STAAR Review 2016This is the power point used in class for review.

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• Cells are the smallest unit of living things• Simple cells are prokaryotic – no nucleus

(bacteria)• Complex cells are eukaryotic – nucleus (protist,

fungus, plant and animal cells)

• Cell membrane (all cells) – Surrounds the cell and controls what enters and leaves

• Ribosomes (all cells) – makes proteins (attached to endoplasmic reticulum)

• Chloroplast (bacteria, some protists, plant cell) – contains chlorophyll for photosynthesis

• Cell wall (bacteria – peptidoglycen, some protists - varies, fungi - chitin, plant cells -cellulose) – surrounds the cell membrane to provide structure

• Nucleus (eukaryotes) – controls the cells activities and contains the cell’s DNA

• Vacuole (large in plant) / Vesicle – holds the material like water

• Mitochondria (eukaryotes) – converts food into energy/ATP (cellular respiration)

Homeostasis

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Homeostasis – describes the equilibrium the cell maintains in response to its environment. They want to maintain balance.

Water moves from a high concentration to low concentration (osmosis)

Cell membrane is responsible for maintaining homeostasis

Molecular Transport

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Homeostasis is achieved by the cell membrane allowing material to flow in or out of the cell depending on the environment.

Types of Transport

ACTIVE TRANSPORT – requires the use of energy to move materials across the cell membrane (Low to High)

PASSIVE TRANSPORT – no energy required due to materials flowing from high concentration to low concentration (diffusion/osmosis/facilitated diffusion)

OSMOSIS in cells in solution:

ISOTONIC HYPOTONIC HYPERTONIC(No change) (water enters-cell “BLOWS” up) (water leaves-cell SHRINKS)

Water flows from high % to low %.Water flows toward the higher solute.

Osmotic Pressure – force exerted by osmosisTurgor Pressure – osmotic pressure in plants (plant cells gain water)Plasmolysis – cells lose water

Turgor

PressurePlasmolysis

Vascular TissuesXylem = Water upPhloem = Food down

Energy Conversion Cycle

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MitochondriaSite of cellular respiration

ChloroplastSite of photosynthesis

Glucose and O2

CO2 and H2O

PLANTS & SOME PROTISTSANIMALS, FUNGI,

PROTISTS & PLANTS

REMEMBER: Bacteria do NOT have organelles like chloroplasts even when autotrophic

Cellular Respiration & Photosynthesis

C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP

6CO2 + 6H2O + sunlight C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2

Reactants Products

glucose, water, oxygen carbon dioxide , water, energy

carbon dioxide , water, energy glucose, water, oxygen

Production of ATP (Energy)

•Systems that work together to produce ATP.

•Respiratory system gathers O2, Digestive system gets glucose and delivers it to the Circulatorysystem which in turn takes it to cells which use both to produce ATP for use.

Muscles use ATP for work. As you run your muscles work harder and require more ATP (energy) thus cellular respiration increases which requires more Oxygen thus increasing your breathing rate to add more oxygen. Anaerobic respiration can result and lead to cramps.

DNA Replication

DNA replication – Where? Why?Base pairing rule?Structure?Mutations - deletion

- substitution/point- insertion

How can mutations be passed to offspring – what type of cells must they occur in?

Protein Synthesis

copyright cmassengale 15

Happens in ribosome

Happens in nucleus

copyright cmassengale 16

Problems with Transcription or Translation

Why do many point mutations go unnoticed?

• 5 T A A G C T G A T A C T A 3

• Make sure you convert DNA and tRNA

back into mRNA!

Transcription:

5 T A A G C T G A T A C T A 33 A U U C G A C U A U G A U 5

3 A U U / C G A / C U A / U G A / U 5

Use the codons to find the amino acids

Viruses

Acellular - non livingHost Cell – must use for reproductionTail Fibers/Receptor Proteins (glycoproteins) – used for anchoringCapsid or Protein Coat Nucleic acid (DNA or RNA)

VirusesHow can you prevent yourself from getting a virus?

What does your body make to fight viruses?

Viral Infections

Viral Infections

Comparison of Viruses and Bacteria Cells

Viruses

• Non-living• No metabolism• Has “capsid” with nucleic acids• Depends on host cell for

reproduction• Do not respond to antibiotics• Can causes diseases like

Influenza and HIV• Injects nucleic acid

Bacteria Cells

• Living• Metabolic processes• Has circular nucleic acid (plasmid DNA)• Reproduction is through mitosis/binary

fission or conjugation• Can be killed with antibiotics• Can causes infections like strep throat

and meningitis • Releases toxins

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Cell Cycle = Interphase + Mitosis

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I – Interphase: Cell grows, develops, and duplicates its DNA

M – Mitosis: Cell division is occurring

G1 – First Gap: Cell growth

S – Synthesis: Cell replicates its DNA

G2 – Second Gap: More cell growth and preparation for division

G0 – “Holding” stage if cell density is too high

Uncontrolled cell division leads to cancer!

The Cell Cycle - Mitosis

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PROPHASE

The nuclear membrane disintegrates. The chromatin is condensing into chromosomes. Centrioles move toward poles

METAPHASE

The chromosomes align at the metaphase plate in the middle of the cell.

ANAPHASE

The chromosomes split and the spindle shortens pulling chromatids to opposite ends of cell.

TELOPHASE

The decondensingchromosomes go back into chromatin and are surrounded by nuclear membranes.

• Cytokinesis occurs at the end of telophase, separating the cytoplasm into two new cells

• Mitosis results in two identical daughter cells

• Asexual reproduction – one cell dividing into two identical

• Mitosis occurs in somatic (body) cells

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The Cell Cycle

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What phases of the cell cycle can you identify in the picture to the left?

Identify a cell in:InterphaseProphaseMetaphaseAnaphaseTelophase

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Crossing over during Prophase I leads to genetic diversity!

Organic Compounds

•Compounds that contain CARBON (with H and O) are called organic.

•Macromolecules are large organic molecules.

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Macromolecules

• POLYMERS made of MONOMERS

• Examples:

1. Carbohydrates made of saccharides

2. Lipids made of fatty acid chains & glycerol

3. Proteins made of amino acids

4. Nucleic acids made of nucleotides

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Dehydration Synthesis

• Removing water to put together

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HO H

HO HO HH

H2O

Hydrolysis

• Add water to break molecule

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HO HO HH

HO H

H2O

Carbohydrates• Functions:

• Short term energy ( -ose)• Structure of plants (cellulose)

Monomers of saccharideMonosaccharide: one sugar unit

Examples: glucose (C6H12O6), cellulose, sucrose, glycogen

disaccharide – two polysaccharide - many

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glucoseglucose

glucoseglucose

glucoseglucose

glucoseglucose

glucoseglucose

cellulose

Lipids

Six functions of lipids:

1. Long term energy storage

2. Protection against heat loss (insulation)

3. Protection against physical shock

4. Protection against water loss

5. Chemical messengers (hormones)

6. Major component of membranes (phospholipids)

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Lipids

Triglycerides:composed of 1 glycerol and 3

fatty acids.

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H

H-C----O

H-C----O

H-C----O

H

glycerol

O

C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3

fatty acids

O

C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3

O

C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH

Proteins (Polypeptides)• Monomer = Amino acid • Bonded together by peptide bonds (polypeptides).

• Six functions of proteins:4. Movement (muscles)5. Structural (membranes, hair, nails)6. Enzymes (cellular reactions)7. Transport molecule (hemoglobin)8. Chemical messenger (insulin)9. Structural molecule (collagen)

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Enzyme . . . _____ase

Nucleic acids

• Two types:

a. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA- double helix)

b. Ribonucleic acid (RNA-single strand)

• Nucleic acids: nucleotide is monomer

• Genetic information storage

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Nucleotide

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O

O=P-O

O

Phosphate

Group

NNitrogenous base

(A, G, C, or T)

CH2

O

C1C4

C3 C2

5

Sugar

(deoxyribose)

DNA - double helix

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P

P

P

O

O

O

1

23

4

5

5

3

3

5

P

P

PO

O

O

1

2 3

4

5

5

3

5

3

G C

T A

Enzyme Stabilizes Transition State

S

P

ES

EST

EP

ST

Reaction direction

Energy change

Energ

y req

uired

(no

catalysis)

Energ

y d

ecreases (un

der cataly

sis)

What’s the difference?T = Transition state

Adapted from Alberts et al (2002) Molecular Biology of the Cell (4e) p.166

Mendelian Genetics

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Genetics is the study of the odds and percentages any given offspring will have a set of traits.

Three Laws of Mendelian Genetics:

1. Alleles (form of a gene) segregate and recombine, and one allele is inherited from each parent.

2. Traits are independent of one another (hair color does not affect height).

3. One trait may mask another trait for the same thing (dominant over recessive).

Genetics

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Green Dog (male) and Yellow Dog (female) meet, fall in love, and get married. Green and Yellow have four puppies.

If yellow coats (Y) in dogs are dominant to green coats (y), and both parents are homozygous, what are the likely colors of their four puppies?

Genetics

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Y Y

y

y

Yy Yy

Yy Yy

This is an example of a monohybrid cross (one trait).

Each of the puppies will be yellow, but heterozygous.

The phenotype of each puppy is yellow.

The genotype of each puppy is Yy, meaning that each puppy carries a recessive green allele.

Genetics

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Example of dihybrid cross (two traits): Yellow Dog has a short tail (recessive), and Green Dog has a long tail (dominant). Green Dog is heterozygous for a long tail.

What are the possible colors and tail lengths of their four puppies?

Color – yyTail - Tt

Color – YyTail - tt

Genetics

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Yt Yt yt yt

yT

yT

yt

yt

Complete the dihybrid cross.

What are the odds a puppy will be:

yellow, long tailyellow, short tailgreen, long tailgreen, short tail

Yytt x yyTt

Non-Mendelian Genetics

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Non-Mendelian genetics do not follow the traditional laws of genetics. Non-Mendelian examples include:

• Incomplete dominance – a white rose and a red rose produce a pink rose.

Common Ancestry

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Common ancestry is the theory that all organisms descended from a single ancestor. Support for this idea is found in:

• Fossil record – shows the variety of organisms that have existed over time, going from very simple to more complex organisms over billions of years

• Biogeography – indicates that organisms that live geographically closer are more likely to be genetically similar

• Anatomical homology – structural similarities among different species that serve different purposes (i.e., a bird’s wing and a human’s arm)

• Molecular homol0gy – DNA and other molecular similarities between different species

• Developmental homology – embryonic and early developmental similarities

Common Ancestry

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The bone comparison between a human, dog, bird, and whale is an example of _____________________.

Common Ancestry

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Homologous – same structure, different function-Common ancestor

Analogous structuresDifferent structure, same function

No common ancestor

Vestigial structuresNo longer serve a purpose but there because of a common ancestor

Common Ancestry

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The proximity of like fossils that supports continental drift is an example of common ancestry ___________________________.

University of California - Berkley

Common Ancestry

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Biogeography and Fossil Record

University of California - Berkley

Common Ancestry

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Chimps and humans share 99% of DNA coding, an example of molecular homology – compare DNA and amino acids.

99% Identical

DNA

Common Ancestry

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Embryology (developmental homology) suggests that embryos of many organisms share similar characteristics.

Tortoise Embryo

Rabbit Embryo

• Natural Selection is a process that selects for those organisms that are the best fit in their environment to survive and reproduce.

• Adaptations allow populations to evolve.

• Gene flow – new alleles brought into population (migration may cause this)

• Genetic drift (one type of allele begins to dominate)

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Hierarchical Classification

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Hierarchical classification is a method of assigning organisms into groups and subgroups

based on similar characteristics.

Species

Domain

Hierarchical Classification

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3 Domains: Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya

8,700,000 non-bacterial Species

Increasing similarity in DNA within the group or taxon

Hierarchical Classification

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Phylogeny – an organism’s evolutionary history which can be used to classify it.

Present Day Organisms

Evolutionary Past

Hierarchical Classification

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Organism A

Organism B

Organism C

Organism D

Organism E

Organism F

Organism G

Organism C is most closely related to which other organism?

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Food is chewed, swallowed, and passed into the stomach where it is broken down into nutrients. The nutrients are then absorbed into the blood in the small intestine and distributed.

• Muscular – chewing and swallowing food• Digestive – breaking down food into nutrients in the

stomach and small intestine• Circulatory – distribution of nutrients by the blood

Interaction Between Systemsin Animals

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A virus is inhaled from the nearby air and enters the lungs. Mucus is secreted and traps the virus. T-cells then destroy the virus. A cough is triggered by the brain to remove the virus and mucus.

• Respiratory – breathing in and trapping the virus• Immune – T-cells destroy the virus• Nervous – brain sends signal to cough

Interaction Between Systemsin Animals

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A hormones in a female possum are produced that initiate ovulation.

• Endocrine – excreting hormones• Reproductive – ovulation for sexual reproduction

Interaction Between Systemsin Animals

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A drop in calcium in the blood triggers the release of a hormone called PTH from the parathyroid gland. PTH causes the kidneys to reabsorb more calcium from urine and the release of calcium from bones. The kidneys also produce Vitamin D, triggering the small intestine to absorb more calcium.

What body systems interact in this example?

Interaction Between Systemsin Animals

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• Circulatory – blood has less calcium• Endocrine – parathyroid gland produces PTH• Excretory – kidneys reabsorb more calcium from urine• Skeletal – release of calcium from bones• Digestive – more calcium is absorbed from food

This is an example of homeostasis and regulation

Interaction Between Systemsin Animals – Body needs more calcium

Interaction Between Systemsin Plants

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Water and nutrients are absorbed and transported from the soil to the fruit.

Root system uptakes water.

Xylem vessels transport water and nutrients upward through the shoot system to the fruit.

Root System

Shoot System

Xylem Vessels

Interaction Between Systemsin Plants

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Sugars are produced in the leaves and transported to the roots.

Phloem vessels transport sugars from the leaves throughout the plant.

Root System

Shoot System

Phloem Vessels

Leaves

Ecological Succession

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Ecological succession is the process of building (primary) or rebuilding (secondary) an ecosystem over time.

Primary Succession Opportunities• New volcano lava covering a landscape• Retreat of a glacier uncovering bare ground• Mining in side of mountain

Secondary Succession Opportunities• Wild fire• Harvesting of trees for lumber production• Hurricanes, landslides, or tornadoes

Primary Ecological Succession

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Lichens are called pioneer organisms and are the first organisms to appear in primary succession. At first, the species diversity is low, but eventually mosses, grasses, shrubs, and trees appear. The lichens cannot compete and disappear.

Lichens Mosses Ferns/Grasses Shrubs Trees

Low Diversity High Diversity

TIME

Relationships Among Organisms

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TYPES OF RELATIONSHIPSPredation One species captures and feeds on other type of species.

Competition Two species struggle for the same limited resources.

Parasitism One species benefits at the expense of another species.

Commensalism One species benefits from one another, but does no harm.

Mutualism Two species mutually benefit from one another.

Energy Flow in an Ecosystem

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Roles of Organisms in an Ecosystem

PRODUCER – Makes own food from sun’s energy

CONSUMER – Gets food from other organisms

• Primary – Eats plants • (HERBIVORES eating PRODUCERS)

• Secondary – Eats animals that eat plants • (CARNIVORES eating HERBIVORES)

• Tertiary – Eats animals that eat other animals • (CARNIVORES eating CARNIVORES)

Energy Flow in an Ecosystem

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.1% of Energy

Producers – Largest amount of energy, number of organisms, and biomass

10% of Energy

1% of Energy

Primary Consumers

Secondary Consumers

Tertiary Consumers

Solar Energy

100% of Energy

Energy Flow in an Ecosystem

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In the food web, identify:

• Herbivores, carnivores, and producers

• Organisms at the second trophic level

• Organism with the highest concentration of toxins

• Which organism represents the highest amount of energy and biomass