian values of hard work, obedience, and integrity.

• Chiang and his wife instituted the “New Life Movement.”

• It promoted Confucian ideals and rejected the individualism and greed of Western capitalism.


(pages 796–797)(pages 796–797)



• Other problems that faced Chiang Kai-shek included threats from Japan and effects of the worldwide Great Depression.

• Some of Chiang’s successes included starting a massive road-building program, repairing and expanding the railroads, creating a national bank, and improving the education system.


(pages 796–797)(pages 796–797)



• Chiang was less successful with land reform.

• He avoided the redistribution of wealth, or the shift of wealth from a rich minority to a poor majority, because much of his support came from landowners and the urban middle class.

• Chiang suppressed all opposition, which alienated many intellectuals and moderates.


(pages 796–797)(pages 796–797)

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