statistical investigation into the authorial meaning in

Statistical Investigation into

the Authorial Meaning in "Lois the Witch"

Tatsuhiro OHNO

1. Purpose and Method

The purpose of this paper is to elucidate Elizabeth Gaskell's

meaning for her characters in her novella "Lois the Witch" (1859)

through the statistical analysis of their appearance rate and of their

involvement in the storyline.

2. Appearance Rate

According to the development of the plot, the story can be divided

into six-Part 1: Boston Pier (105-09; Scs. 1-3), \ Part 2: Widow

Smith's Inn (109-17; Scs. 4-7), Part 3: Hickson Family (117-48; Scs. 8-

44), Part 4: Hota's Hanging (148-68; Scs. 45-60), Part 5: Lois's Hang

ing (168-90; Scs. 61-75), and Part 6: Aftermath (190-93; Scs. 76-77).

Part 1 depicts Lois's arrival at Boston, her meditation on her past,

and Captain Holdernesse's practical advice about how to survive in

New England. Part 2 centres on the horrifying ambience of New

England which the heroine learns at Widow Smith's inn. Part 3

covers her intermingling with the Hicksons. In the next two Parts,

the topic moves on to witch trials, first Hota's prosecution and execu

tion, then Lois's. Part 6 describes Hugh Ralph Lucy's visit to Salem,

his inconsolable grief, and his decision to forgive the repentant

twenty-one years after the tragedy.

156 Tatsuhiro OHNO

Part

Pages

Percent

1. Boston

Pier

4.5

4.9

2. Smith's

Inn

8.5

9.1

3. the

Hicksons

32.5

34.5

4. Hota's

execution

22

23.5

5. Lois's

execution

23

24.6

6. After

math

3

3.2

Table 1. Page Allocation2

The investigation into page allocation to each Part is one of the

most effective methods for understanding the author's formal scheme.

"Table 1. Page Allocation," composed on the data in the scene

percentage column of "The Comprehensive Chronology for 'Lois the

Witch,'"3 illustrates 82.6% of the total pages are given to Parts 3-5,

and 48.1% to Parts 4-5 dealing with the witch tumult. This outcome

suggests the fiction's focal point is placed on Lois's interaction with

the Hickson family and on the. delineation of the two alleged witches'

misfortunes.4 Further analyses of the story's design throw Gaskell's

meaning into sharper relief.

Part

1

2

3

4

5

Total

Active

Referred

subtotal

%

Active

Referred

subtotal

. %

Active

Referred

subtotal

%

active

referred

subtotal

%

active

referred

subtotal

%

active

referred

total

%

Lois Barclay

3

0

3

42.9

4

0

4

100

32

2

34

25

25

0

25

27.2

0

2

2

50

64

4

68

28

Grace

0

1

1

14.3

0

0

0

0

14

12

26

19.1

13

6

19

20.7

0

1

1

25

27

20

47

19.3

Manasseh

0

1

1

14.3

0

0

0

0

13

12

25

18.4

10

4

14

15.2

0

0

0

0

23

17

40

16.5

Faith

0

1 .

1

14.3

0

0

0

0

17

12

29

21.3

14

4

18

19.6

0

0

0

0

31

17

48

19.8

Prudence

0

1

1

14.3

0

0

0

0

10

12

22

16.2

12

4

16

17.4

0

1

1

25

22

18

40

16.5

Table 2. Protagonists Focused

Statistical Investigation into the Authorial Meaning in "Lois the Witch" 157

iBadivearefeiredl

Fig. 1. Characters' Frequency of Appearance

"Table 2. Protagonists Focused," a device prepared according to

the data in the "Main Characters" column of the Comprehensive

Chronology, displays the appearance rate of one leading character in

comparison with the other four. "Fig. 1. Characters' Frequency of

Appearance" is the illustration of the data in the total boxes of the

Chronology. Table 2 and Fig. 1 show three distinctive features of this

tale's structure. First, Lois appears most often not merely in the

whole narrative but also in every Part. Second, the Hickson family—

Grace, Manasseh, Faith, and Prudence — follow the heroine in the

appearance rate. Third, the frequency of reference to God and Satan

(including Indians, wizards, witches, and devils)5 comes after that to

the Hicksons. These three formal aspects, in conjunction with the

development of the plot, make us assume Lois's intermingling with

four Hicksons under the satanic circumstances is the pivot of the

structure, and that the heroine's triumph over the five threats —

158 Tatsuhiro OHNO

Grace, Manasseh, Faith, Prudence, and Satan/Indian — is the theme

Gaskell intends to convey. The following survey of Lois's goodness

should be helpful to examine the correctness of this assumption.

3. Lois's Goodness vs Five Threats

| B Lois ■ Satan/Indian ® Grace B Maoassch □ Faith IB Prudence |

level

Fig. 2. Lois's Christian Fortitude

"Fig. 2. Lois's Christian Fortitude" exhibits the rise and fall of

her Christian integrity along with the increase and decrease of her

five menaces. One day in May 1691, Lois arrives at Boston Pier (105-

09; Scs. 1-3). She decides to leave her home village in England, not

merely to obey her mother's wish, but also to avoid becoming a cause

of quarrel between Hugh Ralph Lucy, her fianc§, and his father, a

rich miller, who opposes his son's marriage to the destitute daughter

of a minister. She fears that his love may cool during their separa

tion, but determines to leave "all in God's hands" (108). Because of

this discretion, let us put the level of her goodness at the second


degree for convenience's sake. There is no specific allusion to Satan

except allusions to strange "forests" where Indians lurk (107, 117) and

to the "French colonists" in league with Indians (109, 114). Hence,

Level 1 is given to the perils of Satan. No reference is made to other

four menaces; accordingly, their levels are set at zero. .

In Widow Smith's Inn (109-17; Scs. 4-7), Lois's goodness is hinted

at in the kind and friendly welcome from the proprietor, who has a

sure "instinct" for selecting customers (109). There is no substantial

change, therefore, in her goodness level. Red Indians' danger and New

England's peculiarities discussed at the supper table aggravate the

sinister atmosphere surrounding Lois; thus, the Satan/Indian threat

goes up one point. The Hickson family have yet to appear; hence,

their menaces are still -at the lowest level.

A couple of days later, the scene shifts from Boston to Salem

(117-24; Scs. 8-14). Soon after their first meeting, momentary animos

ity arises between Lois and her aunt. Lois's defence against Grace's

"implied insult to her father" (119-20) is approved by Captain

Holdernesse, one of the most rational and sensible characters in the

story, or "a healthy norm against which Puritan aberrations can be

judged" (J. G. Sharps 322). Another conflict takes place between them

in the scene where Lois has the first interview with her uncle. At her

aunt's open criticism of his weakened force of spirit, Lois expresses

transitory indignation, and incurs a stern reprimand from Grace.

Although it is righteous anger, Lois tries to be humble enough to

think of the trouble her aunt must have suffered until then, and

hopes that "this little misunderstanding would soon pass away" (122).

Accordingly, the level of Grace's threat shall be raised to the first

degree; that of Lois's virtue kept at the second. Although Manasseh

protects his English cousin from his mother's intimidation (120), his

"deep-set eyes furtively watching her" makes Lois "uncomfortable"

160 Tatsuhiro OHNO

(121),6 so that the level of his threat rises to the first degree.

Prudence's potential danger is suggested by her "impish antics" (120),

for imps are generally believed to be under witches7 control (Upham

48); so, his threat is set at Level 1. Manasseh's prayer for "strength

to combat Satan" (123) implies the prevalence of the external danger

of Satan/Indian; their threat thus stays at the previous level. No

mention is made for Faith's peril; hence, it is still at Level 0.

During the first few months after her arrival (124-30; Scs. 15-23),

that is, about from June to September of 1691, Grace and Manasseh,

both Puritans, are critical of Lois's Anglicanism: Grace is sarcastic

and contemptuous, while Manasseh is simply angry about his cousin's

ideas and more friendly towards her than his mother is (125-26). It

should be reasonable, therefore, to suppose their threats keep the pre

vious levels. The narrator's reference to the old forest "full of dreaded

and mysterious beasts, and [. . .] dreaded Indians" and Nattee's tales

of the Indian wizards that make "Lois's blood run cold" (126) indicate

the threat of Satan/Indian still prevails around the heroine. So, it

remains at the previous point. Nattee's arms, "all pinched black and

blue by the impish child," make Lois fear Prudence "as of one

possessed" (127); besides, she is "deceitful, mocking, and so indifferent

to the pain or sorrows of others" as to be called "almost inhuman"

(129). These passages imply her potential hazardousness as' well as

foreshadow her subsequent downfall to devilish possession. Prudence's

peril, accordingly, is set on the former level. As Faith is the person

with whom Lois is "the most intimately associated in her uncle's

house" (128), her threat is still at zero point. Lois tries "in her sweet,

simple fashion to cheer her cousin up" when Faith is depressed in

gloomy silence (128). Her kindness is stressed in the scene where Faith

declares her hatred against Tappau, the first minister of the Salem

church: "Lois was sorry for this strong bad feeling; instinctively


sorry, for she was loving herself, delighted in being loved, and felt a

jar run through her at every sign of want of love in others" (129).

Her goodness hence remains at Level 2.

The danger surrounding her continues td increase during the

autumn and winter of 1691-92 (131-48; Scs. 19-44). On the night of 31

October, Lois, "in her instinctive, well-intentioned efforts to bring

some life and cheerfulness into the monotonous household," tells

Faith English girls' innocent Halloween tricks (131) which put Pru

dence in extreme horror. In response to her scream, Grace comes into

the girls' bedroom, where Prudence implores her mother to take Lois

away. Faith pinches her sister severely to calm her, but Lois "more

tenderly" tries "to soothe" her, and says "I will stay by thee till thou

hast gone off into slumber" (132). Despite her tenderness, Prudence

calls her "wicked English witch!" (132). In this scene, Lois's merciful

ness is contrasted with Prudence's maliciousness. The former is as

good as ever, so her goodness remains at Level 2;7 the latter's threat

shall be elevated to the same level. After the death of Ralph Hickson

on the early morning of 1 November,8 Manasseh's menace to Lois

starts to exhibit substantial increase: in spite of her categorical rejec

tion, he repeatedly tries to persuade her to accept his proposal, insist

ing it is "Lord's will" (134-37, 139-40, 144-48). His threat level, hence,

rises to Level 2. Perilousness and supernaturalism in Salem are still

common: "there was much to tell upon the imagination in those days,

in that place, and time. [. . .] [A]t the beginning of the long winter

season, such whispered tales, such old temptations and hauntings, and

devilish terrors, were supposed to be peculiarly rife" (138). The Satan

/Indian threat, therefore, is kept at the second level.

One day after "Christmas 1691" (140), Grace's threat, together

with her son's, is hinted at in the sketch of delightful Lois, who

succeeds in leaving Faith and Nolan alone in the keeping-room* "her

162 Tatsuhiro OHNO

growing dread of Manasseh's wild ominous persistence in his suit,

her aunt's coldness, her own loneliness, were all forgotten, and she

could almost have danced with joy" (142). Furthermore, Grace's threat

is suggested in her "supreme contempt" (146) for her niece-in-law as

well as in her insult, "I value thee not, save as a medicine for

Manasseh" (147). At the same time, however, her accusation of

Manasseh of his proposal to Lois relieves his English cousin from

much distress (147). Hence, the levels of Grace's peril and of

Manasseh's remain at the previous points. Faith, who has had "a

warm heart, hidden away somewhere under her moody exterior" (133),

begins to feel jealous of Lois, who attracts more attention from

Nolan than she does (144, 147). Her "vehemence of unrequited love"

(147) is somewhat a symptom of her mental problem. The degree of

her threat rises to Level 1 here.

The peril of Satan/Indian jumps up to the top level in one day

towards the end of February 1692 (148-51; Scs. 45-46) when Grace

brings to her family the news that Tappau's two daughters have been

possessed (149). Nolan's evening talk about an elder's experience of

kicking a mouse into crying out "like a human creature in pain" (151)

is introduced to heighten the terror. Indeed, "all the family" huddles

"together in silent fear" on that night (151). Faith's harbouring jeal

ousy is intimated in the passage: "Faith and Lois sat with arms

entwined, as in days before the former had become jealous of the

latter" (151). Prudence's acute interest in "the creatures that were

abroad, and the ways in which they afflicted others" (151) portends

her possession which takes place in the ensuing month. No specific

reference is made to Lois's goodness and the threats of Grace and

Manasseh. Accordingly, there is no alternation to the levels of other

five factors than the Satan/Indian threat's.

From early March 1692 to the moment of Hota's execution on


one Sunday morning of the same month (151-68; Scs. 47-60), the levels

of all four menaces go up. One of the most succinct descriptions of

the prevalence of Satan's peril appears in Lois's following remark to

Faith: "this country is worse than ever England was, even in the

days of Master Matthew Hopkinson, the witch-finder. I grow fright

ened of every one" (153). Thus, the menace of Satan/Indian keeps the

top level. In this period, more detailed delineation than ever is given

to Lois's Christian faith. For example, she criticizes Faith's defence of

Nattee's retaliatory use of supernatural powers by alluding to Matt.

5.44: "we are told to pray for them that despitefully use us, and to

do good to them that persecute us" (154). It echoes the biblical verse

about "charity for enemies," one of the story's key subjects: "forgive

us our debts, as we forgive our debtors" (Matt. 6.12). Her Christian

humbleness is underlined also: "I often do very wrong, but, perhaps,

I might have done worse, if the holy form had not been observed"

(154). So is her sympathy towards Hota, Satan's supposed accomplice:

"she remembered the tender spirit of the Saviour, and allowed herself

to fall into pity" (159). In reply to Nolan's request to pray for the

Indian servant, Lois confesses she has been doing so since the previ

ous night, and adds her Christian belief: "I would not have her

entirely God-forsaken" (164). Her "pure, grave face" soothes the

pastor's disquieted soul (164-65). She expresses her compassion even

towards hazardous Manasseh by grieving "for his depressed state of

mind, anxious to soothe and comfort him" (161). These instances of

Lois's Christian virtue keep her goodness at Level 2. The increase of

Prudence's threat is hinted at when Lois shrinks from "the cruel,

eager face of the young girl" who wishes to see Hota hanged (160),

and also when she shudders at the shout of the impish American

cousin: "Witch Lois! Witch Lois! [. . .] I'm afeard of her in very

truth" (168). The menace of paroxysmal Manasseh is brought to light

164 Tatsuhiro OHNO

in the scenes where Lois runs away from him "like a panting, hunted

creature" (162) and where it is disclosed that his mental illness is the

cause for his prophetic revelations (161, 162, 166). The danger of

Prudence and Manasseh is serious enough to keep them at the second

level. Out of burning jealousy, Faith calls Lois a "witch" for the first

time (168), when her threat reaches Level 2. Grace's hazardousness

rises to Level 2, since she shows a sign of reconciling herself gradu

ally to the idea of marrying her son to Lois (161).

During five days after Hota's execution, the story centres on

Lois's prosecution and execution (168-90; Scs. 61-75). Prudence is

possessed by the devilish spirit in the midst of Cotton Mather's

sermon, and names her English cousin as her torturer (171-73). Lois,

astounded and tongue-tied, attempts to defend herself by asking her

aunt for help. The "stern, harsh, unloving" Grace, however, returns a

cold reply: "It is for God to judge whether thou are a witch, or not.

Not for me" (173). Lois then looks at Faith for assistance, but learns

immediately that "no good word" is "to be expected from her gloomy

face and averted eyes" (173). As Ehrenpreis correctly states, "a

complex blend of fear, jealousy, and spite drives the members of her

foster family to accuse" and "abandon" Lois (99). Here the threats of

the mother and her daughters reach the top level. Manasseh's

perilousness is retained at Level 2, because he tries to protect Lois by

arguing against Cotton Mather (175). To save him and her family

from disgrace, Grace hides his perennial insanity and suicide attempt

from the congregation, and comes to endorse their view that

Manasseh, as well as Prudence, has fallen prey to Lois's witchcraft

(176-77). His mental disorder, accordingly, is used to intensify Grace's

threat to our heroine. The Hicksons as a menace is articulated by

Lois in her passing recollection in the dungeon: "every angry thought

against her neighbour, against the impertinences of Prudence, against


the overbearing authority of her aunt, against persevering crazy suit

of Manasseh, the indignation [. . .] at Faith's injustice" (178).

In spite of "the open accusation of Prudence and the withheld

justification of her aunt and Faith," however, Lois feels she can still

love them (179). In the examination scene, she follows her justices'

directions with "the wondering docility of a child" (180), and forbears

physical tortures by murmuring "verses of the Psalms" which are

"expressive of trust in God" (181). Her "indomitable spirit" (Saracino

213) is expressed in her reply to the elders' encouragement to admit

her guilt so that they can spare her life: "I must choose death with

a quiet conscience, rather than life to be gained by a life" (184). Her

kindness is contrasted with Grace's cold-heartedness in the scene of

her aunt's unexpected call at her cell: "Grace did not know how often

her want of loving-kindness had pierced the tender heart of the

stranger under her roof; nor did Lois remember it against her now.

Instead, Lois's memory was filled with grateful thoughts of how

much that might have been left undone, by a less conscientious

person, her aunt had done for her" (186-87). Her Christian fortitude

is enunciated when she comforts Nattee, her inmate, by telling her

"the marvellous and sorrowful story of one who died on the cross for

us and for our sakes" (189). The repeated emphasis on Lois's Chris

tian virtue indicates the elevation of her goodness to Level 3.

In the final phase depicting the aftermath of the Salem witch

panic (190-93; Scs. 76-77), the witchcraft terror is proved to be a delu

sion: Prudence and Grace express their deep regret for the roles they

played in persecuting the innocent girl. Hence, their threats drop to

Level 0. Only Lois's goodness preserves the top level, because it is her

pious Christian faith that leads Hugh Ralph Lucy to forgive the

repentant.

166 Tatsuhiro OHNO

4. Authorial Meaning

Some may claim that there is a tinge of subjectivity in my

tracing Lois's Christian fortitude against her five threats through the

survey of the plot development, and that the rise and fall of each bar

in Fig. 2. may show minor variations depending on investigators. I

admit the inevitability of such a possibility. However, I must insist

that the fundamental shapes of the six elements—the gradual ascent

to the climax-should become similar, because what is illuminated in

this trace is exclusively the key structure of this short fiction. That

is, Lois is delineated as a virtuous girl of integrity, or "an ideal" like

"all of Gaskeirs good young women" (Reddy 45), from the outset of

the story, and her Christian fortitude becomes gradually emphasized

as the levels of her menaces go up. The authorial intention of making

the Hicksons a menace to Lois is echoed in the narratorial state

ments: "It was hard up-hill work for Lois to win herself a place in

this family" (124); "To him [her uncle] she could give pleasure, but

apparently to no one else in that household" (125).

Investigation into the appearance rate of characters discloses six

main protagonists. The analysis of their involvement into the plot

reveals Lois's constant faith in God against the five menaces. Accord

ingly, this outcome of the statistical examination of the structure of

fiction, or the triumph of the heroine's Christian integrity over the

threats, is probably the interpretation intended by the author of

"Lois the Witch."

ICHIRO

ノート注釈

ICHIRO : Marked

MainCharacters

in"LoistheWitch"

<Barford,Warwickshire

WidowSmith

II

Prudence

ElderHawkinsHester

Elij

ah

oldNanceHickson

EliasWellcome

(errandboy)

MrLucy

(Miller)

MrsLucy

HughRalph

Captain

Holdemesse

abrother(dead)

"(ai

ooif

eito

w)

oldClemence

(servant)

oldHannah

IRalphHickson

MrBarclay

(Jacobite

mini

ster

,dead)

Henrietta

(dead)

(23/24)

PastorNolan

(30)

<Salem>

Nattee(Indianservant)

Hosea(old

out-doorservant)

PastorTappau

Grace

(pastmiddleage)

Fait

h(19?)

Prudence

(12or

above)

Abigail

Hester

Hota(I

ndia

nservant;

hanged)

CottonMather

MM

active

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Tuesday(182)

Wednesday(188)

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(190)

(190)

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IBriefSummary

Lois'sinterviewwithNolan

Faith'sjealousy

theplanforthemorning

Manasseh'sprophecy

Horn'sexecution

theprayermeeting

DrMather'sspeech

Prudence'sconvulsions

Lois

isprosecutedasawitch.

Manasseh

ismad!

Lois

isdragged

tothegaol.

Lois

inthecity

gaol

sentenced

tobehanged

feverishnightinthegaol

Loischoosesdeath.

historicalfacts

NoonesavesLois.

ManassehyearnsafterLois.

Grace's

visittothegaol

LoiscomfortsNattee.

Loishanged;madManasseh

HoldernesseandLucycome.

21

years

later

O O

TOTALACTVE

TOTALREFERRED

Times

TOTALAPPEARANCE

TOTALACTVE

TOTALREFERRED

TOTALAPPEARANCE

o E i

172 Tatsuhiro OHNO

Notes

1. All quotations from "Lois the Witch" are taken from the World's Classics

edition and parenthetically inserted into the text. Scene numbers correspond

to those in "The Comprehensive Chronology."

2. The total page numbers of each Part are 93.5, while the physical text's 89.

The error is owing to my method of counting pages in half-a-page units.

3. The table consists of the story's chronology and the result of the inspection

of stage shifts and major characters' activity. If a character appears in a

particular scene, the corresponding cell is coloured dark grey; if he/she is

only referred to by other characters, the cell is tinged light grey. This is a

device for taking a bird-eye view of .the story's structure.

4. Structurally, therefore, "the interim at the Boston lodging house serves as a

prologue" (Bacigalupo 322).

5. These four characters are grouped together, as it was the received notion of

the 17th century Salem that Satan appears under the disguise of an Indian

(Upham 47). Some New Englanders affirm that Indians are "in league with

Satan" (115) or "evil powers" (126). Indian themselves confess their alliance

with Satan (126).

6. The danger of his becoming a greater menace is foreshadowed in the phrase:

"His eyes thoughtfully fixed on vacancy, as if he saw a vision, or dreamed

dreams" (123).

7. Another example of Lois's goodness is her recollection of Nolan's prayer to

suppress her momentary anger against Faith (144).

8. The disappearance of Ralph Hickson, the only person in his household that

gives Lois no threat, in the early stage probably comes from Gaskell's scheme

to exclude him from the prosecution of his beloved niece, and to draw the

reader's attention to her helplessness under the increasing danger.

Works Cited

Bacigalupo, Marie D. The Short Fiction of Elizabeth Gaskell. Diss. Fordham U,

1984. Ann Arbor: UMI, 1985. 8506315.

Ehrenpreis, Anne Henry. "Elizabeth Gaskell and Nathaniel Hawthorne." The

Nathaniel Hawthorne Journal (1973): 89-119.

Gaskell, Elizabeth. "Lois the Witch." Cousin Phillis and Other Tales. Ed. Angus

Easson. World's Classics. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1981. 105-93.

Reddy, Maureen Teresa. Elizabeth GaskelVs Short Fiction. Diss. U of Minnesota,

1985. Ann Arbor: UMI, 1985. 8519340.

Saracino, Marilena. "Elizabeth Gaskell's Lois the Witch: Witchcraft and its Fic

tional Representation." Eds. Francesco Marroni and Alan Shelston. Elizabeth

Gaskell: Text and Context. Pescara: Tracce, 1999. 199-221.


Sharps, John Geoffrey. Mrs. Gaskell's Observation and Invention: A Study of Her

Non-Biographic Works. Frontwell, Sussex: Linden, 1970.

Upham, Charles W. Lectures on Witchcraft: Comprising a History of the Delusion

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