Stainless As Their Steel

An Overview of the Oneida Perfectionist Commune

and Commentary of its Relevance

By Emmanuel Hui

Rel 57.01 Dartmouth College Prof. Peter Lanfer

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Table of Contents

3 Prologue 3 The Founding of Oneida 5 Post-Apocalyptia 7 Work, Wealth, and Wickedness 11 Expelled from Eden 13 Epilogue 14 Appendix 15 Bibliography

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Prologue:

From its founding by the Rev. Eleazar Wheelock for the education and instruction of

youth of the Indian tribes [] and christianizing children of pagans,1 to its parentage of

early Mormon thought,2 Dartmouth College has been a historical center for religious

illumination. As a loyal son of Dartmouth, I became particularly interested when I learnt that

a fellow brother-in-tutelage of yesteryear had established a religious collective known as the

Oneida community. John Humphrey Noyes from the Class of 1830 started Oneida based on

his theology of perfectionism.3 This commune possessed similar qualities to other religious

communes, in that it had a singular charismatic leader of divine inspiration and it insisted on

having a resolute contrast identity to the outside world. However, while most communes are

based on apocalyptic thought, Noyes concept of perfectionism was distinctly post-

apocalyptic, which contributed to a different approach to community life that resulted in one

of the most thriving and functional communes ever to have existed. Although Oneida no

longer exists in its initial religious and communal form, it maintains its legacy today as a

joint-stock company that manufactures silverware.4 In this literary overview of the

phenomena that was and is Oneida, its history, theology (see chart in appendix), and unique

characteristics will be studied to uncover how it managed to flourish, unlike its religiously

unorthodox peers that spring up, then expire like chaff before the wind.

The Founding of Oneida:

Noyes attended Dartmouth with the intention of pursuing a career in law, but upon

graduation, he became transfixed by theology. He enrolled into Andover Theological

1 Dartmouth College Charter 2 "Forgotten Dartmouth Men 3 Oneida Community, 1. 4 Oneida Website: Our Story & Timeline.

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Seminary, and then transferred to Yale halfway.5 Not long after being licensed to preach by

the New Haven Association, he announced to his Free Church congregation that he was

morally perfect.6,*7 Such an assertion was founded on the principles that, i) the second

coming of Christ had already occurred,*8 and ii) that the gospel and second coming provides

full means for salvation and moral perfection, as according to 1 John 3:8-9, He that

committeth sin is of the devil; for the devil sinneth from the beginning. For this purpose the

Son of God was manifested, that he might destroy the works of the devil. Whosoever is born

of God doth not commit sin; for his seed remaineth in him: and he cannot sin, because he is

born of God. These two principles eventually led to the revocation of Noyes license for 5 Oneida Community, 4. 6 Haight, Norman Walter, Faith and Freedom, 53-54. *7 As professed in his autobiography, (Noyes, John Humphrey, Confessions, 16-20.) Then came the argumentum ad hominen as I expected. 'Well,' said he, 'if this is your doctrine, you unchurch yourself as well as others. Don't you commit sin'?' It was a greater thing to confess holiness in those days than it is now. I knew that my answer would plunge me into the depths of contempt: but I answered deliberately and firmly - 'No.' The man stared as though a thunderbolt had fallen before him. At first he seemed to doubt his own senses, and asked the question again. When I had convinced him that I actually professed to be free from sin, he went away to tell the news: and within a few hours the word passed through the college and the city - 'Noyes says he is perfect;' and on the heels of this went the report - ' Noyes is crazy.' Thus my confession was made, and I began to suffer the consequences. [] I do not pretend to perfection in externals. I only claim purity of heart and the answer of a good conscience toward God. A book may be true and perfect in sentiment, and yet be deficient in graces of style and typographical accuracy *8 It is repeatedly recorded in Matthew 16:28, Mark 9:1, and Luke 9:27, that Jesus said, Verily I say unto you, There be some standing here, which shall not taste of death, till they see the Son of man coming in his kingdom. The classical understanding of this statement is that it referred to the Transfiguration of Jesus as witnessed by Peter, James, and John that comes subsequently in all three scriptural references. Another traditional cipher for this refers to the bodily resurrection of Christ. As revealed in his autobiography, Noyes understood this statement to refer to the apocalyptic second coming of Christ that is to precede the millennium of peace detailed in Revelation 20. He also understood that for the scriptures to be infallible, the apocalyptic second coming must have thus occurred within one generation of Jesus ascension. Noyes found further support for this in Matthew 24, where Jesus describes great the tribulations that precede his second coming, and the destruction of the temple. Where traditional theology described the temple to be Christs physical body, Noyes saw it as the literal destruction of the temple in Jerusalem circa 70CE.

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ministry, and he was ostracized from church, college, family, and friends. However, like most

charismatic religious leaders, this rejection only spurred his audacity, for Noyes was sure that

he had received the Holy Spirit, [in every fibre of my body,] and could not be turned from

my course by man.9 Even against allegations of madness, Noyes admitted to them but

qualified himself by claiming, Insanity and the religious experience of true believers were

the same.10 It was due to this hostile response that Noyes found no other choice but to start

his own congregation separate from orthodox religious jurisdiction, though he did so gladly,

with great enthusiasm, and no bitterness of heart.

Having already gained much notoriety by now, Noyes attracted perfectionist from all

over to himself. One of the first converts to Noyes was Jonathan Burt, whose private journal

narrates his involvement in the initial purchase of land at Oneida. Burt had surrendered all his

assets into the community stock and decided upon the location of Oneida alongside Noyes.

Using Burts money, an old but operable sawmill was purchased, which was adjacent to vast

acres of fertile farmland and meadowland.11 As more people joined Noyes and added to the

community stock, the entire perimeter of 160 acres was purchased and by 1848, the first

central Mansion House was built for cohabitation, marking the official founding of the

Oneida Community.12

Post-Apocalyptia

With this new community, Noyes had the freedom to preach as he pleased and live

out his theological convictions. Given his belief that Christ had already returned and that

moral perfection is now possible and expected of humanity, this entailed a cascade of

consequences. First of all, in terms of eschatological chronology, Noyes saw himself as

9 Noyes, John Humphrey, Confessions, 23. 10 Klass, Dennis Eugene, A Psychohistorical Study, 30. 11 Foster, Lawrence, Free Love in Utopia, 2. 12 Robertson, Constance Noyes, Oneida Community: An Autobiography, 32.

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existing between the period of the second coming and the millennial rule of Christ. It was

therefore his divine duty to usher in the millennium, by establishing Jesus as king. Noyes

thought this was only possible if people lived in the spiritual truth of perfectionism, so that

Jesus would be the Lord of their hearts, and thereby the Lord of their community. Ultimately,

Noyes wished to see universally, the social formation that belongs to the post-mortal, or

heavenly and eternal state, and accommodate themselves thereto.13 Because they were

pursuing life as is practiced in the kingdom of heaven, this led to the inevitable overhaul of

earthly marriage. In Matthew 22:30 it is written, For in the resurrection they neither marry,

nor are given in marriage, but are as the angels of God in heaven. The most straightforward

impact of this passage was the abolishment of conventional marriage. However, this still left

the possibilities of polygamy and celibacy. *14 Noyes deduced that polygamy was

unacceptable due to 1 Timothy 3:2, which requires elders to be the husband of one wife,

and the fact that the Apostle Peter was married15 didn't necessitate celibacy. Given that it

seems all options were invalid, Noyes considered a new approach that he dubbed

pantogamy, also known as Free Love. Under the pantogamous model, marriage was a

communal complex. Everyone was married to each other and free to engage in sexual

relations with whosoever desired. Noyes interpreted John 17:21, in which Jesus prayed, that

they may all be one, even as I and my Father are one." not only to mean spiritual oneness, but

also sexual oneness between men and women, as characterized in Genesis 2:24. This oneness

also entailed financial solidarity after the model of Acts 4:32, And the multitude of them

that believed were of one heart and of one soul: neither said any of them that ought of the

13 Oneida Community, 14. *14 It is worth noting that Noyes never considered the option of homosexual relations or other nonconventional pairings. 15 Matthew 8:14, And when Jesus was come into Peter's house, he saw his wife's mother laid, and sick of a fever.

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things which he possessed was his own; but they had all things common. Pantogamy and

communal ownership thus also removed the possessive essence of parentage. All children

were raised together as a collective in the Childrens Wing of the Mansion House, and if ever

biased affection was expressed between an adult and child, that relationship was severed and

rehabilitated.16 Given the lack of family units, communal eugenics became the next logical

step to pursue. Noyes orchestrated reproduction by matching people (with their consent)

based on their moral character in hopes of creating a successive generation of balanced

humors that may best live out their lives of perfectionism.17 Less devout members were

matched with more devout members, the shy with the gregarious, the romantic with the

practical, etc. Reproduction was otherwise restricted to regulate the communes resources. As

a means of contraception, Noyes introduced the concept of Male Continence, which required

males to engage in intercourse without ejaculation.18 Through practice with post-menopausal

women, young men were taught to control their orgasms before being allowed to fully

immerse in Free Love. Likewise, virgin girls were introduced to sex by older men who were

well practiced in Male Continence. This eventually became an issue of statutory rape, for

which Noyes was legally convicted, contributing to the demise of the Oneida community19

(to be elaborated at a later point).

Work, Wealth, and Wickedness

Due to its post-apocalyptic approach of a prospective millennium of existence, the

Oneida community lacked the urgency and imminence of an ending or doomsday that other

communes had. Therefore, Oneidas approach to work, wealth generation, and the problem of

wickedness were also distinct. Whereas the characteristics and practices detailed in the

16 Matarese, Susan M. & Paul G. Salmon, Heirs to the Promise Land, 3543. 17 Richards, Martin,"Perfecting People, 4771. 18 Noyes, Pierrepont, My Father's House: An Oneida Boyhood 19 Olin, Spencer C.,Jr., [] Instability of Charismatic Authority, 296.

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previous section may be somewhat extreme and removed from common livelihood, these

facets of the Oneida community still pose relevance for contemporary application.

Generally speaking, work in Oneida was allocated by gender and profession. All

children attended school, while the women worked on domestic duties, and the men worked

on all heavy, industrial, and outdoor labor. However, records of the community show a

surprisingly egalitarian approach to gender. A mans work wasnt seen as more valuable than

a womans, and women were by no means restricted to the house. For example, on a Sunday

after the community meeting, people came together to clear logs and Mrs. Norton, Mrs.

Higgins, old Mrs. Burnham, Aunt Sally were out in short dresses and as active as any.20

Oneidas very first industrial venture, the gold chain business, was also co-coordinated by

Mrs. Higgins (again) and a Mrs. Leonard.21 Amongst the workforce, all unskilled laborers

rotated positions to minimize difference, and specified workers such as blacksmiths remained

in their positions due to necessity of professionalism. This work model was further promoted

by Noyes teaching that no labor is unattractive or particularly deserving of greater praise and

reward than another.*22 When time came for an apprentice or successor to be needed, the

community would vote on suitable candidates (usually a child). As Oneida grew, a Business

Board was established where representatives from all the industries would meet weekly to

discuss their progress. These meetings were open and completely transparent to everyone in

the community, and anyone in attendance had the right to deliberate and vote, even if he or

she was not a part any particular industry.

For wealth, money was basically obsolete at the personal level, for if anyone ever

20 Foster, Lawrence, Free Love in Utopia, 44. 21 Ibid., 47. 22 I am growing toward the simplicity of service, away from everything that distinguishes a gentleman from a commoner [...] In Fouriers system, unattractive labor was to receive a higher rate of pay. But if we get a firm hold on inspiration, I cannot see where there is any unattractive labor. Noyes Home-Talk, June 27, 1852 (Foster, Lawrence, Free Love in Utopia, 204.)

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needed anything, they simply had to request for it from the person responsible. Money was

involved primarily in exchanges with the outside world, which would all be transferred and

managed through the communal fund. There was a deep internalization that communal

wealth directly equated to personal wealth, and this evolved into a vigilant mentality against

personal prosperity.*23 Oneida was effectively a democratic, socialist subunit within capitalist

America. The traditional problems of socialism respect of private property, infringement of

personal freedom, and diminished incentive for work were all nonissue due to perfectionist

theology.24 The state controlled all assets, but they were always freely accessible to the

whole community; the people willingly submitted themselves to Noyes construct of society

as proverbial slave to righteousness,25 but they were free to leave at any moment, along

with the entirety of their initial input to the communal stock; and incentive for work was

based on intrinsic ideological desire, not an external rewards scheme which almost

guarantees failure. Another critical factor to Oneidas socialist success is undeniably their

small size. As seen in other socialist experiments that came before or after Oneida, the

coordination of productivity and distribution always descended into chaos due to the applied

impossibility of controlling an entire economy consisting of countless (and sometimes

conflicting) nuances and demands.26 By controlling the reproductive rate and eventually the

acceptance rate into the community,27 Oneida always worked on what was manageable to it

at that time. And even though Noyes ultimate vision was for a global conformation into the

23 The four and twenty elders in Revelation cast their crowns before the throne. That is what all those in high places must do As fast as I get crowns I shall fling them at Christs feet. Noyes Home-Talk, June 27, 1852 (Ibid.) 24 Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Economic Systems: Problem with socialism. 25 Romans 6:18, Being then made free from sin, ye became the servants of righteousness. 26 Encyclopdia Britannica Online, Economic Systems: Problem with socialism. 27 Foster, Lawrence, Free Love in Utopia, 198.

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Oneida way of life, a healthy priority was given to reality and personal survival.*28

A bane for socialism, or any form of teamwork really, is civil dissidence. Brother

turns against sister when one judges wickedness in the other or when one is tempted into

wickedness. To deal with wickedness and maintain perfection, Noyes employed Mutual

Criticism as a form of conflict resolution. During general meetings, in the audience of the

entire community, a portion of time was allotted where every member was subjected to

criticism by people he or she felt best understood their character. Noyes would then have the

final word to include his personal input and resolve the issue with a suggested solution.29

While Mutual Criticism had the potential to induce further resentment and embarrassment,

chides were mostly civil, gentle, and well received by virtue of discipline through love.30

The Oneidan approach to wealth, work, and wickedness, backed by their theological

principles, allowed the community to grow like a conglomerate company. At their apex, over

300 people lived in the community and produced leather, wood, brooms, steel traps, silk,

shoes, gold chains, canned fruits, and silverware.31,32 They found intrinsic value in their work

and had no personal need for money. Business and governmental constructs were all

transparent and geared towards the good of the community instead of highest possible profit.

People were teachable, open to criticism, and desired genuine self-improvement. Memoirs of

Oneida recall it as an Edenic place where music rang through the hallways, work was fruitful,

and people enjoyed each others bodies and souls.33 As alarming as it may be to find wisdom

in madmen, Noyes and his Oneida commune offer ineluctable lessons that may better our

*28 This is well represented in my work as a medic. Whenever Im on the scene of an incident, my personal safety and wellbeing is first, then my partners, then the bystanders, and finally the patient. Oneida took a similar approach towards a sick and dying world. 29 Noyes, John Humphrey, Mutual Criticism. 30 Proverbs 3:12, For whom the LORD loveth he correcteth; even as a father the son in whom he delighteth. 31 Foster, Lawrence, Free Love in Utopia, 206. 32 Lowenthal, Esther, The labor policy of the oneida community ltd., 120-126. 33 Violante, Anna. Oneida Community: Self-Expression Through Self-Dominion, 123-136.

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business practices, approach to teamwork, and basic human interactions.

Expelled from Eden

As they lived in Eden, the allure of forbidden fruit proved once again too great to bear.

While Noyes concepts were conceptually and practically viable, human nature and sentiment

slowly ate their perfection away. One prominent issue that contributed to unrest was the

institution of the family. Some members had entered the community as married couples or as

a whole family, and the dissolution of those relationships proved to be difficult. People

wanted to stick to their families, as well as start new ones. Mothers wanted to nurse their own

babes, and fathers did not want other men anywhere near their daughters. Regardless of

theology or ideology, preserving ones immediate family unit was an instinctual, visceral

response.34 Inequality of personal value was also an inevitable byproduct of job specification.

As much as Noyes preached humility and selflessness, people naturally identify with their

work, which is how they find satisfaction in it. Noyes attempted to retain that satisfaction

while removing that attachment, but evidently failed. More active members rose up as leaders,

different industries brought in different profits, and an unspoken hierarchy persisted. And

although I previously presented a valid rationale for Mutual Criticism, the fact remains that

some people are embarrassed and shamed by it. Finally, all these issues culminated to a

breaking point when Noyes tried to handover his spiritual and titular leadership to his

agnostic son, Theodore Noyes, in 1876.35 Theodore abused his influence and ruled with an

iron fist. Factions of discontentment formed within Oneida, and the elder Noyes had to

intervene to appease the situation. However, in 1879, Noyes became legally convicted of

facilitating and participating in statutory rape. He fled Oneida to settle in Ontario, Canada,

34 Lowenthal, Esther, The labor policy of the oneida community ltd., 114-115. 35 Hillebrand, Randall, "The Oneida Community".

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never to return to the United States, leaving the Oneida community to resolve itself.36

The factors that led to the decline of the Oneida community are preventable and

correctable. To address the problem of familial instincts, there was no need for Noyes to

insist on complex marriage. True, angels will not be given into marriage, but we humans are

said to be greater than angels,37 and Apostle Peter himself was married. Familial units do not

contradict the pursuit of moral perfection and communal living. Noyes inability to establish

complete equality between was also inevitable. Every man should reap what he sows,38 and

its simple fact of causality that some people sow more than others. What Noyes should have

done instead, to prevent the love of money and an egregious wealth gap, was to scale and

limit personal wealth not abolish it.*39 Mutual Criticism was another terrible and unbiblical

form of conflict resolution. Instead of going straight to public critique, Noyes should have

encouraged the Matthew 18 model,40 where people are approached at a personal level to

resolve conflicts, and if unfruitful, slowly escalate into increasingly public spheres to reach a

36 Olin, Spencer C.,Jr., [] Instability of Charismatic Authority. 37 1 Corinthians 6:13, Know ye not that we shall judge angels? how much more things that pertain to this life? 38 Galatians 6:7, Be not deceived; God is not mocked: for whatsoever a man soweth, that shall he also reap. *39 This scaling of wealth eventually occurred when Pierrepont Noyes took over the Oneida community and transformed it into a joint-stock company. In his words, Consolidation of holdings should cease; no family should own more than 3 per cent of the stock. The executives of the company limited their salaries to modest sums, far below the market rate for their services. (Olin, Spencer C.,Jr., [] Instability of Charismatic Authority, 1-3.) This moderation and scaling of payout maintained the spirit of equality and gave people just compensation and representation for the work that they did. Community members turned employers remained deeply loyal to the company and today, Oneida Ltd. is the world's largest manufacturer of stainless steel and silver-plated flatware. 40 Matthew 18:15-17, Moreover if thy brother shall trespass against thee, go and tell him his fault between thee and him alone: if he shall hear thee, thou hast gained thy brother. But if he will not hear thee, then take with thee one or two more, that in the mouth of two or three witnesses every word may be established. And if he shall neglect to hear them, tell it unto the church: but if he neglect to hear the church, let him be unto thee as an heathen man and a publican.

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compromise. This couldve prevented a lot of humiliation and ill will between people, which

gave birth to internal factions. Finally, Noyes decision to give authority to his under-

qualified son was patently disastrous, and Noyes committed the very sin he preached against

familial nepotism. He too couldnt deny his own instincts, and by the time he had to flee,

the Oneida community was beyond the point of recovery.

Epilogue As frightening as it may seem, it had been my long-time ambition to establish some

sort of utopian society. In a similar spirit to the international schools system and mentality

that I grew up in, I hope to establish an international orphanage where abandoned orphans

from across the world can find refuge, have a world-class education, and develop familial

bonds with each other. That being said, there is much I can learn from Noyes successes and

failures. One of the biggest conundrums for any social work is operational sustainability, and

I think the Oneida community provides a great model for an ethical, intrinsically motivated,

and efficient for-profit communal business, that pays out to non-profit endeavors. This

removes the handicap of donation dependence, and also provides a meaningful, fulfilling

livelihood for the community. On the other hand, Oneidas failure, caused by Noyes self-

validating theology and nave approach towards human nature, are cautionary tales that I

meekly hearken to. Instead of considering myself as a unique interpreter of truth, I shall let

the prophets speak two or three, and let the other judge.41 Instead of proclaiming perfection,

I shall take glory in my infirmities, that the power of Christ may rest upon me,42 and, like

Christ, empathize with the imperfections of every drunkard, cheat, and prostitute. Instead of

making decisions by instinct and sentiment, I should not forgo reason, and instead uphold the

virtue of ethical utility.

41 1 Corinthians 14:29, Let the prophets speak two or three, and let the other judge. 42 2 Corinthians 12:9, To another faith by the same Spirit; to another the gifts of healing by the same Spirit;

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APPENDIX

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http://www.oneida.com. Oxford Text Archive, and University of Michigan. Humanities Text Initiative. 1997. Bible king

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