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Springer Handbookof Materials Measurement Methods
Springer Handbooks providea concise compilation of approvedkey information on methods ofresearch, general principles, andfunctional relationships in physi-cal sciences and engineering. Theworld’s leading experts in the fieldsof physics and engineering will beassigned by one or several renownededitors to write the chapters com-prising each volume. The contentis selected by these experts fromSpringer sources (books, journals,online content) and other systematicand approved recent publications ofphysical and technical information.
The volumes will be designed tobe useful as readable desk referencebooks to give a fast and comprehen-sive overview and easy retrieval ofessential reliable key information,including tables, graphs, and bibli-ographies. References to extensivesources are provided.
123
HandbookSpringerof Materials Measurement
MethodsHorst Czichos, Tetsuya Saito, Leslie Smith (Eds.)
With CD-ROM, 970 Figures and 158 Tables
Editors:Horst CzichosFederal Institute for Materials Researchand Testing (BAM), Past President;University of Applied Sciences BerlinGermany
Tetsuya SaitoNational Institute for Materials Science (NIMS)Tsukuba, IbarakiJapan
Leslie SmithNational Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)Gaithersburg, MDUSA
Library of Congress Control Number: 2006921595
ISBN-10: 3-540-20785-6 e-ISBN: 3-540-30300-6ISBN-13: 978-3-540-20785-6 Printed on acid free paper
c© 2006, Springer Science+Business Media, Inc.This work is subject to copyright. All rights reserved, whether the wholeor part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation,reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction onmicrofilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication ofthis publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions ofthe German Copyright Law of September, 9, 1965, in its current version,and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer-Verlag.Violations are liable for prosecution under the German Copyright Law.
The use of designations, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply,even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt fromthe relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for generaluse.
Product liability: The publisher cannot guarantee the accuracy of anyinformation about dosage and application contained in this book. In everyindividual case the user must check such information by consulting therelevant literature.
Production and typesetting: LE-TeX GbR, LeipzigHandbook coordinator: Dr. W. Skolaut, HeidelbergTypography, layout and illustrations:schreiberVIS, Seeheim & Hippmann GbR, SchwarzenbruckCover design: eStudio Calamar Steinen, BarcelonaCover production: WMXDesign GmbH, HeidelbergPrinting and binding: Stürtz AG, Würzburg
SPIN 10918104 62/3141/YL 5 4 3 2 1 0
V
Preface
The ability to compare measurements between labora-tories is one of the cornerstones of the scientific method.All scientists and engineers are trained to make accu-rate measurements and a comprehensive volume thatprovides detailed advice and leading references on meas-urements to scientific and engineering professionalsand students is always a worthwhile addition to theliterature. The principal motivation for this SpringerHandbook of Materials Measurement Methods, how-ever, stems from the increasing demands of technologyfor measurement results that can be used reliably any-where in the world. These demands are especiallyintense in materials science and technology, where manycharacterization methods are needed, from scientificcomposition–structure–property relations to techno-logical performance–quality–reliability assessmentdata, during the various stages of materials and productcycles.
In order for new materials to be used and incor-porated into practical technology, their most importantcharacteristics must be known well enough to justifylarge research and development costs. Furthermore, theresearch may be performed in one country while theengineering design is done in another and the proto-type manufacture in yet another region of the world.This great emphasis on international comparison meansthat increasing attention must be paid to internation-ally recognized standards and calibration methods thatgo beyond careful, internally consistent, methods. Thishandbook was developed to assist scientists and en-gineers in both industry and academe in this task.
The useful properties of materials are generally re-sponses to external fields under specific conditions. Thestimulus field and environmental conditions must becompletely specified in order to develop a reproducibleresponse. Standard test methods describe these condi-tions and the Chapters and an Appendix in this book con-tain references to the relevant international standards.
Horst Czichos
Tetsuya Saito
Leslie Smith
We sought out experts fromall over the world that have beeninvolved with concerns such asthese. We were extremely fortunateto find a distinguished set of au-thors who met the challenge: towrite brief chapters that nonethelesscontain specific useful recommen-dations and resources for furtherinformation. This is the hallmark ofa successful handbook. While the di-verse nature of the topics coveredhas led to different styles of pre-sentation, there is a commonality ofpurpose evident in the chapters thatcome from the authors’ understand-ing of the issues facing researcherstoday.
This handbook would not havebeen possible without the vision-ary support of Dr. Hubertus vonRiedesel, who embraced the con-cept and encouraged us to pursueit. We must also acknowledge theconstant support of Dr. Werner Sko-laut, whose technical editing has metevery expectation of professionalexcellence. Finally, throughout theentire development of the handbookwe were greatly aided by the able ad-ministrative support of Ms. DanielaBleienberger.
March 2006Horst Czichos, Tetsuya Saito,Leslie Smith (Editors)Berlin/Tsukuba/Washington
VII
List of Authors
Shuji AiharaNippon Steel CorporationSteel Research Laboratories20-1, Shintomi FuttsuChiba, 293-8511, Japane-mail: [email protected]
Tsutomu ArakiOsaka UniversityGraduate School of Engineering ScienceMachikaneyama, ToyonakaOsaka, 560-8531, Japane-mail: [email protected]
Masaaki AshidaOsaka UniversityGraduate School of Engineering Science1-3 Machikaneyama-cho, ToyonakaOsaka, 560-8531, Japane-mail: [email protected]
Peter D. AskewIMSL, Industrial Microbiological Services LimitedPale LaneHartley Wintney, Hants RG27 8DH, UKe-mail: [email protected]
Heinz-Gunter BachHeinrich-Hertz-InstitutComponents/Integration Technology,Fraunhofer-Institute for TelecommunicationsEinsteinufer 3710587 Berlin, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
Gun-Woong BahngKorea Research Institute of Standards and ScienceDivision of Chemical and Materials MetrologyDoryong-dong 1, POBox 102, YuseoungDaejeon, 305-600, South Koreae-mail: [email protected]
Claude BathiasConservatoire National des Arts et Métiers,Laboratoire ITMAInstitute of Technology and Advanced Materials2 rue Conté75003 Paris, Francee-mail: [email protected]
Günther BayreutherUniversity of RegensburgPhysics DepartmentUniversitätsstr. 3193040 Regensburg, Germanye-mail:[email protected]
Nick BoleyLGC Ltd.Proficiency Testing and TrainingQueens RoadTeddington, TW11 0LY, UKe-mail: [email protected]
Wolfgang BuckPhysikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt,Institut BerlinDivision 7Abbestrasse 2–1210587 Berlin, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
Richard R. CavanaghNational Institute of Standardsand Technology (NIST)Surface and Microanalysis Science Division,Chemical Science and Technology Laboratory (CSTL)100 Bureau Drive, MS 8371Gaithersburg, MD 20899, USAe-mail: [email protected]
VIII List of Authors
Leonardo De ChiffreTechnical University of DenmarkDepartment of Manufacturing Engineeringand ManagementProduktionstorvet, Building 425Kgs. Lyngby, 2800, Denmarke-mail: [email protected]
Steven J. ChoquetteNational Institute of Standards and TechnologyBiochemical Science Division100 Bureau Dr., MS 8312Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8312, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Horst CzichosUniversity of Applied Sciences BerlinDepartment of Electrical Engineeringand Precision EngineeringTFH Berlin, Luxemburger Strasse 1013353 Berlin, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
Werner DaumFederal Institute for Materials Researchand Testing (BAM)Division VIII.1Unter den Eichen 8712205 Berlin, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
Paul DeRoseNational Institute of Standards and TechnologyBiochemical Science Division100 Bureau Drive, MS 8312Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8312, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Stephen L.R. EllisonLGC Ltd.Bioinformatics and StatisticsQueens Road, TeddingtonMiddlesex, TW11 0LY, UKe-mail: [email protected]
Anton ErhardFederal Institute for Materials Researchand Testing (BAM)Department Non-destructive Testing; Acousticaland Electrical MethodsUnter den Eichen 8712205 Berlin, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
Uwe EwertFederal Institute for Materials Researchand Testing (BAM)Division VIII.3 RadiologyUnter den Eichen 8712205 Berlin, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
Richard J. FieldsNational Institute of Standards and TechnologyMaterials Science and Engineering Laboratory100 Bureau DriveGaithersburg, MD 20899, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Benny D. FreemanThe University of Texas at Austin, Center for Energyand Environmental ResourcesDepartment of Chemical Engineering10100 Burnet Road, Building 133, R-7100Austin, TX 78758, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Mark GeeNational Physical LaboratoryDivision of Engineering and Processing ControlHampton RoadTeddington, TW11 0LW , UKe-mail: [email protected]
Jürgen GoebbelsFederal Institute for Materials Researchand Testing (BAM)Radiology (VIII.3)Unter den Eichen 8712205 Berlin, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
List of Authors IX
Anna A. GorbushinaCarl von Ossietzky Universität OldenburgGeomicrobiology, ICBM26111 Oldenburg, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
Robert R. GreenbergNational Institute of Standards and TechnologyAnalytical Chemistry Division100 Bureau Drive, MS 8395Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8395, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Manfred GrindaLandreiterweg 2212353 Berlin, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
Roland GrössingerTechnical University ViennaInstitut für FestkörperphysikWiedner Hauptstr. 8–10Vienna, Austriae-mail: [email protected]
Yukito HagiharaSophia UniversityFaculty of Science and Technology, Department ofMechanical Engineering7–1 Kioi-cho, Chiyoda-kuTokyo, 102-8554, Japane-mail: [email protected]
Junhee HahnKorea Research Institute of Standardsand Science (KRISS)Chemical Metrology and Materials Evaluation Div.Yuseong, 102Daejeon, 305-622, South Koreae-mail: [email protected]
Holger HanselkaFraunhofer-Institute for Structural Durability andSystem Reliability (LBF)Bartningstrasse 4764289 Darmstadt, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
Manfred P. HentschelFederal Institute for Materials Researchand Testing (BAM)VIII.3, Nondestructive Testing12200 Berlin, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
Horst HertelFederal Institute for Materials Researchand Testing (BAM)Division IV.1Unter den Eichen 8712205 Berlin, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
Ian HutchingsUniversity of Cambridge,Institute for ManufacturingDepartment of EngineeringMill LaneCambridge, CB2 1RX, UKe-mail: [email protected]
Xiao HuNational Institute for Materials ScienceStrong Coupling Modeling Group, ComputationalMaterials Science CenterSengen 1-2-1Tsukuba, 305-0047, Japane-mail: [email protected]
Werner HässelbarthFederal Institute for Materials Researchand Testing (BAM)Analytical Chemistry; Reference MaterialsRichard-Willstätter-Str. 1112489 Berlin, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
Shoji ImataniKyoto UniversityDepartment of Energy Conversion ScienceYoshida-honmachi, Sakyo-kuKyoto, 606-8501, Japane-mail: [email protected]
X List of Authors
Hanspeter IschiThe Swiss Accreditation Service (SAS)Lindenweg 50Berne, CH 3003, Switzerlande-mail: [email protected]
Bernd IseckeFederal Institute for Materials Researchand Testing (BAM)Corrosion and Corrosion ProtectionUnter den Eichen 8712203 Berlin, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
Tadashi ItohGraduate School of Engineering Science,Osaka UniversityDepartment of Materials Engineering Science1-3, Machikaneyama-cho, ToyonakaOsaka, 560-8531, Japane-mail: [email protected]
Tetsuo IwataThe University of TokushimaDepartment of Mechanical Engineering2-1, Minami-JyosanjimaTokushima, 770-8506, Japane-mail: [email protected]
Gerd-Rüdiger JaenischFederal Institute for Materials Researchand Testing (BAM)Non-destructive TestingUnter den Eichen 8712205 Berlin, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
Oliver JannFederal Institute for Materials Researchand Testing (BAM)Emissions from MaterialsUnter den Eichen 8712205 Berlin, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
Masanori KohnoNational Institute for Materials ScienceComputational Materials Science Center1-2-1 SengenTsukuba, 305-0047, Japane-mail: [email protected]
Toshiyuki KoyamaNational Institute for Materials ScienceComputational Materials Science Center1-2-1 Sengen, TsukubaIbaraki, 305-0047, Japane-mail: [email protected]
Gary W. KramerNational Institute of Standards and TechnologyBiospectroscopy Group, Biochemical ScienceDivision100 Bureau DriveGaithersburg, MD 20899-8312, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Wolfgang E. KrumbeinBIOGEMAMaterial EcologyLindenweg 16a26188 Edewecht, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
George LamazeNational Institute of Standards and TechnologyAnalytical Chemistry Division100 Bureau Dr. Stop 8395Gaithersburg, MD 20899, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Richard LindstromNational Institute of Standards and Technology,Mail stop 8395Analytical Chemistry DivisionGaithersburg, MD 20899-8395, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Haiqing LinMembrane Technology and Research, Inc.1306 Willow Road, Suite 103Menlo Park, CA 94025, USAe-mail: [email protected]
List of Authors XI
Samuel LowNational Institute of Standards and TechnologyMetallurgy Division, Materials Scienceand Engineering Laboratory100 Bureau Drive, Mail Stop 8553Gaithersburg, MD 20899, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Koji MaedaThe University of TokyoDepartment of Applied PhysicsHongo, Bunkyo-kuTokyo, 113-8656, Japane-mail: [email protected]
Willie E. MayNational Institute of Standardsand Technology (NIST)Chemical Science and Technology Laboratory (CSTL)100 Bureau Drive, MS 8300Gaithersburg, MD 20899, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Takashi MiyataNagoya UniversityDepartment of Materials Science and EngineeringNagoya, 464-8603, Japane-mail: [email protected]
Hiroshi MizubayashiUniversity of TsukubaInstitute of Materials ScienceTsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8573, Japane-mail: [email protected]
Kiyofumi MuroChiba UniversityFaculty of Science, Department of Physics1-33 Yayoi-cho, Inage-kuChiba, 283-8522, Japane-mail: [email protected]
Rolf-Joachim MüllerGesellschaft für Biotechnologische Forschung mbHTU-BCEMascheroder Weg 138124 Braunschweig, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
Yoshihiko NonomuraNational Institute for Materials ScienceComputational Materials Science CenterSengen 1-2-1, TsukubaIbaraki, 305-0047, Japane-mail: [email protected]
Jürgen NufferFraunhofer Institute for Structural Durability andSystem Reliability (LBF)Bartningstrasse 4764289 Darmstadt, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
Jan ObrzutNational Institute of Standards and TechnologyPolymers Division100 Bureau Dr.Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8541, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Hiroshi OhtaniKyushu Institute of TechnologyDepartment of Materials Science and EngineeringSensui-cho 1-1, Tobata-kuKitakyushu, 804-8550, Japane-mail: [email protected]
Kurt OsterlohFederal Institute for Materials Researchand Testing (BAM)Division VIII.3Unter den Eichen 9712205 Berlin, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
Michael PantkeFederal Institute for Materials Researchand Testing (BAM)Division IV.1, Materials and Environment12205 Berlin, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
XII List of Authors
Karen W. PhinneyNational Institute of Standards and TechnologyAnalytical Chemistry Division100 Bureau Drive, Stop 8392Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8392, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Rüdiger (Rudy) PlarreFederal Institute for Materials Researchand Testing (BAM)Environmental Compatibility of MaterialsUnter den Eichen 8712205 Berlin, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
Kenneth W. PrattNational Institute of Standards and TechnologyAnalytical Chemistry Division100 Bureau Dr., Stop 8391Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8391, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Michael H. RamseyUniversity of SussexDepartment of Biology and EnvironmentalScience, Centre for Environmental ResearchSussex HouseBrighton, BN1 9RH, UKe-mail: [email protected]
Gunnar RossMagnet-Physik Dr. Steingroever GmbHEmil-Hoffmann-Str. 350996 Köln, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
Steffen RudtschPhysikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB)Dept. 7.4Abbestr. 2–1210587 Berlin, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
Lane SanderNational Institute of Standards and TechnologyChemical Science and Technology Laboratory,Analytical Chemistry Division100 Bureau Drive, MS 8392Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8392, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Erich SantnerFederal Institute for Materials Researchand Testing (BAM)Unter den Eichen 44–4612203 Berlin, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
Michele SchantzNational Institute of Standards and TechnologyAnalytical Chemistry Division100 Bureau Drive, Stop 8392Gaithersburg, MD 20899, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Guenter SchmittIserlohn University of Applied SciencesLaboratory for Corrosion ProtectionFrauenstuhlweg 318644 Iserlohn, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
Bernd SchumacherPhysikalisch-Technische BundesanstaltDepartment 2.1 DC and Low FrequencyBundesallee 10038116 Braunschweig, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
Karin SchwibbertFederal Institute for Materials Researchand Testing (BAM)Division IV.1 Materials and Environment12205 Berlin, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
List of Authors XIII
Michael SchützeKarl-Winnacker-InstitutDECHEMA e.V.Theodor-Heuss-Allee 2560486 Frankfurt am Main, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
John Henry ScottNational Institute of Standards and TechnologySurface and Microanalysis Science Division100 Bureau Drive, MS 8370Gaithersburg, MD 20899, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Martin SeahNational Physical LaboratoryQuality of Life DivisionHampton Road, MiddlesexTeddington, TW11 0LW, UKe-mail: [email protected]
Masato ShimonoNational Institute for Materials ScienceComputational Materials Science Center1-2-1 SengenTsukuba, 305-0047, Japane-mail: [email protected]
John R. SieberNational Institute of Standards and TechnologyChemical Science and Technology Laboratory100 Bureau Drive, Stop 8391Gaithersburg, MD 20899, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Franz-Georg SimonFederal Institute for Materials Researchand Testing (BAM)Waste Treatment and Remedial EngineeringUnter den Eichen 8712205 Berlin, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
John SmallNational Institute of Standards and TechnologySurface and Microanalysis Science Division100 Bureau Drive, MS 8370Gaithersburg, MD 20899, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Melody V. SmithNational Institute of Standards and TechnologyPhysical Science Technician (WEG), BiospectroscopyGroup, Biochemical Science Division100 Bureau DriveGaithersburg, MD 20899-8312, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Petra SpitzerPhysikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB)Dept. 3.13 Metrology in ChemistryBundesallee 10038116 Braunschweig, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
Ina StephanFederal Institute for Materials Researchand Testing (BAM)Division IV.1 Biology in Materials Protectionand Environmental IssuesUnter den Eichen 8712205 Berlin, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
Stephan J. StranickNational Institute of Standards and TechnologyDepartment of Commerce, Surfaceand Microanalysis Science Division100 Bureau Dr. Stop 8372Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8372, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Hans-Henning StrehblowHeinrich-Heine-UniversitätInstitute of Physical ChemistryUniversitätsstr. 140225 Düsseldorf, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
XIV List of Authors
Tetsuya TagawaNagoya UniversityDepartment of Materials Science and EngineeringNagoya, 464-8603, Japane-mail: [email protected]
Akira TezukaNational Institute of Advanced Industrial Scienceand TechnologyAdvanced Manufacturing Research InstituteAIST Tsukuba EastTsukuba, 305-8564, Japane-mail: [email protected]
Yo TomotaIbaraki UniversityDepartment of Materials Science,Faculty of Engineering4-12-1 Nakanarusawa-choHitachi, 316-8511, Japane-mail: [email protected]
John TravisNational Institute of Standards and TechnologyAnalytical Chemistry Division (Retired)100 Bureau Drive, MS 8312Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8312, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Gregory C. TurkNational Institute of Standards and TechnologyAnalytical Chemistry Division100 Bureau Drive, Stop 8391Gaithersburg, MD 20899, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Thomas VetterNational Institute of Standardsand Technology (NIST)Analytical Chemistry Division100 Bureau Dr. Stop 8391Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8391, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Andrew WallardPavillon de BreteuilBureau International des Poids Et Mesures92312 Sèvres, Francee-mail: [email protected]
Joachim WeckerSiemens AGCorporate TechnologyP.O.Box 322091050 Erlangen, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
Wolfhard WegscheiderMontanuniversität LeobenGeneral and Analytical ChemistryFranz-Josef-Strasse 18Leoben, 8700, Austriae-mail: [email protected]
Alois WehrstedtDIN Deutsches Institut für NormungNormenausschuss Materialprüfung (NMP)Burggrafenstraße 610787 Berlin, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
Michael WelchNational Institute of Standards and Technology100 Bureau Drive, Stop 8392Gaithersburg, MD 20899, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Ulf WickströmSP Swedish National Testing and Research InstituteDepartment of Fire TechnologyP.O. Box 857SE-501 15 Borås, Swedene-mail: [email protected]
Sheldon M. WiederhornNational Institute of Standards and TechnologyMaterials Science and Engineering Laboratory100 Bureau DriveGaithersburg, MD 20899-8500, USAe-mail: [email protected]
List of Authors XV
Scott WightNational Insitute of Standards and TechnologySurface and Microanalysis Science Division100 Bureau Drive, Stop 8371Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8371, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Michael WinchesterNational Institute of Standards and TechnologyAnalytical Chemistry Division100 Bureau Drive, Building 227, Mailstop 8391Gaithersburg, MD 20899, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Noboru YamadaMatsushita Electric Industrial Company, Ltd.Optical Media Group, Storage Media SysytemsDevelopment Center3-1-1 Yagumo-NakamachiMoriguchi, 570-8501, Japane-mail: [email protected]
Rolf ZeislerNational Institute of Standards and TechnologyAnalytical Chemistry Division100 Bureau Drive, MS 8395Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8395, USAe-mail: [email protected]
Uwe ZscherpelFederal Institute for Materials Researchand Testing (BAM)Division “NDT – Radiological Methods”Unter den Eichen 8712205 Berlin, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
Adolf ZschunkeRapsweg 11504207 Leipzig, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
XVII
Contents
List of Abbreviations ................................................................................. XXIII
Part A Materials Measurement System
1 Measurement Principles and Structures............................................. 31.1 What Is Metrology? ........................................................................ 31.2 The Roots and Evolution of Metrology............................................. 31.3 BIPM: The Birth of the Meter Convention ........................................ 61.4 BIPM: The First 75 Years ................................................................. 71.5 Quantum Standards: A Metrological Revolution............................... 81.6 Regional Metrology Organizations .................................................. 91.7 Traceability of Measurements......................................................... 101.8 Mutual Recognition of NMI Standards: The CIPM MRA....................... 101.9 Metrology in the 21st Century ......................................................... 121.10 The SI System and New Science ...................................................... 14References............................................................................................... 16
2 Measurement Strategy and Quality .................................................... 172.1 Sampling ...................................................................................... 182.2 The Traceability of Measurements .................................................. 232.3 Statistical Evaluation of Results ...................................................... 272.4 Validation ..................................................................................... 472.5 Inter-laboratory Comparisons and Proficiency Testing ..................... 572.6 (Certified) Reference Materials ....................................................... 672.7 Reference Procedures .................................................................... 752.8 Accreditation and Peer Assessment ................................................ 842.9 Human Aspects in a Laboratory ...................................................... 882.10 Further Reading ............................................................................ 92References............................................................................................... 92
3 Materials and Their Characteristics: Overview ................................... 953.1 Basic Features of Materials ............................................................ 963.2 Classification of Materials Characterization Methods ....................... 101References............................................................................................... 102
Part B Measurement Methods for Compositionand Structure
4 Chemical Composition.......................................................................... 1054.1 Bulk Chemical Characterization ...................................................... 1054.2 Microanalytical Chemical Characterization ...................................... 138References............................................................................................... 148
XVIII Contents
5 Nanoscopic Architecture and Microstructure ..................................... 1535.1 Fundamentals ............................................................................... 1595.2 Crystalline and Amorphous Structure Analysis ................................. 1805.3 Lattice Defects and Impurities Analysis ........................................... 1875.4 Molecular Architecture Analysis ...................................................... 2065.5 Texture, Phase Distributions, and Finite Structures Analysis ............. 217References............................................................................................... 225
6 Surface and Interface Characterization .............................................. 2296.1 Surface Chemical Analysis .............................................................. 2306.2 Surface Topography Analysis .......................................................... 255References............................................................................................... 272
Part C Measurement Methods for Materials Properties
7 Mechanical Properties ......................................................................... 2837.1 Elasticity ....................................................................................... 2847.2 Plasticity ....................................................................................... 2997.3 Hardness ...................................................................................... 3117.4 Strength ....................................................................................... 3337.5 Fracture Mechanics ........................................................................ 3537.6 Permeation and Diffusion .............................................................. 371References............................................................................................... 387
8 Thermal Properties............................................................................... 3998.1 Thermal Conductivity and Specific Heat Capacity ............................. 4008.2 Enthalpy of Phase Transition, Adsorption and Mixing ...................... 4088.3 Thermal Expansion and Thermomechanical Analysis ....................... 4158.4 Thermogravimetry ......................................................................... 4178.5 Temperature Sensors ..................................................................... 417References............................................................................................... 428
9 Electrical Properties ............................................................................. 4319.1 Electrical Materials ........................................................................ 4329.2 Electrical Conductivity of Metallic Materials..................................... 4399.3 Electrolytical Conductivity .............................................................. 4449.4 Semiconductors ............................................................................. 4539.5 Measurement of Dielectric Materials Properties ............................... 472References............................................................................................... 481
10 Magnetic Properties ............................................................................. 48510.1 Magnetic Materials ........................................................................ 48610.2 Soft and Hard Magnetic Materials: (Standard) Measurement
Techniques for Properties Related to the B(H) Loop ......................... 49010.3 Magnetic Characterization in a Pulsed Field Magnetometer (PFM) .... 51010.4 Properties of Magnetic Thin Films ................................................... 522References............................................................................................... 527
Contents XIX
11 Optical Properties ................................................................................. 53111.1 Fundamentals of Optical Spectroscopy ............................................ 53211.2 Micro-spectroscopy ....................................................................... 54911.3 Magnetooptical Measurement ........................................................ 55311.4 Nonlinear Optics and Ultrashort Pulsed Laser Application ................ 55811.5 Fiber Optics ................................................................................... 57011.6 Evaluation Technologies for Optical Disk Memory Materials .............. 58511.7 Optical Sensing ............................................................................. 593References............................................................................................... 600
Part D Measurement Methods for Materials Performance
12 Corrosion ............................................................................................... 61112.1 Background .................................................................................. 61212.2 Conventional Electrochemical Test Methods .................................... 61512.3 Novel Electrochemical Test Methods ............................................... 63912.4 Exposure and On-Site Testing ........................................................ 64312.5 Corrosion Without Mechanical Loading ........................................... 64312.6 Corrosion with Mechanical Loading ................................................ 64912.7 Hydrogen-Induced Stress Corrosion Cracking .................................. 65912.8 High-Temperature Corrosion .......................................................... 66212.9 Inhibitor Testing and Monitoring of Efficiency................................. 676References............................................................................................... 681
13 Friction and Wear................................................................................. 68513.1 Definitions and Units..................................................................... 68513.2 Selection of Friction and Wear Tests ............................................... 68913.3 Tribological Test Methods ............................................................... 69313.4 Friction Measurement .................................................................... 69613.5 Quantitative Assessment of Wear ................................................... 70113.6 Characterization of Surfaces and Debris .......................................... 706References............................................................................................... 709
14 Biogenic Impact on Materials ............................................................. 71114.1 Modes of Materials – Organisms Interactions .................................. 71214.2 Biological Testing of Wood ............................................................. 71614.3 Testing of Organic Materials ........................................................... 73114.4 Biological Testing of Inorganic Materials ......................................... 75314.5 Coatings and Coating Materials ...................................................... 76814.6 Reference Organisms ..................................................................... 775References............................................................................................... 780
15 Material–Environment Interactions ................................................... 78915.1 Materials and the Environment ...................................................... 78915.2 Emissions from Materials ............................................................... 80415.3 Fire Physics and Chemistry ............................................................. 813References............................................................................................... 825
XX Contents
16 Performance Control and Condition Monitoring ............................... 83116.1 Nondestructive Evaluation ............................................................. 83216.2 Industrial Radiology ...................................................................... 84416.3 Computerized Tomography – Application to Organic Materials ......... 85816.4 Computerized Tomography – Application to Inorganic Materials ...... 86416.5 Computed Tomography – Application to Composites
and Microstructures ....................................................................... 87016.6 Structural Health Monitoring – Embedded Sensors.......................... 87516.7 Characterization of Reliability ........................................................ 89116.A Appendix ...................................................................................... 907References............................................................................................... 908
Part E Modeling and Simulation Methods
17 Molecular Dynamics ............................................................................. 91517.1 Basic Idea of Molecular Dynamics ................................................... 91517.2 Diffusionless Transformation .......................................................... 92817.3 Rapid Solidification ....................................................................... 93517.4 Diffusion ....................................................................................... 94617.5 Summary ...................................................................................... 950References............................................................................................... 950
18 Continuum Constitutive Modeling ...................................................... 95318.1 Phenomenological Viscoplasticity ................................................... 95318.2 Material Anisotropy ....................................................................... 95818.3 Metallothermomechanical Coupling ............................................... 96318.4 Crystal Plasticity ............................................................................ 966References............................................................................................... 970
19 Finite Element and Finite Difference Methods .................................. 97319.1 Discretized Numerical Schemes for FEM and FDM ............................. 97519.2 Basic Derivations in FEM and FDM .................................................. 97719.3 The Equivalence of FEM and FDM Methods ...................................... 98119.4 From Mechanics to Mathematics: Equilibrium Equations
and Partial Differential Equations .................................................. 98219.5 From Mathematics to Mechanics:
Characteristic of Partial Differential Equations ................................ 98719.6 Time Integration for Unsteady Problems ......................................... 98919.7 Multidimensional Case .................................................................. 99119.8 Treatment of the Nonlinear Case .................................................... 99519.9 Advanced Topics in FEM and FDM ................................................... 99519.10 Free Codes .................................................................................... 999References............................................................................................... 999
Contents XXI
20 The CALPHAD Method............................................................................ 100120.1 Outline of the CALPHAD Method ...................................................... 100220.2 Incorporation of the First Principle Calculations
into the CALPHAD Approach ............................................................ 100620.3 Prediction of Thermodynamic Properties of Compound Phases
with First Principle Calculations ..................................................... 1019References............................................................................................... 1030
21 Phase Field ........................................................................................... 103121.1 Basic Concept of the Phase-Field Method ....................................... 103221.2 Total Free Energy of Microstructure ................................................. 103321.3 Solidification ................................................................................ 104221.4 Diffusion-Controlled Phase Transformation .................................... 104521.5 Structural Phase Transformation .................................................... 104821.6 Microstructure Evolution ................................................................ 1050References............................................................................................... 1054
22 Monte Carlo Simulation ....................................................................... 105722.1 Fundamentals of the Monte Carlo Method ...................................... 105722.2 Improved Algorithms ..................................................................... 106122.3 Quantum Monte Carlo Method ....................................................... 106622.4 Bicritical Phenomena in O(5) Model ................................................ 107322.5 Superconductivity Vortex State ....................................................... 107722.6 Effects of Randomness in Vortex States ........................................... 108322.7 Quantum Critical Phenomena......................................................... 1086References............................................................................................... 1089
Appendix – International Standards ....................................................... 1097Acknowledgements ................................................................................... 1151About the Authors ..................................................................................... 1153Detailed Contents ...................................................................................... 1173Subject Index ............................................................................................. 1189
XXIII
List of Abbreviations
μTA microthermal analysis
A
AA arithmetic averageAED atomic emission detectorAES Auger electron spectroscopyAFM atomic force microscopyAFNOR Association Française
de NormalisationAGM alternating gradient field magnetometerANOVA analysis of varianceAPCI atmospheric pressure chemical
ionizationAPD avalanche photodiodeARDRA amplified Ribosomal DNA Restriction
AnalysisASE amplified spontaneous emissionASTM American Society for Testing
and MaterialsATR attenuated total reflection
B
BAM Bundesanstalt für Materialforschungund -prüfung
BB Ladyzhenskaya–Babuska–Brezzicondition
BBB Ladyzhenskaya–Babuska–Brezzicondition
bcc body-centered cubicBEM Boundary Element MethodBLRF bispectral luminescence radiance factorBi-CGSTAB biconjugate gradient stabilized method
C
CAD computer-aided designCALPHAD calculation of phase diagramsCCD digitized with charge-coupled devicec.c.t. crevice corrosion temperatureCCT center-cracked tensionCE capillary electrophoresisCE counter electrodeCEM cluster expansion methodCEN European Standardisation OrganisationCERT constant extension rate testsCFD computational fluid dynamicsCFL Courant–Friedrichs–Lewy conditionCG conjugate gradient method
CIEF capillary isoelectric focusingCIP constrained interpolated profile methodCIPM International Committee for Weights
and MeasuresCITP capillary isotachophoresisCL cathodoluminescenceCLA center line averageCMA cylindrical mirror analyzerCMC calibration and measurement capabilityCPAA charged particle activation analysisc.p.t. critical pitting temperatureCRM certified reference materialCT compact tensionCTD charge transfer deviceCTE coefficient of thermal expansionCTS collaborative trial in samplingCVM cluster variation methodCW continuous waveCZE capillary zone electrophoresis
D
DA differential amplifierDC direct-currentDEM discrete element methodDFG difference-frequency generationDFT discrete Fourier transformDFT density functional theoryDIN Deutsches Institut für NormungDIR digital industrial radiologyDLTS deep level transient spectroscopyDOC dissolved organic carbonDOS density of statesDSC differential scanning calorimetry
E
EAM embedded-atom methodEBIC electron beam induced currentsECD electron capture detectorEDS energy-dispersive spectrometerEELS electron energy-loss spectroscopyEF emission factorsEHL elastohydrodynamically lubricatedEL electroluminescenceELSD evaporative light scattering detectorEMD easy magnetization directionEPMA electron probe microanalysisEPS extracellular polymeric substancesER emission rates
XXIV List of Abbreviations
ESEM environmental scanning electronmicroscope
ETS environmental tobacco smoke
F
fcc face-centered cubicFD finite differencesFDA frequency domain analysisFDM finite difference methodsFE finite elementsFEA finite element analysisFEM finite element methodFEPA Federation of European Producers
of AbrasivesFET field effect transistorsFFP fitness for purposeFIB focused ion beamFID flame ionization detectorFID free-induction decayFISH fluorescence in situ hybridizationFLAPW full potential linearized augmented
plane waveFNAA neutron activation analysisFPD flame photometric detectorFT Fourier transformFTS Fourier transform spectrometerFVM finite volume methodFWM four-wave mixing
G
GC gas chromatographyGC/MS gas chromatography with subsequent
mass spectrometryGC-IR gas chromatography–infraredGDP gross domestic productGGA generalized gradient approximationGLS Galerkin/least squares schemeGMI giant magnetoimpedance effectGMR giant magnetoresistanceGMRES generalized minimal residualGSED gaseous secondary electron detectorGVD group velocity dispersion
H
HCF high cycle fatiguehcp hexagonal-close-packedHGW hollow grass waveguideHISCC cathodic stress corrosion crackingHL hydrodynamically lubricatedHPLC high-performance liquid chromatographyHRR heat release rateHSA hemispherical analyzerHTS high-temperature superconductors
I
IAQ indoor air qualityIBRG International Biodeterioration
Research GroupIC ion chromatographyICP inductively coupled plasmaICP-OES ICP optical emission spectrometryICPS inductively coupled plasma
spectrometryICR ion cyclotron resonanceILAC International Laboratory Accreditation
CooperationILC inter-laboratory comparisonsIR infrared regionISO International Organization for
Standardization
J
JIS Japanese Standardization Organization
K
KC key comparisonsKKS Kim–Kim–Suzuki model
L
LC liquid chromatographyLCF low cycle fatigueLD laser diodeLDV laser Doppler velocimeterLED light-emitting diodeLIF laser-induced fluorescenceLOC limit of decisionLOD limit of detectionLOD limit of determinationLOQ limit of quantificationLSDA local spin density approximationLST linear system theoryLTS low-temperature superconductorsLVDT linear variable differential transformer
M
MAD median absolute deviationMD multichannel detectorMDM minimum detectable massMEMS micro-electromechanical systemsMIC microbially induced corrosionMIS metal–insulator–semiconductor structuresMITI Ministry of International Trade
and Industry of JapanMLLSQ multiple linear least squaresMMF minimum mass fraction
List of Abbreviations XXV
MOE modulus of elasticityMOKE magnetooptic Kerr effectMOS metal–oxide–semiconductorMRA recognition arrangementMRAM magnetic solid-state memoryMRAM magnetic random access memoryMS mass spectrometerMXCD magnetic X-ray circular dichroism
N
NAA neutron activation analysisNAB national accreditation bodiesNDP neutron depth profilingNEP noise-equivalent powerNHE normal hydrogen electrodeNIR near infraredNIST National Institute of Standards
and TechnologyNMI National Metrology InstituteNMR nuclear magnetic resonance
O
OA operational amplifierODS octadecylsilaneOECD Organization for Economic Cooperation
and DevelopmentOES optical emission spectrometryOKE optical Kerr effectOPG optical parametric generationOPO optical parametric oscillatorOR optical rectificationOTDR optical time-domain reflectometry
P
PA polyamidesPAC perturbed angular correlationsPAH polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbonPC photoconductivePCR polymerase chain reactionPE-HD high-density polyethylenePEELS parallel electron energy loss spectroscopyPEM photoelectromagneticPFM pulse field magnetometerPID photoionization detectorPIXE particle-induced X-ray emissionPL photoluminescencePMT photomultiplier tubePOD probability of detectionPT phototubePTFE polytetrafluoroethylenePV photovoltaicPVC polyvinyl chloridePWM pulse-width modulation
Q
QA quality assuranceQC quality controlQMR quasiminimal residual method
R
RAPD random amplified polymorphic DNARD rolling directionRDE rotating disc electrodeRE reference electrodeRF radiofrequencyRFLP restriction fragment length
polymorphismRH relative humidityRM reference materialsRMS root mean squareRPLC reversed-phase liquid chromatographyRRDE rotating ring disc electroderRNA ribosomal RNARSF relative sensitivity factor
S
S/N signal-to-noise ratioSAQCS sampling and analytical quality
control schemeSBS sick-building syndromeSBS stimulated Brillouin scatteringSCE saturated Calomel electrodeSCLM scanning confocal laser microscopySDD silicon drift detectorSEC specific energy consumptionSEM scanning electron microscopeSENB4 four-point single-edge notch bendSER specific emission ratesSFG sum-frequency generationSFM scanning force microscopySHE standard hydrogen electrodeSHG second-harmonic generationSNOM scanning near-field optical
microscopySOR successive overrelaxationSPH smooth particle hydrodynamics
methodSPT sampling proficiency testSQUID superconducting quantum
interference deviceSRE stray radiant energySRET scanning reference electrode
techniqueSRS stimulated Raman scatteringSST single-sheet testerSTEM scanning transmission electron
microscope
XXVI List of Abbreviations
STL stereolithographic data formatSTM scanning tunneling microscopesSUPG streamline-upwind Petrov–Galerkin
methodSVET scanning vibrating electrode technique
T
TAC time-to-amplitude converterTCD thermal conductivity detectorTCSPC time-correlated single-photon countingTDS total dissolved solidsTEM transmission electron microscopeTGA-IR thermal gravimetric analysis–infraredTHG third-harmonic generationTMR tunnel magneto-resistanceTMS tetramethylsilaneTOF time-of-flightTPA two-photon absorptionTVOC total volatile organic compounds
U
UHV ultrahigh vacuumUNI Ente Nationale Italiano di UnificazioneUT ultrasonic techniqueUVSG UV Spectrometry Group
V
VAMAS Versailles project on advanced materialsand standards
VOC volatile organic carbonVSM vibrating-sample magnetometer
W
WDM wavelength division multiplexingWDS wavelength dispersive spectrometerWFI water for injection
X
XAS X-ray absorption spectroscopyXPS X-ray photoelectron spectroscopyXRD X-ray diffractionXRF X-ray-fluorescence
Y
YAG yttrium aluminium garnet
Z
ZRA zero-resistance ammeter