steering clear: broadcasting and the church, 1926-1951

University of St. Thomas (Center for Irish Studies)

Steering Clear: Broadcasting and the Church, 1926-1951Author(s): Brian LynchSource: New Hibernia Review / Iris Éireannach Nua, Vol. 4, No. 2 (Summer, 2000), pp. 26-39Published by: University of St. Thomas (Center for Irish Studies)Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20557650 .

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Brian Lynch

Steering Clear: Broadcasting and the Church, 1926-1951

The 1932 Eucharistie Congress in Dublin, a major Roman Catholic event, was

also an important moment for the development of the state-owned Irish

broadcasting service. Before 1932 there were only two low-powered radio sta

tions in the Irish Free State: 2RN in Dublin, and 6CK in Cork. The 1932 cere

monies, regarded as a religious and diplomatic triumph for Ireland, were coor

dinated by a committee chaired by Frank O'Reilly of the Catholic Truth

Society. For the occasion, a new high-power radio transmitter at Athlone was

opened. This ensured that all over Ireland, even those listeners with the cheap est wireless sets, called "crystal sets" were able to tune in to hear the Pontifical

Mass. The broadcast also included a relay from Rome of the pope speaking to

the worshippers in the Dublin s Phoenix Park. With the technical assistance of

the BBC, the Dublin ceremonies were also retransmitted to Britain, to several

European countries, and to the United States.

An isolated international religious broadcast like this was atypical however,

of the general pattern of religious broadcasting in Ireland. The main feasts and

ceremonies of the Christian calendar were observed by the early broadcasters.

It was customary that the week before Easter Sunday, all theaters, cinemas, and

dance halls were closed. The new radio service also adopted this pattern. For

several years after 1926, the stations were closed on the Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday of Holy Week.1 From 1927, when regular Sunday broadcasts began from the Cork studio (6CK), the Sunday programs were more religious in tone

than in content. To avoid giving any possible offense to listeners on the

Sabbath, light music, sketches and theatrical performances were excluded. The

Cork station director, Sean Neeson, settled instead for recitals of sacred music

or church choirs, and occasionally, a relay of the carillon of St. Colmans

Cathedral, Cork. On such special feast days as Saint Patrick's Day and

Christmas, a relay of Mass was carried by 2RN or 6CK, but on the ordinary

Sundays of the year low Mass was not broadcast. What impeded low Mass

broadcasts in an overwhelmingly Roman Catholic country?

i. The practice of closing down Irish radio on Good Friday continued until the 1960s.

NEW HIBERNIA REVIEW/lRIS ?IREANNACH NUA, 4:2 (SUMMER/SAMHRADH, 2000), 26-39




First, the censorious tone of 1920s andi930S Lenten pastorals and sermons

indicate that, in some cases, nationally minded clergy considered the effects of

broadcasting as potentially "godless and disedifying."2 Some clergy perceived radio in the same light as the cinema and "dirty" literature, both subject to

strict censorship; radio was a mechanism which had the potential to spread

foreign ideas and jazz rather than a vehicle for religious enlightenment. In

1927, the Most Rev. Dr. McNamee, bishop of Armagh, pointed in a sermon to

"the anti-national influences of newspapers cinema and broadcasting ... The

radio would bring foreign music and the propagation of foreign ideals . . .

those new inventions had their uses but would be a force of an agent of anti

nationalism and denationalisation."3 Second, station 2RN wanted to provide a

service to the public, but also wanted to retain control of its program content

and standards, and not have ready-made broadcasting schemes imposed on it

by outside groups. This had been happening in the United States and in other

countries, where religious organizations originated programs and purchased airtime, or supplied the programs on record discs to the broadcast stations.

The third cause was closely related to the second. The Irish broadcasting service was essentially a government service administered by the Department of Posts and Telegraphs. In an overwhelmingly Catholic state, the officials of

that department were at pains to observe a policy of constitutional "fair play" for other religious denominations. Finally, broadcasting a Mass presented technical problems because if its liturgical form. The introduction of such

devices as microphones into a church, and particularly into the altar space, to

make a satisfactory broadcast created problems that were

only resolved after

many years by Irish radio. This essay, which deals exclusively with broadcasts

for Roman Catholics, will examine how these contradictory factors delayed the introduction of regular Sunday religious services for a remarkably long time. It was not until the late 1940s that regular Catholic masses for sick and

elderly listeners were broadcast from Radio ?ireann. Even then, the broadcasts

were not "low" Mass but the more elaborate ceremonial of High Mass that

incorporated singing and chanting rather than a spoken liturgy.

Shortly after station 2RN came on air for the first time in 1926, director

Seamus Clandillon was asked by a Dublin priest to broadcast an advertizement

2. A decade after Ireland had become independent, Cardinal MacRory preached that "The truth

is the country is still suffering from the effects of the Great War, intensified in the period of the

Black and Tans. The Civil War "added to this the distraction ... of [Motion] pictures and

Broadcasts... much of it godless and disedifying ... that is poured into the country every week

end." Sermon of 15 February 1931, Irish Catholic Directory (1932), p. 577.

3. Sermon of Most Rev. Dr. McNamee, 29 September 1927, Irish Catholic Directory (1928),

p. 605.

27




for his public lecture, "What is the Catholic Church Doing in Central Africa?"

No advertising was allowed on 2RN at the time, but the broadcasting director

consulted J. J. Walsh, the minister for posts and telegraphs. Walsh's view was

that to establish a small precedent of that kind would lead to far more com

plicated trouble later on; if he gave way in this case, he could scarcely discrim

inate against representatives of various other denominations and sects wish

ing to broadcast propaganda. In a note to Clandillon he speculated that "it

would be safe to steer clear as far as possible of religion and politics" and

refused the advertisement.4 Shortly afterward, advertizing regulations for 2RN

were relaxed, but a policy of carrying no religious advertizing was rigidly maintained. An exception was made for charitable appeals; between 1926 and

1956, each case was decided by the director of broadcasting on merit and over

time a "balance" between denominations was arrived at. The minutes of the

Broadcast Advisory Committee do not indicate that these programs for wor

thy charities raised any difficulty with the public.5 In 1932, the Universal Broadcasting Union surveyed several European

broadcasters, including 2RN, about their policy on religious broadcasting. The

Dublin station reported back to the Geneva-based organization that "religious services of any kind are not broadcast regularly from stations in the Irish Free

State. Ceremonies in connection with religious events of special national

importance are, however broadcast from time to time."6 The explanation given

was that the majority of the people attended religious services in their own

churches and there was "no necessity for regular religious broadcasts." In fact,

the policy extended to prevent even the occasional religious talks. When they were allowed, religious talks, and their presenters were considered on merit

?

as program items like any other. Overall, "steering clear of religion and poli tics" meant that the broadcast "talks" output of 2RN were totally anodyne.

Nothing controversial was allowed on-air. Ancient history was an acceptable

topic. Talks about travel to foreign lands were also in order, as were talks on

domestic or farming affairs. However, the scripts for even these most innocu

ous subjects had to be submitted to the station director ten days in advance.

The very few talks touching on religion that were broadcast, particularly dur

ing Lent or Christmas, had such titles as "A Visit to the Holy Land" or "The

4. "Advertising on 2RN ( 1925-1934)," RT? Archives In practice, an exception was made for char

itable appeals. These were almost always given by Catholic priests or Protestant clergymen. From

1927, such appeals were allowed and reputable charities were given a brief amount of airtime each

week.

5. In his recorded reminiscences, Roibe?rd ? Farach?in, director of Radio ?ireann during the

1960s, recalled that, in the early 1950s Taoiseach Eamon de Val?ra was displeased about these week

ly reminders of continuing social inequality coming over the public airwaves.

6. Taoiseach's Office, File S9304, National Archives of Ireland.

28




Story of St Brigid s Cross." All religious services or matters touching directly on religious doctrine were excluded.

In retrospect, it was not really the direct broadcasting of routine religious ceremonies such as the Latin Mass or Benediction that presented difficulties

for the cautious officials of 2RN. Their real concern was the specter of free

comment on the airwaves in the form of sermons. They feared that clergymen would take advantage of live broadcasts to attack the doctrines or religious

practices of other denominations. There was no religious adviser to the broad

cast service, and the station director was the arbiter of what was broadcast.

There were also instances of clergymen refusing to allow their sermon scripts to be scrutinized by lay civil servants. Nevertheless, the Universal Broadcasting

survey did prompt the broadcasting station to reconsider its policy. At a meet

ing of the Broadcast Advisory Committee in February, 1933, a member, a Mr.

Grehan, suggested that "something should be done in the way of broadcasting of religious services occasionally on Sundays," but after discussion the com

mittee decided that "no change in the present policy seems desirable."7 They did recommend to the director of 2RN that more religious music should be

included in the Sunday evening programs. The introduction of broadcast religious services, as opposed to programs

with a religious theme, was mainly due to the efforts of the second director of

broadcasting, T. J. Kiernan. Before taking up his post in 1934, Kiernan had been

working as an Irish diplomat in London where 2RN had asked him to investi

gate the religious broadcasting policy in the BBC. Kiernan reported that the

BBC Religious Department had a "scout" who went to churches and reported on preachers who had applied to give a broadcast. He had been shown some

of these reports, which he described as "very frank." In addition, an index was

kept for every preacher who made a broadcast, and the BBC religious director

marked his comments on the results of the broadcast. In some cases, Kiernan

noticed the mark "N/A" on the cards; this, he was told, meant "never again."

The Irish hierarchy's resistance to broadcast services may also have been prag

matic?allowing broadcasts of Sunday services might affect church atten

dance?and, perhaps, collection plates. Kiernan's view was that "just as broad

casts of concerts bring crowds into the concert halls and of gramophone records result in bigger sales of records, so the BBC believes that religious broadcasts add to the number of church congregations."8 This apparently was

not a view held in the Dublin diocese as late as 1937. Correspondence on the

subject exists between Dr. Kiernan and Lawrence Kieran, S. J., the provincial of

7. Broadcasting (Advisory) Committee, minutes, 28 February 1933, RT? Archives.

8. T. J. Kiernan to Department of External Affairs, 5 November 1934. File S9304, National

Archives, Dublin.

29




St. Francis Xavier's in Gardiner Street, Dublin. In January, 1937, Kiernan asked

permission to relay the Lenten lectures given by Fr. Stephen Brown. Kieran

replied that while Fr. Brown and the superior had no objection: ". . . this is a

matter which must be referred to the ecclesiastical authorities of the Diocese,

that is to His Grace the Archbishop." Even when permission was granted, Kiernan was told that "Father Michael Kirwan, superior of the church here, is

afraid that the effects of broadcasting of the lectures will be a considerable

diminution in the numbers present in the church, and being charged with the

task of keeping the wolf from the door would like to know if the broadcasting authorities would come to his assistance... "9 Kiernan responded confidently that "it will be a great advertisement for the lectures and there will not be room

for a wolf to get in to hear Father Stephen Brown!"10

Catholic lay organizations were more enthusiastic about broadcasting, in

particular the Catholic Truth Society (CTS). Dr. Frank O' Reilly, the secretary of the society, had played a significant part in facilitating the broadcast relays

by 2RN of the Eucharistie Congress in 1932. At a meeting of the CTS in Belfast

in June, 1934, Monsignor Lyons, a parish priest of Drogheda, revealed that

"negotiations were proceeding for the establishment of a Catholic radio sta

tion in the Saorst?t to be jointly sponsored by the CTS and the CTS of

England." He asked the meeting, "What would Saint Paul have done with the

radio?" He regretted that they had not got the Irish Catholic voice on the air

waves of the world. He concluded that

. . . the struggling English and Scottish are broadcasting, the sturdy Dutch

Catholics have put up a station of their own. There is an almost magical way of

extending the reign of Christ that should be neglected no

longer.11

The CTS also researched religious broadcasting in the United States. In

August, 1934, O'Reilly was in contact with Edward. J. Heffron, director of the

successful "Catholic Program Hour" presented by Father Charles Coughlin.12 Of Father Coughlin's program, a British periodical asked, "was there ever a

more heavenly trumpet to unite men on the wireless? . . . Father Coughlin's secret was not his mellow rather passionate Irish voice, but the forceful

9. Lawrence Kieran S. J., to director of broadcasting 31 January 1937, Jesuit Archives, Dublin.

io. Director of broadcasting to Fr. Kieran S, J., 2 February 1937, Jesuit Archives.

11. Irish Times, 27 June 1934. 12. Father Charles Coughlin first broadcast sermons from WJR in Detroit in 1926. Initially

Coughlin spoke about Catholic dogma, but by the early 1930s the content of his broadcasts had

become more concerned with politics and social matters than religion. Despite the large audiences

the broadcasts drew, CBS declined to continue them in 1931. NBC was also unwilling to carry

Coughlin's broadcasts. To bypass the networks, he bought time on independent stations from 1931

until 1942.

30




thoughts he delivered." It was generally accepted that such frank speaking as

Coughlin's would not be well received on the Irish side of the Atlantic but

when I hear the enthusiasm of the Americans who are non-angels for the

straight sincere talk, I wonder . .. and if you doubt they like opinion remem

ber again that over ten million of them listen to him three times a week over a

national network ... and contribute $100,000 a year to his works and ways.13

O'Reilly wrote eagerly to Kiernan, now the director of 2RN, about the poten tial for religious broadcasting in Ireland. He pointed to the opening of Vatican

Radio as a papal endorsement for the medium. Religious services broadcast by Vatican radio service from the early 1930s were, in fact, available in Western

Europe but only on the shortwave band. These were largely inaccessible to the

listeners in Ireland and Great Britain. O'Reilly suggested that these broadcasts

could be intercepted and relayed by Athlone on the medium wave. This would

make the programs available to listeners in Scotland and England as well as

Ireland. He suggested to Kiernan that the BBC would not be equally helpful in

the matter of relaying: "Such an action would be a mark of the Catholicity of

Ireland . .. daily Catholic broadcasts would mark in a very definite way that

Catholic character and traditions of Ireland ... it has engendered a spirituali

ty that almost attains mystic heights."14 O' Reilly stated that this stress on Catholic culture was "most desirable for

patriotic reasons." Perhaps fired by the success of the recent Eucharistie

Congress, he equated Catholicism with patriotism. However, for the broad

casting station, this raised a constitutional issue of equality of treatment for

other denominations. The Athlone transmitter was by then fully operational and used for commercial broadcasting at night. The major sponsor was the

Hospitals Trust Lottery. 2RN was a government-controlled station and owned

by all the Irish people, not just Catholics. Undeterred, O'Reilly saw a way around this; he proposed an exclusively Catholic radio station separate from

2RN. This suggestion was considered by the Irish hierarchy. In September,

1934? O'Reilly met the archbishop of Cashel. He proposed the formation of a

company to prepare and organize religious broadcasts along the lines of the

American one outlined by Heffron for Fr. Coughlin. The archbishop was

unsure about this plan. Its finances were uncertain and, if an Irish version of

the "Catholic Hour" was to be done, it should be done well and with secure

funding. He told O'Reilly that if this side of the scheme was more assured he

would put the matter to his brother bishops and that he would personally sup

port the scheme.

13- Cutting from "Britannia and Eve " March 1934, File 9304, National Archives, Dublin.

14. File S9304, National Archives.

31




Shortly afterward, a Dutch newspaper reported that a 100-150 kilowatt

radio station was to be established on the south coast of Ireland.15 The names

associated with this proposed station were Frank O'Reilly, P. H. O'Reilly,

J. Daly-Clarke, and George Shanks, a papal chamberlain. Shortly after the

report appeared, he wrote to O'Reilly from Rome reporting a conversation

with Monsignor Pizzardo, the acting secretary of state in the Vatican who "had

mentioned the matter to the Pope."16 According to Shanks, the pope had

responded that this was "one of the most interesting propositions for Catholic

Action he had heard." Monsignor Pizzardo had asked Shanks for a further

report and Shanks noted that

I think the Holy Father will send a word of encouragement to the right place

though I am not certain as I purposely refrained from asking anything. They

seem to be very anxious that it should start as soon as possible and I presume

that they have their ways of doing things!!17

Armed with this seeming support from such high places, O'Reilly now wrote

to the taoiseach's secretary, this time enclosing a letter signed by eight English

bishops intimating that Catholic broadcasts from the recently opened high

power station at Athlone would be welcomed as a source of "great spiritual

advantage to both Catholics and non-Catholics in England."18 In fact, the pro

posed broadcasting scheme would have been impractical on both a cost and a

technical basis. Three issues arose: expense, staff, and most important of all, an

allocated wavelength, which was a matter for international agreement.

Perhaps in response to increasing interest from the Irish hierarchy, the

Department of Posts and Telegraphs, which oversaw broadcasting, returned to

research the subject of religious broadcasting. In November, 1934, four Irish

overseas legations were contacted by the Department of External Affairs. Mr.

John Dulanty, the Free State representative in London, retraced the steps taken

by Kiernan a couple of years earlier and revisited the BBC. Dulanty reported that

BBC had started with the policy of broadcasting "fundamental Christianity" without doctrinal arguments or sectarian tenets. Dulanty termed the results

"rather vague talks."19 As to a scheme, there were no cast-iron arrangements in

drawing up the programs. Every Sunday evening there was a broadcast from a

church. A reasonable balance was held between the denominations. Every major denomination was represented on the BBC Central Religious Advisory

15- Cutting from De Tijd, 4 October 1934, File S 9304, National Archives.

16. George Shanks to O'Reilly CTS, 25 October 1934, File S9304, National Archives.

17. Shanks to O'Reilly, 25 October 1934. 18. Shanks to O'Reilly, 25 October 1934. The bishop of Plymouth made his statement condition

al on the broadcasts being under the control of the Irish hierarchy. 19. Department of External Affairs, File 33/107, National Archives.

32




Committee (CRAC), a consultative body of seventeen members. When sermons

or talks were broadcast the manuscript had to be submitted in advance; but

when the broadcast was from a church, the BBC did not take responsibility but

"... left it to the good taste of the preacher to preach a Gospel message, omitting controversial politics and keeping away from a vague moral essay."20

During 1936 the hierarchy formed a subcommittee and worked on a

scheme of religious broadcasts. In August, 1937, de Val?ra received a delegation from the hierarchy.21 De Val?ra was wary about religious broadcasting schemes in general and he drew the attention of the three bishops to the neces

sity for fairness to all interests. After the meeting, de Val?ra arranged an infor

mal meeting with Kiernan, Sean Moynihan of the Department of Finance, and

O'Reilly to see if any acceptable scheme could be arranged. After another two

months Kiernan, Moynihan, and O'Reilly reported back to the taoiseach.

Their findings were that up to then religious items from 2RN?now called

Radio ?ireann?had been considered for their program value, not as part of a

planned scheme. In format, the most modern form of communication such as

radio dramatization would be used. They agreed that it was important the

broadcast should stand on program value alone, as all broadcasting was com

peting with foreign material.

The proposed scheme did not involve broadcasts of Mass or Benediction.

Programs were to be inexpensively produced at two guineas for a 2,000-word

script, and were to consist of a daily prayer and a talk lasting ten minutes. The

report noted that there was no new principle involved, and set out possible

guidelines for talks. With regard to content, they considered that broadcasts

dealing with doctrinal matters should be confined to expression of the doc

trine, drawn up on positive lines and not as an attack on opposing doctrines.

In broadcasts, the names of other denominations should not be mentioned.

The committee recommended that heresies prior to the twelfth century

belonged to the historical domain and so could be treated freely, but heresies

that were not in the doctrine of religious denominations should be referred to

only when absolutely necessary in a positive statement of Christian doctrine.

During its inquiries the committee was told that the original group requesting the broadcasts would be prepared to aid Radio ?ireann in arranging a series of

Catholic broadcasts. It would appoint a paid organizer for religious broadcasts

for a year, and this paid organizer would be a priest. Three short programs were also planned each week for invalids. This last

part of the scheme was the most interesting part of the proposal for Kiernan.

20. External Affairs, File 33/107. 21. This group consisted of the bishops of Down and Conor, Clonfert, and the bishop-elect of

Kilmore.

33




He had visited hospitals in the Dublin area and found that none of them were

equipped with wireless receivers. No organization had yet come forward to

undertake what he called "this modern mission." He also opposed broadcast

ing repetitive prayers such as the rosary because of the potential for irreverent

listening. Kiernan also suggested that, if requests for broadcasts were made

from other churches, ten percent of time should be allocated to them. The

report was given to the bishops to consider.

The taoiseach's response to the report was to delay. In March, 1938, Dignan

wrote to O'Reilly asking about progress, but de Val?ra wanted to postpone any decision on the matter. In April, 1938, he was "too busy" to go into the matter.

De Val?ra's secretary made two further attempts; the third time de Val?ra told

him the matter "would have to remain over for the present." A fortnight later,

de Val?ra was still unwilling to deal with the issue and told his secretary it

would be necessary to read and study the report before communicating with

ministers. In growing impatience, Dignan asked for a face-to-face meeting

with the taoiseach. The meeting took place, but de Val?ra referred the bishops back to the director of broadcasting.

As the matter dragged on, the bishops took an initiative at their meeting in

October, 1938, and began to prepare a revised version of the broadcast scheme.

This time, Rev. Dr. Kissane was appointed director and liaison officer between

the subcommittee and Kiernan; the committee's rule was only advisory.

Kissane had the revised scheme ready by March, 1939. Broadcasts were planned to begin that autumn on Sundays and two other days each week for six weeks.

Also included this time was a proposal for a "Question Box" program in which

listeners' questions were to be discussed by a panel of clerics. Lent, Advent, and

Easter were to be marked by special additional programs. This revised scheme was sent to de Val?ra. After a month he sent for

Kissane. The taoiseach thought they should proceed "very slowly" and care

should be taken not to overemphasize the purely "Catholic" nature of the talks,

particularly not in the titles. He also thought the "Question Box" program was

"inadvisable." Mr. Frank Cremins of the post office thought the scheme was

too ambitious and no commitment should be made to it. Kiernan reminded

the taoiseach that Radio ?ireann had already broadcast a number of religious items and they would prefer to work along existing lines, which did not attract

hostile criticism or comment. A number of the items suggested by the bishops would be broadcast in an ordinary way altogether apart from "religious" broadcasts. In agreement with Kiernan, de Val?ra sent for Kissane, a man

whom he considered to hold moderate views on broadcasting. The Emergency brought cutbacks in Ireland's broadcasting service. By 1940

the proposed religious broadcasting scheme had been abandoned. By default,

34




and despite the efforts of interest groups, the day-to-day control of religious broadcasts remained firmly in the hands of the officials of Radio ?ireann.

Wary of any kind of advisory committee, however well-intentioned, Kiernan

came to an informal arrangement with Kissane, who was by this time presi dent of Maynooth College. In 1940 the Universal Broadcasting Union in

Geneva conducted another survey of European broadcasting stations. This

time the director of Radio ?ireann reported:

The Irish broadcasting service has not adopted any special line of conduct in

respect to its religious transmissions but in one manner or another it takes into

account in its programs the principal religious festivals.... For example, for a

number of years it has radiated the Midnight Mass and the full Mass of

Christmas and the high masses celebrated on St. Patrick's Day and other

important religious festivals. It also broadcasts lectures, religious plays and

orchestral or choral performances associated with these festivals. It goes with

out saying that these programs vary from one year to another ... these broad

casts are organised by the authorities in Radio ?ireann.22

During the 1940s Kissane operated as talent spotter for Radio ?ireann,

identifying suitable speakers and choirs. He also scrutinized the scripts of reli

gious talks. Religious broadcasts were gradually increased in number, but at a

pace determined by the director of broadcasting. Kiernan was replaced in 1940

by S?amus ? Braon?in, who introduced book reviews, more religious talks,

and eventually a sung Mass. In the broadcasts, sermons?a potential source of

difficulty in neutral wartime?were generally omitted and a suitable liturgical

commentary was substituted. ? Braon?in also sought to have sung Mass

broadcast to the sick and the housebound. There were a number of reasons for

this: the Tridentine low Mass was spoken, it was in Latin, and there were long silences or whispered passages in the ceremony. These were problematic issues

for broadcasters.23 High Mass was generally broadcast from a religious com

munity house or a monastery with a good choir.

Radio ?ireann continued to receive endless requests for coverage of low

Mass from local parish churches with questionable facilities and even more

questionable choirs, but ? Braon?in resisted all such requests. He had a pre cise audience in mind: the elderly and the ill. Other groups requested broad

casts of religious processions and pilgrimages. Some of these local ceremonies

were covered, but the broadcasters were unenthusiastic. In the 1940s, Radio

?ireann had only poor quality portable broadcast equipment. Telephone lines

were unreliable, so technical problems and breakdowns were common. If a

22. "Religious Transmissions," Annex to January 1940 Bulletin, N0.8378A, EBU Archives, Geneva.

23. The Papal Encyclical of Pius XII, Miranda Prorsus, S September 1957, discussed the responsi

bility of the broadcasters with regards to religious broadcasts.

35




town had only a few telephone trunklines, the town selected for a broadcast Mass was effectively cut off for the duration of both the broadcast and the

rehearsal. This could, and did, lead to friction between post office officials and

the broadcasters. In the 1940s, a small Irish country town might have only a

few telephones at police barracks, at the doctor's house, and at the parish house. At least two of these lines would be needed for long periods for the

broadcast: one for the program proper, and one for communications. This was

even more burdensome when Catholic holy days were on days of the work

week, such as Corpus Christi, or on a fixed calendar date, such as the feast of

Saint Brigid. Coverage of such local pilgrimages as that at Knock Shrine in

Mayo was difficult. Service length was unpredictable, and outdoor religious

processions and hymn-singing, however uplifting they might be for the par

ticipants, were risky as a broadcasting venture. The unpredictable Irish weath

er and the wild winds of Mayo could combine to produce a technical fiasco

even with the most carefully placed microphones. In the summer months

there was another ticklish issue as popular religion and popular pastimes came

into direct competition for airtime. The Gaelic Athletic Association's hurling and football season comes to its peak in summer months and the public

expected that major sporting events would be covered by the national broad

caster. Religious processions often took place on Sunday afternoons. Radio

?ireann did not always have enough equipment to cover all the different

events. This could leave the broadcasting director with difficult choices.

For all these reasons, Radio ?ireann preferred the comfort and pre

dictability of morning broadcasts of sung Mass from the enclosed religious orders and communities and the discipline of a religious house. There was no

congregation in the church to be distracted by technical paraphernalia, and

the broadcast could take place at a time to suit the broadcasters and the lis

teners. Despite the ad hoc arrangements, pressure for local broadcasts contin

ued with competing demands from bishops. These requests, bypassing Kissane, increased in frequency. It is difficult to fully grasp the degree of diplo

macy and iron will that was needed in the pious atmosphere of Ireland of the

1950s for a lowly broadcasting official to say no to an Irish Catholic bishop. While it was not possible to change the order and liturgical form of the

Catholic Mass, in a controlled environment the broadcasters were able to

develop techniques to improve its presentation and intelligibility. In 1951, the

director of radio, Charles Kelly, invited all the interested parties to a conference

to address the technical difficulties. Those attending included representatives from the hierarchy, the post office, and Radio ?ireann. Father Agnellus

Andrew of the BBC was invited to attend and advise. In the end, all parties

agreed that Masses, and especially choirs, could and should be properly

36




rehearsed and that microphones could be placed where they would pick up the

sound properly but not interfere with the liturgy. To the great relief of Radio

?ireann officials, all parties agreed to deal with the broadcasters through the

informal religious advisor. This relieved the director of the burden of dealing

with religious talks and the theological issues they involved.

How can we account for the way religious broadcasting developed in its first

quarter century? Before 1951, as a matter of routine, major religious cere

monies associated with such national events as Christmas, Easter, and Saint

Patrick's Day were broadcast, but in the context of Irish national life. The

explicitly religious dimension of Irish broadcasting was incidental.24 In 1926,

J. J. Walsh had advised his broadcasting director to steer clear of religion and

politics. "Steering clear" of politics was perfectly understandable in a country that was recovering from a brutal and divisive civil war. But steering clear of

religion is surprising, especially considering how compliant successive Irish

governments were in those decades about introducing illiberal social legisla tion about divorce, censorship, contraception, and even control of dance halls

at the behest of the Catholic hierarchy. In 1926 Walsh had clearly indicated that there was no mandate for the

broadcasting station to evangelize. He wanted Irish broadcasting to remain a

public service, and not to become religious propaganda weapon for any denomination. Walsh's policy had militated against the idea of regular quota

broadcasting of religious services for their own sake. This quiet insistence on

fairness curbed the enthusiasm of the Catholic Truth Society, who saw the

public airwaves as a potential extension of their spiritual province. In the

1930s, Kiernan had looked to the more experienced BBC for a practical policy, rather than adopt the evangelical model provided by American radio stations

which was deemed inappropriate for an Irish public that did not need reli

gious conversion. He decided to opt for quality rather than quota in Catholic

religious broadcasts. It would have been easy and economic to accept packaged

programs but Kiernan found the loss of production control unacceptable.

By the end of the 1940s a weekly pattern of religious broadcasting had

become established. All the broadcasts were "negatively Catholic" in the sense

24. Until quite recently in Ireland, public and private events of any significance were incomplete without a Catholic clerical presence. This public expression and acknowledgment of religion was

part of ordinary life. At such nonreligious events as the opening of a school or factory, Army cer

emonies, or national parades, a cleric frequently participated to impart blessing. The blessing of

fishing fleets was an inherited tradition, but it persisted into the modern age with an annual bless

ing of Aer Lingus' plane fleet. At major GAA sports events, a bishop would be invited to throw in

the ball to start the game.

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that nothing contrary to Catholic teaching or controversial was admitted.

Guidance was sought from the hierachy, but only by means of an informal

adviser. Catholic lay organizations, despite their considerable pressure, did not

succeed in dictating patterns of broadcasting. On the positive side, the station

broadcast Masses and other religious services, music from the Catholic litur

gy, and special programs for the liturgical season and for the principal feasts.

From time to time, it also broadcast reviews of Catholic religious books and

dramatizations of lives of saints. In 1951, this was considered sufficient to meet

a public service remit.

What were the effects of these broadcasts?25 Unfortunately, there is no

mention of them in the Broadcast Advisory minutes, and at that period the

infrequent Radio ?ireann audience research concentrated on the number of

listeners rather than on content analysis or listener satisfaction with individ

ual programs. But in a sense, such findings would be immaterial, as the reli

gious broadcasts were never intended to be popular. In the 1920s, program formats took templates from existing forms of enter

tainment, both literary and theatrical. Broadcasting gradually evolved these

into its unique forms of the radio drama and the radio talk. Only gradually was the importance of proper microphone placing appreciated. With broad

cast Mass, it was not possible to change format and ritual of a religious service.

However, with good microphone technique, elements of the Mass could be

effectively carried over the airwaves?music, dramatic silence, and the sermon

were tailor-made for broadcasting. But there were also losses listening to a

broadcast from a church. The shared experience in a consecrated space and the

smells of incense and candles which were a part of the Catholic Mass at that

time was inevitably lost. No wireless broadcast could convey this sensory, even

numinous, experience.26

In the United States, Father Charles Coughlin in the 1930s and Father

Patrick Peyton in the 1940s had relied on their skill as preachers, but to get their message across they had abandoned their pulpits and relied instead on

using the new disciplines of the radio studio and on good microphone tech

nique. Father Coughlin had strayed a long way from his religious message dur

ing the 1930s with social messages allied to his preaching and an increasingly

political tone In the 1940s, Peyton, an Irish-American priest, had attempted to

modernize prayer in his broadcasts of the "Rosary Hour" using music and

25- Even the introduction of the daily ?ngelus bell on Radio ?ireann in August, 1950, was not

mentioned in the Advisory Committee minutes. RT? Archives.

26. The idea of broadcasting Mass from a studio was not acceptable, although the BBC had a pur

pose-built religious broadcasting studio for its "Daily Service."

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celebrity such stars as Bing Crosby. This American style of religious broad

casting was rejected as entirely inappropriate in Ireland where there was no

need for religious conversion.

Radio held, and still holds, great potential for religious broadcasting.

Gregorian chant and other sacred music, combined with a well-focused com

mentary, provided an uplifting experience for those too ill or too old to travel

to church. Radio ?ireann concentrated on adapting its own broadcasting tech

niques to capture and broadcast the elements of the traditional forms of wor

ship that would bring comfort, and a sense of participation and inclusiveness

to these targeted listeners. This was the "modern ministry" that Kiernan had

wanted to address in 1936. By 1951, by steering clear of Catholic special interest

groups and by placing the needs of his listeners first, his successor, Charles

Kelly, had seen Kiernan's original vision achieved.

o^ RADIO TELEF?S ?IREANN

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steering clear: broadcasting and the church, 1926-1951

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