Spoken English/ Spoken English/ Written English: From Written English: From Corpus to Curriculum Corpus to Curriculum

to Classroomto ClassroomRonald CarterRonald Carter

School of English Studies, University of School of English Studies, University of Nottingham, UKNottingham, UK

A Noun ClineA Noun Cline Glass cracks more quickly the Glass cracks more quickly the

harder you press on it.harder you press on it.

Cracks in glass grow faster the Cracks in glass grow faster the more pressure is put on.more pressure is put on.

The rate of glass crack growth The rate of glass crack growth depends on the magnitude of the depends on the magnitude of the applied stress.applied stress.

Glass crack growth rate is Glass crack growth rate is associated with applied stress associated with applied stress magnitude.magnitude.

(Halliday, 1989)(Halliday, 1989)

Written LanguageWritten Language

First staged at the Glasgow Citizens in 1994, First staged at the Glasgow Citizens in 1994, and described by Williams as being a and described by Williams as being a 'comedy of death', the play sees Everett cast 'comedy of death', the play sees Everett cast brilliantly against type as the rich dying brilliantly against type as the rich dying widow Flora Goforth. widow Flora Goforth.

A corpus-based approachA corpus-based approach

Corpus (pl. corpora): a large, principled Corpus (pl. corpora): a large, principled collection of texts, spoken and/or written.collection of texts, spoken and/or written.

BNC; WSC; MICASE.BNC; WSC; MICASE. Based on the one billion word Cambridge Based on the one billion word Cambridge

International Corpus (CIC) of both BrE and International Corpus (CIC) of both BrE and AmE, including CANCODE, an extensive AmE, including CANCODE, an extensive written corpus, a business English corpus and written corpus, a business English corpus and a dedicated academic corpus.a dedicated academic corpus.

Facts and figures …Facts and figures …

Using a corpus gives us useful statistics about:Using a corpus gives us useful statistics about:

frequencyfrequency differences between spoken and written differences between spoken and written

grammargrammar social and contextual aspectssocial and contextual aspects

Top 40 most frequent words: 5m spoken

1 THE 2 I 3 AND 4 YOU 5 IT 6 TO 7 A 8 YEAH 9 THAT 10 OF 11 IN 12 WAS 13 IT'S 14 KNOW 15 MM 16 IS 17 ER 18 BUT 19 SO 20 THEY 21 ON

22 OH 23 WE 24 HAVE 25 NO 26 LAUGHS 27 WELL 28 LIKE 29 WHAT 30 DO 31 RIGHT 32 JUST 33 HE 34 FOR 35 ERM 36 BE 37 THIS 38 ALL 39 THERE 40 GOT

[Speakers are discussing the cost of veterinary treatment and surgery for a sick animal] <S1> Let’s see ... we’ve already spent fifty for him and I want him to spend another hundred <S2> Well <S1> But that’s better than pins <S2> Right <S1> And surgery <S2> Which would be another two hundred or <S3> Yeah it’s more for a surgery

<S1> Let’s see ... we’ve already spent fifty for him and I want him to spend another hundred

<S2> Well<S1> But that’s better than pins<S2> Right<S1> And surgery<S2> Which would be another two

hundred or<S3> Yeah it’s more for a surgery

<S1> Let’s see ... we’ve already spent fifty for him and I want him to

spend another hundred<S2> Well<S1> But that’s better than pins<S2> Right<S1> And surgery<S2> Which would be another two

hundred or<S3> Yeah it’s more for a surgery

<S1> Let’s see ... we’ve already spent fifty for him and I want him to

spend another hundred<S2> Well<S1> But that’s better than pins<S2> Right<S1> And surgery<S2> Which would be another two

hundred or<S3> Yeah it’s more for a surgery

<S1> Let’s see ... we’ve already spent fifty for him and I want him to

spend another hundred<S2> Well<S1> But that’s better than pins<S2> Right<S1> And surgery<S2> Which would be another two

hundred or<S3> Yeah it’s more for a surgery

Spoken languageSpoken language Writers orientate more towards norms, speakers Writers orientate more towards norms, speakers

orient orient towards each othertowards each other

Writing is more off-line and not time bound; Writing is more off-line and not time bound; speech speech is is more online and in real timemore online and in real time

Spoken language:Spoken language:absence of ‘sentences’absence of ‘sentences’‘‘incomplete’ utterancesincomplete’ utterancesjointly produced utterancesjointly produced utterancesflexible structures.flexible structures.

Small words are big words (Small words are big words (well, right, just, at all, sort well, right, just, at all, sort of, I mean) of, I mean) and often have pragmatic functions.and often have pragmatic functions.

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

occs

in 5

m w

ds s

poke

n

Words v. ChunksWords v. Chunks

EllipsisEllipsis

•Didn’t know that film was on tonight? (I)

•Sounds good to me. (That/It)

•Lots of things to tell you about the trip to Barcelona. (There are)

A: Are you going to Leeds this weekend?

B: Yes, I must. (go this weekend)

TailsTails

•She’s a very good swimmer,a very good swimmer, Jenny is.

•It’s difficult to eat isn’t it,difficult to eat isn’t it, spaghetti?

•We’re going to have steak and fries, going to have steak and fries, we are.

•It can leave you feeling very weak, it can, can leave you feeling very weak, it can, though, apparently, though, apparently, shingles,can’t it?can’t it?

There is and There areThere is and There are

Existential Existential ThereThere

There’s three other people still to comeThere’s three other people still to come

There’s lots of cars in the car parkThere’s lots of cars in the car park

Deictic Deictic ThereThere

There’s your pillsThere’s your pills

There’s his shoesThere’s his shoes

Good or Bad?Good or Bad?

What happens is that What happens is that there are 15 there are 15 membersmembers of the Security Council, of the Security Council, there's there's five permanent membersfive permanent members and the five and the five permanent members have got the veto.permanent members have got the veto.

English in the WorldEnglish in the World First Language Speakers:First Language Speakers:   Mandarin Chinese:Mandarin Chinese: 1.2 billion1.2 billion English: English: 508 million508 million Hindi: Hindi: 487 million487 million Spanish: Spanish: 417 million417 million Russian: Russian: 277 million277 million Bengali: Bengali: 211 million211 million

Additional or Second or Foreign Language Speakers:Additional or Second or Foreign Language Speakers:

English: English: 2 billion by 2 billion by 2020.2020. Chinese: Chinese: 30 million by 30 million by 2020.2020.

Spanish: Spanish: 25 million by 25 million by 2020.2020. from from

Graddol (2007)Graddol (2007)

Teaching and testing spoken Teaching and testing spoken English: Some issues and English: Some issues and

problemsproblems The ELF issue The ELF issue The EAL issueThe EAL issue The single ‘literate’ speaker The single ‘literate’ speaker

issueissue The visual issue The visual issue Fluency problemFluency problem The confluence problemThe confluence problem

FluencyFluency: what is it?: what is it?FluencyFluency:: Speakers use Standard English Speakers use Standard English

produce smooth continuous talk, produce smooth continuous talk, maintaining flow, and are grammatically maintaining flow, and are grammatically accurate.accurate.

DysfluencyDysfluency: Speakers are hesitant, sloppy, : Speakers are hesitant, sloppy, can’t remember words, repeat themselves can’t remember words, repeat themselves and code switchand code switch between languages between languages

Repetition and Repetition and ConfluenceConfluence

Dyu: did you, [pause 0.9 secs] er, did you you see Dyu: did you, [pause 0.9 secs] er, did you you see David at the meeting, er, last night, no, the night David at the meeting, er, last night, no, the night before, wasn’t it?before, wasn’t it?

(CIC corpus)(CIC corpus)

……so what did Marketing do they did it that way so what did Marketing do they did it that way and they introduced, [and they introduced, [mm, rightmm, right], yeah, and last ], yeah, and last year they introduced eight new products in just six year they introduced eight new products in just six months eight that’s huge, it is, isn’t it? You know months eight that’s huge, it is, isn’t it? You know what I mean?what I mean?

(CIC corpus(CIC corpus))

Repetition and Negotiating Repetition and Negotiating UnderstandingUnderstanding

Functions: Can be both speaker or hearer-oriented: Functions: Can be both speaker or hearer-oriented:

strategic planning strategic planning turn-sensitiveturn-sensitivevaguenessvaguenessclarification and confirmationclarification and confirmationsummarising summarising holding the floorholding the flooremphasis emphasis

Organisational and transactional v. Interpersonal and Organisational and transactional v. Interpersonal and relationalrelational

Implications for testing?Implications for testing?

Speakers, listeners and Speakers, listeners and confluenceconfluence

<S01> do you think it is affected by <S01> do you think it is affected by your faith, like you were saying you your faith, like you were saying you [<S02> [<S02> mm, right, yeahmm, right, yeah] have any ] have any kind of moral standards or not, like kind of moral standards or not, like hooliganising hooliganising and stuff, I meanand stuff, I mean, do , do you think that’s because of…of your you think that’s because of…of your faith or do you think that’s because faith or do you think that’s because well because of society well because of society or whateveror whatever??

(CIC)(CIC)

Viki: it’s snowing quite strong outside....be carefulSue: I will, thxViki: wei wei...lei dim ar?Sue: ok, la, juz got bk from Amsterdam loh, how r u?Viki: ok la.. I have 9 tmrwSue: haha, I have 2-4 ........sooooooooooo happyViki: che...anyway...have your rash gone?Sue: yes, but I have scar oh...ho ugly ar!Viki: icic...ng gan yiu la...still a pretty girl, haha!!

[Cantonese translations: wei wei…lei dim ar – hi, how are you?; ng gan yiu la – it doesn’t matter; ar,loh and la are discourse markers in Cantonese]

Cross Lingual Spoken and Cross Lingual Spoken and WrittenWritten

Spoken to WrittenSpoken to Written

Could you email Kyle Barber and ask him for a quote for Could you email Kyle Barber and ask him for a quote for a laptop? Said we’d let Tatchell have one for himself as a laptop? Said we’d let Tatchell have one for himself as part of the deal. Compaq or Toshiba. At least 420Mb part of the deal. Compaq or Toshiba. At least 420Mb hard disk and 16Mb RAM. Good deal, tell David. Worth hard disk and 16Mb RAM. Good deal, tell David. Worth the laptop. More in the pipeline. (the laptop. More in the pipeline. (Inter company emailInter company email))  

RightRight, , soso there I was sitting in Mick Jagger’s kitchen there I was sitting in Mick Jagger’s kitchen while he went about making us both afternoon tea. while he went about making us both afternoon tea. WellWell, , you can imagine how long it took to get him to talk about you can imagine how long it took to get him to talk about the band’s latest album. the band’s latest album. ExactlExactlyy. You’ve got it. Over two . You’ve got it. Over two minutes. (minutes. (The Daily Telegraph Magazine 19/9/2004The Daily Telegraph Magazine 19/9/2004).).

Spoken English: summarySpoken English: summary

Spoken language has specific forms: Spoken language has specific forms: ellipsis, tails; flexible clause structure; ellipsis, tails; flexible clause structure; vague languagevague language..

Spoken language has forms that were Spoken language has forms that were unnoticed in the past; new metalanguage unnoticed in the past; new metalanguage is needed and traditional terms are not is needed and traditional terms are not always adequate.always adequate.

There are structures that are frequent in There are structures that are frequent in speech and infrequent in writing and vice-speech and infrequent in writing and vice-versa; but note the particular challenge of versa; but note the particular challenge of the growing the growing continuacontinua between speech and between speech and writing.writing.

Spoken communicationSpoken communication

Fluency has been under-theorised. Teaching of Fluency has been under-theorised. Teaching of spoken English still works from assumptions of spoken English still works from assumptions of correctness based on written language norms. correctness based on written language norms.

Spoken language focuses on speakers and Spoken language focuses on speakers and listeners. Speakers and listeners listeners. Speakers and listeners co-createco-create and and orient towards orient towards each othereach other. . Fluency is Fluency is confluence.confluence.

Teaching and curricula need to recognise the Teaching and curricula need to recognise the needs of 21needs of 21stst century spoken communication century spoken communication through English and to develop appropriate through English and to develop appropriate testing mechanisms. To this end corpora can testing mechanisms. To this end corpora can provide a starting point.provide a starting point.

ReferencesReferencesBiber, D et alBiber, D et al, , (1999)(1999) The Longman Grammar of Spoken The Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English and Written English (Longman, Harlow)(Longman, Harlow)Carter, R. and McCarthy, M.Carter, R. and McCarthy, M. (2006)(2006) Cambridge English Cambridge English

Grammar: A Comprehensive Guide to Spoken and Grammar: A Comprehensive Guide to Spoken and Written Grammar and Usage Written Grammar and Usage (CUP: Cambridge)(CUP: Cambridge)

Cornbleet, S and Carter, RCornbleet, S and Carter, R ( (2001)2001) The Language of The Language of Speech and Writing Speech and Writing (Routledge, London)(Routledge, London)Halliday, M.A.K.Halliday, M.A.K. (1989)(1989) Spoken and Written Language Spoken and Written Language (OUP Oxford).(OUP Oxford).O’ Keeffe, A, McCarthy, M. and Carter, R. O’ Keeffe, A, McCarthy, M. and Carter, R. From Corpus From Corpus

to Classroom to Classroom (CUP: Cambridge)(CUP: Cambridge)Pridham, FPridham, F (2001)(2001) The Language of Conversation The Language of Conversation (Routledge, London).(Routledge, London).