ss17march 20, 2008 william labov, university of pennsylvania cognitive capacities of the...
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SS17 March 20, 2008
William Labov,
University of Pennsylvania
Cognitive Capacities of the Sociolinguistic Monitor
y = 1.17Ln(x) + 2.37R2 = 0.96
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Percent velar -ing
Mean ratings
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How is sociolinguistic information perceived and where is it stored?
www.ling.upenn.edu/~labov
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The Sociolinguistic Monitor: some critical parameters
•Temporal window: Over what span of time do listeners modify their sociolinguistic judgments?
•Sensitivity: What is the just noticeable difference in frequencies that the SLM can detect?
•Does this sensitivity vary with age, region, social class?
•Linearity: Is the impact of successive instances of the variable constant or does it vary over time?
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The stable sociolinguistic variable (ING)
-ing vs. -in’ He’s working vs. He’s working.
(ING)
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Source: Labov 1966
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Casual speech Careful speech Reading style
Percent /in/
Lower working class
Upper working class
Lower middle class
Upper middle Class
Social and stylistic stratification of (ing) in the random sample of the Lower East Side of New York City adults
[N=81]
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Source: Labov 1966
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Casual speech Careful speech Reading style
Percent /in/
Lower working class
Upper working class
Lower middle class
Upper middle Class
Social and stylistic stratification of (ing) in the random sample of the Lower East Side of New York City adults
[N=81]
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Source: Labov 1966
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Casual speech Careful speech Reading style
Percent /in/
Lower working class
Upper working class
Lower middle class
Upper middle Class
Social stratification of (ing) in the random sample of the Lower East Side of New York City adults [N=81]
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Source: Labov 1966
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Casual speech Careful speech Reading style
Percent /in/
Lower working class
Upper working class
Lower middle class
Upper middle Class
Stylistic stratification of (ing) in the random sample of the Lower East Side of New York City adults [N=81]
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The social and stylistic stratification of (ing): a linear model
(ING) = a + b * SEC + c * ATS
where SEC = socio-economic class and ATS = attention paid to speech,
This implies but does not state the independence of SEC and ATS.
Equally true in the more general logistic expression used in sociolinguistic analysis today:
€
lnp
1− p
⎛
⎝ ⎜
⎞
⎠ ⎟= β 0 + β1x1 + β 2x2...β n xn
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The variable (ING)
Definition: The alternation of /in/ and /iN/ in unstressed syllables
Not only in working, swimming, interesting, during,
but also something, nothing
Characteristics of production
High frequency
Regular stylistic and social stratification
Uniform across most English speech communities
Characteristics of social evaluation
A stereotype (“dropping the g”)
Overtly and accurately associated with informality
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Curt & Kay C., David, 7 parents sonSTYLE
less formal (narrative) .72.69 more formal (other) .38 .38
GRAMMATICAL FORM
progressive (I’m working on it) .61 .73 participle (A man working for you) .43 .30 nominal (Working is bad for you) .17 .20
GRAMMATICAL AND STYLISTIC CONSTRAINTS ON (ING) FOR A KING-OF-PRUSSIA FAMILY
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Experiment 1: Philadelphia
•Site: University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia•Experimenter: W. Labov•Subjects: U of Penn undergraduates•Speaker: SA [White, female, Chicago]
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Experiment 1: The Newscast trial
A young woman from Philadelphia has been studying to be a newscaster, and has applied for a job with a local radio station. Here are seven versions of a trial newscast that she read to submit with her job application. Would you please rate each one on the following scale by putting a check in one box:
TRIAL ONE
Perfectly Try anotherprofessional . line of work
1 2 3 4 5 6 7/ ______ / ______ / _____ / ______ / ______ / ______ / _______ /
. . .
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The text for the Newscast experiment
•President Bush announced tonight that he was putting all available White House resources into support for the new tax cut bill.•Democratic leaders of the House and Senate are preparing compromise legislation.•Republican spokespersons predicted that record numbers of working-class Americans would be receiving tax refund checks before the end of the year.•Senator Edward Kennedy’s staff announced that the tax cuts are creating a new elite who are excused from paying their fair share of the cost of government.•At the Office of Management of the Budget, officials are trying to estimate the size of the deficit that will be produced by the new legislation.•Federal Reserve Board chairman Alan Greenspan stated that he was not confirming that tax cuts would lead to a change in prime interest rates, nor was he denying it.•The Washington Post is publishing today a list of all members of Congress who will receive tax refunds greater than $1,000 as a result of the proposed tax cuts.
50% /in/
70% /in/
SA
AH
50% /in/
SA
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Mean ratings for Newscast Experiment 1. Site = Philadelphia. Speaker: SA. N=23
prob block effect: = .066
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 30 50a 50b 70 100
Percent apical /in/
Professional other work
Block effect:apical first
Block effect: velar first
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Logarithmic fit to data of Experiment 1
y = 1.44Ln(x) + 1.83R2 = 0.97
1
2
3
4
5
6
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Percent velar /-ing/
Professional other work 0 30 50 70 100
Percent apical /in/
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Another view of the results of Experiment 1
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
y=0.12x+4.14
R2=0.89
0 30 50 70 100
Percent apical /in/
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Mean ratings of Newscast Experiment 2. Speaker: SA. Site: Philadelphia. N=36
1
2
3
4
5
6
0.000.100.200.300.400.500.600.700.800.901.00
Percent /ing/
Mean Rating
0 10 20 30 50 70 100
Percent apical /in/
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Logarithmic relationship in Newscast Experiment 2. Site: Philadelphia. Speaker: SA. N=36.
y = 1.52Ln(x) + 2.09
R2 = 0.96
1
2
3
4
5
6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
%
Mean ratings
0 10 20 30 50 70 100
Percent apical /in/
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Results of Newscast Experiment 2 by GenderMale N = 11; Female N = 25
y = 1.47Ln(x) + 2.28
R2 = 0.94
y = 1.62Ln(x) + 1.66
R2 = 0.99
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12Professional other work
FemaleMaleLog. (Female)Log. (Male)
0 10 20 30 50 70 100
Percent apical /in/
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Instructions for individual administration of Newscast Experiment 2
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Mean ratings for individual subjects on Newscast experiment 2. Speaker: AH. Site: Philadelphia [N=56]
y = -167.98Ln(x) + 722.64
R2 = 0.96
300.00
400.00
500.00
600.00
700.00
800.00Professional Other work
0 10 20 30 50 70 100 Per cent apical /in/
0 10 20 30 50 70 100
percent apical /in/
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Experiment 3: Regional comparison I
•Site: University of South Carolina, Columbia•Experimenter: Prof. Tracey Weldon•Subjects: U.S.C. students•Speaker: SA [White, female, Chicago]
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Experiment 3: Regional comparison I
•Site: University of South Carolina, Columbia•Experimenter: Prof. Tracey Weldon•Subjects: U.S.C. students•Speaker: SA [White, female, Chicago]
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Results of Newscast Experiment 3.Site: Columbia. Speaker = SA. N=55.
y = 1.17Ln(x) + 2.37R2 = 0.96
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Percent velar -ing
Mean ratings
0 10 20 30 50 70 100
Percent apical /in/
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Mean ratings of (ING) in Newscast experiments 2 and 3 by Philadelphia and Columbia subjects. Speaker: SA.
y = 1.51Ln(x) + 2.09
R2 = 0.96
y = 1.17Ln(x) + 2.37
R2 = 0.96
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Percent velar -ing
Mean ratings
Philadelphia
Columbia
Log. (Philadelphia)
Log. (Columbia)
100 90 80 70 50 30 0
Percent velar /ing/
0 10 20 30 50 70 100
Percent apical /in/
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Experiment 4: Regional comparison II
•Site: University of South Carolina, Columbia•Experimenter: Prof. Tracey Weldon•Subjects: U.S.C. students•Regional speaker: JB (50%)
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Results for Newscast Experiment 4: evaluation of use of (ING) by Columbia speaker JB by Columbia subjects. N=54 .
y = 1.04Ln(x) + 2.54R2 = 0.98
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Percent velar -ing
Professional other work
0 10 20 30 50 70 100
Percent apical /in/
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Mean ratings for Newscast Experiments 3 and 4: Comparison of evaluation of speakers JB and SA by Columbia subjects
y = 1.04Ln(x) + 2.54
R2 = 0.98
y = 1.17Ln(x) + 2.37
R2 = 0.96
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
JH
SA
Log. (JH)
Log. (SA)
JB
(JB)
0 10 20 30 50 70 100
Percent apical /in/
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Experiment 2: Regional comparison II
•Site: University of New Hampshire, Durham•Experimenter: Prof. Naomi Nagy•Subjects: U. of NH students•Speaker: SA
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Results for Newscast experiment 2: New England, Feb 2005 Speaker: SA. Site: U. of New Hampshire [N=51]
y = 0.81Ln(x) + 2.51
R2 = 0.71
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Professional other work 0 10 20 30 50 70 100
Percent apical /in/
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Replication of Newscast experiment 2: New England, Oct 2005.Speaker: SA. Site: U. of New Hampshire [N=33]
y = 1.07Ln(x) + 2.31
R2 = 0.92
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Professional other wok 0 10 20 30 50 70 100
Percent apical /in/
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Experiment 5: Regional comparison II
•Site: University of New Hampshire, Durham•Experimenter: Prof. Naomi Nagy•Subjects: U. of NH. students•Regional speaker: JD
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Results for Newscast Experiment 5: evaluation of use of (ING) by New England speaker JD by New Hampshire subjects, N=27 .
y = 0.67Ln(x) + 3.25
R2 = 0.82
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Percent apical /in/
Professional other work
0 10 20 30 50 70 100
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Why a logarithmic progression?
€
ln(x) =dx
x1
n
∫
Noting that
it appears that the function 1/x may play a crucial role in generating these results
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What is the effect of the ith deviation of a speaker from an expected norm?
where b is an impact coefficient specific to the variable and the community
€
ΔE =b
i −1
Hypothesis:
The effect of the ith deviation on the perception of the distance from the norm is a function of the proportional increase in the total number of deviations.
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If the impact coefficient is 1, the 4th deviation adds 1/3 to the total effect, the 5th deviation 1/4, and so on.
The total effect of n deviations is then
€
E = a +b
1+
b
2+
b
3... = a + b * 1+
1
2+
1
3...
⎛
⎝ ⎜
⎞
⎠ ⎟
where a is the initial rating given to the speaker without any deviations from the norm and S is the sum of the proportional increase series.
or
€
E = a + b * S
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The proportional increase series S = 1/1 + 1/2. . . 1/n
S does not converge to a limit but increases to .
€
∞
The sum for a given number of terms is approximated
by ln(n)+ , where = .5772156649… [Euler’s constant]
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Approximation of Ln(i)+ to Sum 1/x
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
4.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Eln(i)+g
y = ln(x)+.557
R2 = 1
.89 ln(x)+.89
R2 = .9975
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Predicting the experimental outcome
Then setting the initial rating a at 2.00 and the impact coefficient b at 1.25, we can predict the experimental outcomes.
The experimental results which approximated a logarithmic progression were generated by the proportional increase function E.
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Derivation of the Experiment 2 results by E with an initial rating a = 2 and impact coefficient b 1.25
percent /in/ Exp 2 E
00 1.83 2.00
10 3.19 3.25
20 3.81 3.88
30 4.58 4.29
40 4.60
50 5.03 4.85
60 5.06
70 5.08 5.24
80 5.40
90 5.54
100 5.44 5.66
chi-sq difference= .056, n.s.
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Generation of Experiment 2 results (Philadelphia) by E function
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Exp 2
E
0 10 20 30 50 70 100
Percent apical /in/
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The (R) variable
€
[−voc] →[+voc]/_C
#
⎧ ⎨ ⎩
⎫ ⎬ ⎭
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0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Casual Careful Reading Word List Minimal Pairs
Style
Percent [r]
96-84-52-310
Social and stylistic stratification of (R) in the random sample of the Lower East Side of New York City [N=81]
The cross-over pattern
SOCIO-ECONOMICCLASS
higher
lower
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Remaining vocalization of (R)
in the Eastern U.S. (Atlas of
North American English, Map 9.3
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Vocalization of (R) in Philadelphia
Ethnicity
Primary Primary & secondary
Italian Others Italian Others Total
Some (r-0) 25 9 23 11
34
No (r-0) 12 14 8 18 26
Total 37 23 31 29 60
Fischer’s exact test .0336 .0086
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Remaining vocalization of (R) in the South
from Map 9.3, Atlas of North American English.
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Mean ratings of Newscast Experiment for (ING) and (R) by Philadelphia subjects [N=35]AH (ING) AH(R)
y = 0.89Ln(x) + 1.38
R2 = 0.83
y = 1.21Ln(x) - 0.18
R2 = 0.94
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Per cent deviation from norm
Professional other work
ING
R
Log. (R)
Log. (ING)
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(ING) and (R) compared
(ING) (R)
Slope 1.21 0.89
r2 0.940.83
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Mean ratings of (R) in Newscast Experiment for two Southern speakers. JB = white male. SH = African American female.
y = 0.02x + 2.95
R2 = 0.68
y = 0.01x + 3.45
R2 = 0.83
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent vocalized /r/
Professional other work
JBSHLinear (JB)Linear (SH)
p = .002
p = .012
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Differential response by age and social class
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Mean ratings of Newscast Experiment on (ING) for high school student groups of three different class backgrounds
y = 0.01x + 3.52
R2 = 0.83
y = 0.01x + 2.80
R2 = 0.57
y = 0.02x + 3.89
R2 = 0.54
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent apical /in/
Professional other work
Working class [N=35]
Latino [N=11]
Middle class [N=64]
Linear (Working class[N=35])
Linear (Latino [N=11])
Linear (Middle class[N=64])
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r2 fit to logarithmic function for 56 individual subjects by age
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Age
r2 of fit to logarithmic function
Native
Non-native
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r2 distribution for 56 individual subjects of Experiment 2
0.0 0.5 1.0
5
10
15
r2
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r2 distribution for 56 individual subjects of Experiment 2
0.0 0.5 1.0
5
10
15
r2
>23 years old
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r2 distribution for 31 individual subjects under 23 years old
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Slope of logarithmic function for 56 individual subjects by r2
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
-100 0 100 200 300 400 500
Slope
r-squared of logarithmic function
African
AA
Asian
Asian US
Latino
Other US
White US
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Data output of Broadcast.rev
NC-ING-50d-3AH-PAF: 0,500,15 532,32 558,35 610,36 672,*72 673NC-ING-90-3AH-PAF: 0,500,15 748,*57 749NC-ING-70-3AH-PAF: 0,500,19 501,25 448,31 335,42 231,45 107,*63 107NC-ING-30-3AH-PAF: 0,500,10 80,39 229,41 181,42 80,*74 74AUD-ING-50b-5TM-PAM: 0,500,10 491,11 426,11 393,12 357,19 466,*22 466AUD-ING-50a-5TM-PAM: 0,500,11 504,12 694,*19 694NC-ING-0-3AH-PAF: 0,500,5 429,6 327,7 289,13 243,14 208,24 156,37 133,39 109,42 32,44 71,*57 72NC-ING-100-3AH-PAF: 0,500,11 464,13 439,18 499,19 637,20 671,*61 689NC-ING-80-3AH-PAF: 0,500,6 499,8 474,9 450,17 413,36 379,*59 360NC-R-50d-3AH-PAF: 0,500,16 298,18 273,27 559,28 633,31 353,31 283,*35 283NC-R-80-3AH-PAF: 0,500,6 584,9 450,24 606,25 650,26 528,27 413,27 339,28 311,29 291,*32 291NC-R-30-3AH-PAF: 0,500,9 534,10 570,19 621,21 642,26 621,27 372,28 311,29 346,29 483,*31 466NC-R-70-3AH-PAF: 0,500,9 590,14 362,16 278,19 634,21 716,26 859,*31 859AUD-ING-b-13JB-CWM: 0,500,7 376,7 477,11 169,13 106,16 35,*18 35AUD-ING-a-13JB-CWM: 0,500,5 375,8 636,8 664,*16 663NC-R-0-3AH-PAF: 0,500,9 420,10 366,13 300,22 257,*32 257NC-R-100-3AH-PAF: 0,500,5 534,7 492,8 637,12 545,14 683,19 721,21 700,24 725,*30 720NC-R-90-3AH-PAF: 0,500,8 651,19 609,20 669,23 709,*36 709
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Timing of /in/ variants in the Broadcast experiment
Seconds 90% /ing/ 80% /ing/ 70% /ing/ 50% /ing/putting 2.5 /in/preparing 9.2 /in/working 14.4 /in/ /in/receiving 16.2 /in/creating 23.1 /in/ /in/paying 25.5trying 31.3 /in/ /in/confirming 40.1 /in/denying 44.7 /in/publishing 47.5
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Time record of responses to Broadcast Experiment by Katie B., 19, NYC: r2 =.83
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
seconds
Other lwork professonal
0% /in/10% /in/20% /in/30% /in/
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200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
seconds
other work professional
0% /in/
10% /in/
20% /in/
30% /in/
Time record of responses to Broadcast Experiment by Chris W., 46, Washington DC: r2 =.89
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Time record of responses to Broadcast Experiment by Angelica K., 20, Gettysburg, PA: r2 =.88
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
seconds
other work professional
0% /in/10% /in/20% /in/30% /in/
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Time record of responses to Broadcast Experiment by Annie F., 18, Setauket, NY: r2 =.00
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
seconds
other work professional
0% /in/10% /in/20% /in/30% /in/
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Time record of responses to Broadcast Experiment by Daphne L., 18, Los Angeles, CA: r2 =.00
200
300
400
500
600
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
seconds
other work professional
0% /in/
10% /in/
20% /in/
30% /in/
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Sensitivity to internal constraints
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Percent /in/ by grammatical category of the stem for 33 speakers in lower middle class Philadelphia neighborhoods
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Future[n=102]
Progressive[n=541]Participle[n=412]
Complements [n=99]
Gerund[n=94]Gerundivenominal[n=58]
Noun[n=140]Adjective
[n=36]
per cent /in/
source: Labov 2001, Ch. 3.
is going to
is working
likes working on itstart working
swimming pool
ceiling interestingswimming
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10th century Verbal noun Participle -inge -inde loss of final shwa /iNg´/ /ind´/
loss of final C /iNg/ /ind/
15th century fixed orthography -ing /iN/ /in/
social stratification 19th century 20th century stable social & /iN/ ~ /in/ stylistic variation (favored in nouns ) (favored in verbs)
Historical continuity of the sociolinguistic variable (ing)
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The Audition Protocol
Husband [to wife]: Look baby, I know I was supposed to be painting the ceiling tonight. But they had me working since six in the morning on the god forsaken federal building. We were fixing the wiring on the west wall, and I was hanging onto the pipe railing all day. My back is killing me.
A young actor from a highly educated family is reading for the part of a construction worker in a Philadelphia play. There are two trials in his audition for the part. Please rate each of his trials on the scales below (from perfectly natural to very unnatural) by putting a check in one box.
Perfectly Verynatural . unnatural
1 2 3 4 5 6 7/ ______ / ______ / _____ / ______ / ______ / ______ / _______ /
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Responses to the Audition Experiment for (ING). TM = AA Northern male speaker. AH = AA Northern female speaker. Significance of normal vs reversed by t-test: solid
line: p < .01; dashed line p < .05; dotted line, not significant.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Reversed Normal
Perfectly natural Unnatural
TM Phila (1)TM Phila (2)TM Phila (3)TM Phila HS TM ColumbiaAH ColumbiaAH DurhamAH Newton HS
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The (R) variable
€
[−voc] →[+voc]/_C
#
⎧ ⎨ ⎩
⎫ ⎬ ⎭
pre-consonantal and final (syllable coda) >
word final before a vowel (syllable initial) >
word internal before a vowel (syllable initial)
four, forty
four of
forage
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Audition text for (r) with syllable coda /r/ (green) opposed to syllable initial /r/ (red)
A juvenile delinquent for a two week run? You want a volunteer to go back in time? It won’t be a hard part to play. I’ve had to go back to where I was raised more than once, you know, return to your roots. I’m not so sure I should do it. For as long as I can remember I’ve had this fear of my nastier self taking over again. What was I like then? You better ask my sister and brother. No, leave my sister out of it. We didn’t get along. It was just my brother and me, if there was any trouble around we would have started it for sure.
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Audition results for (R) in responses to White Southern speaker JB in Columbia and Philadelphia. Solid line p < .01, Dotted line n.s.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Reversed NormalPerfectly natural Unnatural
JB Columbia (1)JB Columbia (2)JB Phila
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The properties of the sociolinguistic monitor
• Within the limited range of our experiments, the temporal window of the sociolinguistic monitor is reasonably wide: it operates continuously across the time frame of the experiment.
• Subjects show a striking consistency in their evaluation of sociolinguistic variables, clearly sensitive to differences in frequency as small as 10%.
• Response of the SLM to sociolinguistic variants is not symmetrical: it is sensitive primarily to the frequency of marked forms rather than the frequency of unmarked forms.
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The properties of the sociolinguistic monitor
• The response of the SLM is not linear, but is determined by the proportional increase in the frequency of marked forms observed.
• Uniform sensitivity of the SLM is characteristic of the adult population, developing considerably later than other sociolinguistic functions.
• The SLM is sensitive to structural constraints on linguistic variables as well as frequency of marked variants.
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Sensitivity to percent differences in apical /in/ in Newscast Experiment 2 as shown by t-test probabilities. Site: Philadelphia. Speaker: SA. N=36.
y = 1.00Ln(x) + 0.97
R2 = 0.97
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent apical /n/
Professional other work
.0036
.000000009
.0005
.0007
n.s.
.017